EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

ONLINE LEARNING
IN HIGHER EDUCATION

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 EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE
AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

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EDUCATION IN A COMPETITIVE AND GLOBALIZING WORLD

ONLINE LEARNING
IN HIGHER EDUCATION

YARON GHILAY

New York
Copyright © 2017 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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 CONTENTS

Preface ix
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
The Book’s Structure 2
Chapter 2 Learning Management System (LMS) 5
LMS – Main Characteristics 6
Universal Learning Management System – Moodle 9
Research Findings: Lecturer Attitudes toward
Moodle 9
Follow-Up Research: Student Attitudes
toward Moodle 10
Independent Design of Pages in Moodle 14
Characteristics of the Synchronized Interface
Between LMS (Moodle) and AAS 15
Responsibilities of the Institutional Head of ICT
Regarding LMS 17
Chapter 3 Text, Hypertext and Screen Capture 19
Research Findings 20
Creating PDF Files 20
Adding Links to Pages of Text 23
Chapter 4 Integrating Audio into Online Courses 27
Research Findings: Digital Voice Recording 29
Chapter 5 Video in Online Courses 33
Disciplinary Areas 34
The Method’s Advantages 34
vi Contents

Research on Characteristics of Effective Training:

Video Clips and Their Advantages 35
Practical Implications 39
Chapter 6 CAA – Computer Assisted Assessment 45
Introduction 45
Research: Effectiveness of CAA 46
CAA via Moodle 49
Chapter 7 TBAL: Technology-Based Active Learning 59
Introduction 59
A Model for Technology-Based Active Learning
(TBAL) 61
Summary: Technology-Based Active Learning 66
Chapter 8 Feedback-Based Learning (FBL) 69
Feedback-Based Learning (FBL) model 70
Summary – Feedback-Based Learning 76
Chapter 9 Online Learning – Additional Tools 77
File sharing: Google Drive 77
Video Sharing: YouTube 80
Development of a Personal Website: Google Sites 81
Remote support: TeamViewer-Remote Control 82
Synchronous Online Learning: Blackboard
Collaborate and Teamviwer-Meeting 83
File backup: FreeFileSync 84
Chapter 10 Online Learning: A Full Substitute for Face-to-
Face Learning 87
Online Learning – Main Components 88
OTLA: Online Teaching Learning and Assessment -
A Model for Full Online Distance Learning 90
Summary: The OTLA Model for Online Distance
Learning 102
Chapter 11 Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning
(CTBL) 105
CTBL Model – Research Findings 106
Summary: Comprehensive Technology-Based
Learning 110
 Contents vii

Chapter 12 Training for Management of Online Courses

(TMOC) 111
Barriers to Online Teaching and Learning 111
Implications for Online Learning and Teaching 112
The TMOC Model 112
Research – Effectiveness of the TMOC Model 118
Summary: Training for Management of Online
Courses 123
Chapter 13 Summary - Online Learning in Higher Education 125
Uniqueness of Online Learning 125
Necessary Conditions for Online Learning 127
References 129
Author Contact Information 139
Index 141
 PREFACE

The aim of the book is to enrich the knowledge of educators, specifically

academics in higher education with regard to online learning. The text deals
with the creation, development, management and updating of online courses.
The book focuses on unraveling the complexities of Information and
Communications Technology (ICT) and explaining the integration of
technology into educational activity to faculty. Based upon both international
research literature and studies undertaken by the author, the text is grounded in
long-term academic experience in the management of online courses as well as
in assisting lecturers with their educational technology problems. This book
introduces innovative models that meet the educational needs of active
learning, feedback-based learning, online learning (which can completely
replace face-to-face learning), computer assisted assessment, screencast
technology, Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning (CTBL) and training
to manage online courses.
International research universally points out the advantage of integrating
technology into learning. This text presents major terms in educational
technology, focusing on original methodologies and models that promote
technology-based learning processes.

Keywords: LMS (Learning Management System), asynchronous learning,

synchronous learning, text/hypertext, TBAL (Technology-Based Active
Learning), FBL (Feedback Based Learning), video capture, CAA
(Computerized Assisted Assessment), remote control, CTBL
(Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning), TMOC (Training for
Management of Online Courses), AAS (Academic Administrative
System)
Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

This book is designed to enrich the knowledge of both academic staff and
decision makers in higher education with regard to the constructs of online
learning. It can assist teachers, principals, and tutors in promoting meaningful
learning, diversification of learning methods and use of new technological
tools including smartphones and tablets. The text is focused on the creation,
development, management and updating of online courses in institutions of
higher education. However, these educational principles and technological
tools that focus on learners and their ways of learning are suitable to other
scholastic frameworks as well.
The main difficulty in the creation and management of online courses is
the lack of information both in technology-based educational concepts and in
the technological tools that allow these concepts to become reality. The aim of
the book is to help lecturers overcome the complexities posed by educational
technology and to assist them in integrating technology into their educational
activity.
The text is based on international research literature, published studies by
the author, 2012-2015 as well as his multi-year experience in managing online
academic courses and in guiding lecturers in the field of educational
technology. These studies detail innovative models designed to meet the
following educational needs:

 Active learning
 Feedback-based learning
 Online asynchronous learning which can be a replacement for face-to-
face learning
2 Yaron Ghilay

 CAA (Computerized Assisted Assessment)

 Learning enhancement by video technology
 Training of academic staff to manage different kinds of online courses

(Ghilay & Ghilay, 2015a; Ghilay & Ghilay, 2015b; Ghilay & Ghilay,
2015c; Ghilay & Ghilay, 2014; Ghilay & Ghilay, 2013; Ghilay & Ghilay,
2012).
In addition, the book describes the author’s research, 2015-2016 which
deepens and continues the above studies. It focuses on:

 Learning Management System (LMS).

 Online learning that is a full replacement for face-to-face learning.
 The combination of video capture tools (screencast technology) in
order to create Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning (CTBL).
The CTBL model is applicable to quantitative disciplines that have a
hierarchical structure.

International research points out the benefits of integrating technology

into learning. The text includes details of key concepts of educational
technology as well as a description of educational approaches, methods, and
models designed to promote technology-based learning processes.
The chapters include references to additional resources. Each link contains
an abbreviated URL which allows for fast typing as well as a QR code which
enables scanning with a smartphone/tablet (detailed in Chapter 3).
It should be noted that diverse technological solutions to meet various
educational needs are evolving and changing rapidly. There is a continuous
upward trend in the quality and effectiveness of solutions and their ability to
support learning processes. It is, therefore, highly recommended that educators
maintain continuous learning in this area.

THE BOOK’S STRUCTURE

The book includes the following chapters:

1) Chapter 1 – Introduction: Aim, description of basic terms and

structure of the text.
 Introduction 3

2) Chapter 2 – Learning Management System: A system for managing,

documenting, tracking, reporting and transferring courses and training
programs allowing professors to create courses which include various
resources and to communicate with learners as well as allowing
learners to communicate among themselves.
3) Chapter 3 - Text/hypertext management using pdf format and screen
capture: The creation of high quality documents that include text and
screenshots in a platform independent format.
4) Chapter 4 – Adding sound to an online course: Adding an audio
lecture or an aural text to courses that do not require visual display.
5) Chapter 5 - Video in online courses: Using video capture technology
to add a video lecture to courses that require both visual displays and
vocal explanations.
6) Chapter 6 - Computerized Assisted Assessment (CAA): Creating
computerized tests and exercises for formative and summative
evaluation.
7) Chapter 7 - Technology-Based Active Learning (TBAL): Making the
learning process one that enables active participation by students
thereby generating involvement in a challenging experience rather
than mere passive listening or watching. In this way, better
assimilation of the topic is assured.
8) Chapter 8 - Feedback-Based Learning (FBL): This technology-based
learning enables lecturers to receive regular feedback from students
about the degree of implementation of the topic. It enables real-time
intervention that improves the learning process of both groups and
individuals.
9) Chapter 9 – Additional tools for online learning: File sharing, video
sharing, personal websites, remote control, synchronous online
learning, and file backup.
10) Chapter 10 – Online learning which can be a complete replacement
for face-to-face learning: This chapter lists the basic principles for
building academic courses in an asynchronous online learning format.
11) Chapter 11 - Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning (CTBL):
This type of learning is designed for high-level quantitative classroom
courses that include major ICT components to facilitate learners
meeting the challenges of the course and their solving exercises and
assignments.
4 Yaron Ghilay

12) Chapter 12 - Training for Management of Online Courses (TMOC):

This section lists perceptions and ways of training and guiding faculty
members for efficient management of various types of online courses.
13) Chapter 13 – Summary: Online learning in higher education.
14) References.
15) Author Contact Information.
16) Index.
Chapter 2

LEARNING MANAGEMENT SYSTEM (LMS)

Learning Management System (LMS) is a web-based platform designed

for management, documentation, monitoring, reporting and delivery of courses
in both higher education and other educational systems. It can assist in
traditional classrooms, distance learning or any combination of the two.
Moodle is one of the most common academic learning management systems,
although other similar systems also exist.
LMS enables lecturers easily to develop a course website which can
include a variety of resources (text/hypertext, audio, pictures, video clips). It
creates communication between instructor and learners and among learners
themselves (forums, messages, emails, instant messages). LMS is also helpful
in monitoring and evaluating student progress via assignment management
applications, exams, exercises and attendance registration. As such, LMS is a
central tool for group study and an intersection for links to internal and
external resources.
Although the system includes a large variety of tools, it does not
necessarily offer an exclusive answer to all teaching and learning needs. There
may be many situations in which lecturers should use external tools. However,
these external tools or resources should always be linked to the LMS course
website to help learners quickly connect to the outside world.
LMS has two key benefits:

1) Optimal adjustment to the needs of learners: It is built to meet the

unique needs of students at all educational institutions, those of higher
education in particular.
6 Yaron Ghilay

2) Simple operation: System operation has a user-friendly interface for

both teachers and learners. It obviates the need for costly dedicated
development teams. Yet at the lecturers' level, acquisition of these
tools requires a learning process particularly when complex needs are
involved.

LMS – MAIN CHARACTERISTICS

LMS has a few main characteristics designed to meet learner and faculty
needs:

1) Closed groups: The system is primarily (though not always) designed

for private groups of students who belong to an individual course or
course group. Every user, student or lecturer can only enter a course
in which he or she has been registered via use of a designated
username and password. As each student in the system is identified, it
allows the lecturer to monitor student activity. It is also possible to
have a course for everyone without restriction or limit access via a
common password.
2) Hierarchy of authorizations: The system is based on a hierarchy of
user roles (manager, course creator, teacher, non-editing teacher,
student, guest) with each user in the hierarchy having both permitted
and prohibited actions. The principal distinction is between students
and lecturers: lecturers can update course content whereas students
may usually only watch, read, or submit assignments. Nevertheless, in
advanced systems (such as Moodle) specific authorization for access
to certain resources may be granted to users not usually having these
permissions. In that way, it is possible a student or a group of students
to update a particular resource. There is also the possibility of
restricting access to resources based on criteria such as date of entry,
group membership, grade achieved on an exam, preliminary
requirements, etc. Restrictions can also depend upon complex
conditions based on logical combinations of criteria. For example,
lecturers can allow entry to certain resources for those students who
meet the following requirements: they belong to group X, have
completed assignment Y, and only from dates Z to W. Moreover,
owners of higher permissions, such as lecturers can review the course
 Learning Management System (LMS) 7

website as if they were students in order to obtain the impression of

the content and manner of presentation that students see.
3) Hidden and displayed items: LMS has options for concealing a single
element, a group of articles or a complete course from the eyes of
learners. Furthermore, it is possible to protect individual items based
on criteria (such as group membership or even more complex
conditions). It enables a professor not to expose resources that are not
yet ready for publication or to restrict access to students who are not
sufficiently prepared. However, lecturers can see and even update
hidden items. Such elements are presented on the teacher’s screen in a
different color so as to be easily distinguished from the visible items.
4) User registration and opening course sites: A lecturer can manually
manage user registration including appropriate permissions as well as
create course websites manually (based upon proper authorization).
However, the recommended way is to create a digital interface
between the Academic Administration System (AAS) and LMS. Such
synchronization enables automatic creation of all course websites
(having no content) and user registration (students and lecturers)
including the proper authorizations for each group. Moreover, if
updates in the AAS occur, the synchronization makes the same
updates in the LMS (adding or deleting users and opening new course
websites). This eliminates the need for academic staff to deal with
student registration or the creation of new sites.
5) Editing and duplicating: Every item in an LMS can be updated,
deleted or duplicated. The possibility of duplicating items may assist
faculty in preparing question banks for exams. In this way, workflow
can be streamlined, eliminating the necessity to build every single
element from scratch. It is much easier to use existing items, updating
only required parameters. In advanced systems such as Moodle, it is
also possible to export/import complete sites and create local backups
for them as well.
6) Resource types: An LMS can manage groups of central resources such
as:
a) Files: Different kinds of files (text, photos, audio, video) and
folders.
b) Communication: Messages, emails, chats, and forums. These
tools enable communication between students and lecturer and
among learners themselves. Messages and files can be sent and
synchronous and asynchronous discussions can be managed.
8 Yaron Ghilay

c) Links: Different links can be defined for internal or external

resources. For instance, a video clip can be stored on YouTube
and linked to the course site (instead of storing it on the
institutional LMS).
d) Formatted pages: Advanced users can independently design pages
including text, hyperlinks, pictures, embedded video and so on. In
that way, pages with an original, personalized look can be created
as well as a multi-level menu system.
e) Assignments: Different kinds of coursework can be defined and
submitted through the system subject to various restrictions
determined by the instructor (such as dates, the number of items
submitted, file size, group membership, etc.). Complete
communication between students and lecturer regarding an
assignment can be managed including enablement of
resubmissions.
f) Exams/exercises: Different kinds of question banks can be
created (multiple choice, matching, essay and many others) and
may be divided into subtopics as needed. Different restrictions
can be determined for every practice/test such as the amount of
permitted submissions, time limit, date limit, mixing of questions
and answers, random retrieval of issues from certain topics,
reliance on previous submissions, restrictions regarding where
exams can be taken, etc. Restrictions can be determined
differently for specific students or groups. For example, the time
limit on an individual exam may be 120 minutes, but students
with learning disabilities may be granted 150 minutes.
Furthermore, the system saves full documentation of student
answers so the course manager can always review the answers of
every student including the date of answering and the duration.
Examination grades can be exported to a spreadsheet which saves
the results in an external file and even undertakes additional
processing such as calculating a final score based on several
components with different weights.
g) Reports: Monitoring of learner activity, which resources were
accessed, when, for how long, from what IP address, students’
personal details, etc. For exams and assignments, it is possible to
produce reports displaying student tasks that were completed/not
completed.
 Learning Management System (LMS) 9

It is also possible for the system manager to add special reports.

One of the recommended reports is a list of registered students
including phone numbers, email, and username. Such a report can
be easily exported to a spreadsheet or an external student list.
Such a file can also be imported to the teacher’s smartphone so
group messages can be sent from a mobile. Experience shows that
a combination of emails sent from the site (and published on it)
and text messages (SMS) distributed to mobile devices
significantly reduces the likelihood of missed messages. It is best
to send messages to groups using an application that allows for
creation of permanent mailing lists.
h) Unique applications: There are learning management systems
enabling the use of specific applications such as a glossary, blog
management, Wiki, etc.

UNIVERSAL LEARNING MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM – MOODLE
Moodle (Modular Object-Oriented Dynamic Learning Environment) is
one of the most popular learning management systems in the academic world.
Written in PHP language, it is open sourced code. It was first developed by
Martin Dougiamas when he was in charge of the Technology Domain at
Curtin University, Australia. It is currently being developed by Moodle Ltd,
Australia which consists of a core team with hundreds of developers all over
the world. Moodle regular undergoes improvements and upgrades. It can be
installed free of charge on an institutional server or by purchasing storage
services, installation and maintenance from a company engaged in that
activity.

RESEARCH FINDINGS:
LECTURER ATTITUDES TOWARD MOODLE
A two-year study by the Mofet Institute of Tel-Aviv examined lecturer
perceptions of a model designed to train faculty in the management of online
courses. The study examined twenty staff members who teach in ten different
Israeli teacher-training colleges and who participated in a two-year, seven
10 Yaron Ghilay

academic hour-per-week course based on the new model. At the end of each
year (2012-2013 and 2013-2014) the lecturers answered a Likert questionnaire
on their perception of Moodle’s contribution toward their academic work.
Faculty members evaluated the contribution of the LMS as high for their
academic work (4.00 and 4.06 out of 5, respectively). There was no
statistically significant difference between these two years (t-test,   0.05 ),
as shown in Table 2.1. The similar annual results give the findings more
validity (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2014).

Table 2.1. LMS contribution to academic activity of staff members

2012-13 2013-14 Paired Samples T-Test

N Mean S.D N Mean S.D
19 4.00 1.453 18 4.06 0.998 𝑇(17) = .226, 𝑝 = .824

Respondents also answered two open-ended questions that strengthened

the outcomes of the closed items as shown by the following samples of
lecturer quotes:

“The Moodle lessons were valuable to my primary need of managing

online courses.”
“Learning Management System is a central tool in online learning.
The Moodle experiences have provided a significant answer to our real
needs at the college.”

The findings indicate that LMS is a major infrastructure tool for all those
involved in online learning in higher education. Faculty members also
indicated that they need guidance and tutoring in order to develop competence
with the tool.

FOLLOW-UP RESEARCH: STUDENT ATTITUDES

TOWARD MOODLE

In 2016, more research to complete the previous study was done at the NB
School of Design and Education. This study examined the effectiveness of
Moodle from the learner’s perspective. The research was focused on exploring
the advantages of Moodle for student learning processes. It also investigated
 Learning Management System (LMS) 11

whether significant differences in Moodle existed in different types of courses:

courses based on online distance learning, face-to-face classroom lecture
courses, multi-text courses and quantitative courses.
The research included students who studied during the academic years
2014-15 and 2015-16 in the following courses which were given by the same
lecturer. Each course had a Moodle site (n = 25).

 Entrepreneurship: Multi-text, online distance learning

 Strategic Management: Multi-text, face-to-face learning
 Management of Technology: Multi-text, online distance learning
 Fundamentals of PSPP (equivalent to SPSS): Quantitative, face-to-
face learning

Respondents were asked to answer an online five-point Likert scale

questionnaire consisting of 25 items and an open question intended to check if
and why the Moodle course site was perceived to be helpful for their learning
process.
The following two factors were examined:

1) Moodle - convenience of learning (Alpha = 0.826). This includes:

 Moodle centralizes all learning resources in one place
 It enables convenient connection from a variety of tools: PC,
laptop, tablet, smartphone
 Moodle allows easy submission of assignments
 It assists in appropriate submission of tests
 It supports suitable submission of exercises
 It is helpful for effective communication with the lecturer
 It is excellent for communication with other students in the course
 There is an advantage to a system that is active 24 hours a day,
seven days a week
 The lecturer can respond to student needs rapidly and efficiently
 There is rapid access to all learning tools
 The site is helpful for having all educational resources easily
available
 Operation of the site is straightforward
 On Moodle sites there is no limit upon time or location of access
 On Moodle sites, it is also possible to continue the learning
process outside the classroom
12 Yaron Ghilay

2) Moodle’s contribution to the learning process (Alpha = 0.818)

 The extent to which the Moodle system helps effective learning in
the following types of courses:
o Online distance learning (entrepreneurship, technology
management)
o Face-to-face learning (strategic management, PSPP)
o Multi-text (strategic management, entrepreneurship, and
technology management)
o Quantitative (PSPP)
 Moodle helps in coping with course content
 A course including a Moodle site that covers the whole
curriculum is preferable over courses without such a site
 The system is currently updated according to learning needs
 The course topics are introduced in the Moodle through partitions
that are convenient for learning
 The combination of different resources in Moodle (text, video,
pictures) facilitates learning
 The Moodle site is useful for understanding the subject matter
 It is preferable that all courses have a Moodle site covering the
course material

For each factor, all the items composing it are presented (questions in the
questionnaire). High reliability (Cronbach's alpha) was found for each factor.
Scores were calculated based on the means of the items composing them.
Table 2.2 introduces the means of the factors.

Table 2.2. Effectiveness of LMS from the learner’s perspective

Factor N Mean S.D Paired Samples T-test

Convenience of learning 25 4.63 0.37 t(24)  .711, p  .484
Contribution to the learning process 25 4.58 0.44

Table 2.2 shows that both convenience of learning and contribution to the
learning process received very high scores, 4.63 and 4.58 respectively
indicating that students perceive Moodle to be very effective for a variety of
courses.
 Learning Management System (LMS) 13

Table 2.3 presents the means of the four items as relates to the
contribution of Moodle to learning in the four different types of courses.

Table 2.3. LMS contribution to learning in four types of courses

Factor N Mean S.D

Multi-text 21 4.57 0.75
Online distance learning 23 4.52 0.79
Face-to-face learning 22 4.50 0.91
Quantitative 21 4.43 0.98

As seen in Table 2.3, the four items have very high scores: multi-text
(4.57), online distance learning (4.52), face-to-face learning (4.50) and
quantitative (4.43). The Paired Samples T-test examines the significance of the
differences among all six pairs of items (  .05) . The findings show that
there is no significant difference among all these pairs indicating that students
give equally high scores to the contribution of LMS in all four different types
of courses.
Respondents were also asked to add verbal notes on their preferred way of
learning. Below are a few examples of student comments:

“Moodle has made significant contribution to courses in which the

lecturers upload clips, explanations and teaching materials to the course
site.”
“The course site is magnificent and it improves learning. I am not
limited in time of learning and the material on the site helps me gain a
clear understanding of the subject. With a course site, we do not lose
material learned in class and it can be completed at home.”
“When the course website is appropriately maintained, Moodle is an
excellent tool for learning and monitoring at home or by the mobile
phone. I use my phone to enter the site a lot.”
“The Moodle site is very helpful to me as a student during the
learning process including efficient communication with the lecturer.”

The findings of this study combined with those of the previous one show
that LMS such as Moodle is a tool that significantly contributes to learning
from the perspective of both faculty and students.
In both studies it was found that the effectiveness of the course website is
critically dependent upon the degree of lecturer investment in it. Students
14 Yaron Ghilay

explicitly point out that they received significant support for their learning
process when the course site was well maintained. Indeed, the ability of
faculty members to manage their course sites properly depends upon the
knowledge and skills that they have acquired. Faculty point out
unambiguously that they need guidance and direction and without them, they
find it difficult to meet student expectations (Chapter 12 deals with the training
of staff members to manage online courses).

INDEPENDENT DESIGN OF PAGES IN MOODLE

As mentioned earlier, the Moodle system includes a broad variety of
resources which can be presented on the course site. Moreover, it is possible to
independently design different pages based upon two principal tools, “Page”
and “Tab display” (a collection of pages including a menu connecting them).
This enables pages to have both a personal style and a spectacular format. It
also enables making a series of menus that create hierarchical levels. There is
no limit on the number of levels. In every page, an infinite number of
resources can be combined, such as links to external or internal resources,
images, embedded video, links to tasks, exercises or tests. It is possible to
design the text by type of font, size, color or emphasis and to add part of the
text to hyperlinks. This is all done via a user-friendly interface. However,
advanced users can also browse pages’ HTML code, copy it for additional use,
write their own code or change existing code.
The system enables the building of an “item bank” (presented or not to
students) which can be linked to the pages designed.
Figure 2.1 provides an example of designed page (based on “Tab display”)
which allows students to navigate through all the course resources from the
same page. Every resource in each of the nine subjects of the course is opened
in a new tab so even when a student closes it, the main page remains active.
It is recommended that links from formatted pages always be opened in
new tabs in the browser so that closure of the linked page does not close the
primary page. When using Moodle, the Mozilla Firefox browser is
recommended (download link: http://mozilla.org.il/firefox). Firefox is free,
regularly updated and adjusted to optimal surfing on Moodle sites. This is
particularly important when students enter test applications or exercises.
 Learning Management System (LMS) 15

Figure 2.1. An example of Moodle tab display.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SYNCHRONIZED INTERFACE

BETWEEN LMS (MOODLE) AND AAS
Although the synchronizing system can operate in many ways, the
following procedure is recommended:

1) Every year (or semester), the AAS (Administrative Academic System)

presents all the courses to be offered. Each course includes details
such as the course name and information about the lecturer and the
students.
2) The synchronization system periodically scans changes. Upon the
opening of each new course in AAS, a matching course site empty of
content is automatically created in Moodle. The new course site has
the following characteristics:
 It belongs to the current academic year.
 Students and lecturers are automatically enrolled to the course
website, with appropriate permissions checked.
 Every update in student registration in AAS is performed in
Moodle.
 These updates are done automatically usually once a day.
 In addition to automatic synchronization, the instructor can
manually add (or remove) students to the Moodle site, including
those who are not registered in the AAS. These students’
registration is not affected by the automatic synchronization
system.
16 Yaron Ghilay

 Removal of students from the Moodle course site who were

registered by the synchronizing system is possible only for a very
short period of time since the operation will be canceled by the
next synchronization; hence, users manually removed by lecturers
will be returned to the Moodle course site. To stop this activity,
students’ Moodle status can be changed to “Suspended” (instead
of “Active”).
 Using the above method, every new year (semester) all course
sites are reopened for every lecturer (empty of content), including
lists of students. The disadvantage of this method is that in order
for the auto-sync to resume, the lecturer has to copy the contents
of the old course to the course opened by the synchronization
system. Although it is possible to import the old site to the new
one, this method is laborious and the course site’s history is kept
forever.
3) Lecturers needing to manage a permanent course site while
maintaining the advantage of auto-sync can operate as follows:
 Administer the course over the years via a manually opened
website to eliminate the necessity of copying its contents at the
start of every new period. The manually opened site is not
attached to the synchronizing system.
 To install auto-sync in the permanent site, a periodic procedure
called “Course meta link” is required. This simple procedure links
the manually opened site (“Meta course”) to the website that was
opened by the synchronization system (“Sub-course”). With this
procedure, all students enrolled in the synchronized sites will also
be registered in the permanent manually opened course site.
Under the influence of the synchronization system any update in
the sub-course will be reflected in the permanent site. In this way,
the synchronized site (sub-course) will be used only for
synchronization and will not include any content. To prevent
students from entering the empty synchronized site (that includes
user lists only), instructors have to conceal it from learners.
 Every new year (or semester), the lecturer needs to cancel the
links in the Meta course and create new links. In this way, a
course site remains constant (including the possibility of
updating) and only the learners change. Registration will be
automatically updated when there are variations in the AAS.
 Another advantage of this approach is that it is possible to
manage a few groups in one course with an individual website
 Learning Management System (LMS) 17

instead of having a separate site for each. All that is required is to

create a meta-link to the additional sub-courses, i.e., those that
have been created by the synchronization system. Then the meta
course site will be automatically divided into groups. The group
names are identical to the sub-course names but the lecturer can
change them if necessary.
This alternative has significant advantage for a course that
has several groups as the lecturer needs to update only one
learning resources database rather than several separate ones.
Professors can maintain each group separately or refer to them
collectively as one single group.
Communication and access to resources can be conducted in
different ways:

1) Communication: Delivery of separate messages to the various

groups, manage various forums and so on. If necessary, it is
possible to communicate with all the groups together.
2) Access to resources: As mentioned earlier, entry to various
resources can be restricted for different groups based upon
instructor preferences.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF THE INSTITUTIONAL

HEAD OF ICT REGARDING LMS
In addition to the duties of the network administrator, the Institutional
Head of ICT needs to be responsible for the administration of the LMS. As
system manager (Admin) he or she is authorized to review and update each
web course in the institution and to assist teachers and students with their
difficulties. The Institutional Head of ICT also provides advice and guidance
to academic staff regarding the operation of LMS both on the pedagogical and
technical level. He or she must get to know the many options of the system so
as to be able to advise faculty in finding technological solutions to pedagogical
needs and to promote development of educational initiatives.
Moreover, the Head of ICT should act to stimulate the continued
integration of ICT into the organization.
Chapter 3

TEXT, HYPERTEXT AND SCREEN CAPTURE

Texts are essential in managing and supporting online learning. Before the
digital age, texts were printed on paper and physically distributed to readers. In
the digital age text is distributed over the net. Students now have access to
enormous amounts of high-quality text without a limit on quantity. While
learners can still print out the text on paper, these writings can now be
comfortably read without printing them due to sophisticated mobile devices
such as tablets and smartphones.
The most common digital replacement for paper output is the PDF
(Portable Document Format) file invented by Adobe. It is able to accurately
display digital documents regardless of platform, (computer hardware or
operating system). Accompanying the PDF concept is the “virtual page,” i.e.,
what the screen shows is identical to the printed page as opposed to HTML
Internet files which employ separate tools for viewing and printing.
Today PDF is the accepted standard for distributing text files. A
significant advantage of PDF is the ability to lock documents so they cannot
be changed and thus prevent distortion. This read-only file and does not have
the possibility of editing. Adobe has developed the reading software (Adobe
Reader) and distributes it for free so that every user can read PDF files.
In the online learning world it allows for the distribution of texts (and
hypertext) produced by a variety of software tools without the necessity of
acquiring the software that created the original document. Thus, it is possible
to read output from SPSS (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences) in PDF
without having the SPSS software or the knowledge of how to use it. Even if
the readers do have the software used to generate a document, such as MS
Word, they may encounter a problem while receiving a file in Word format
20 Yaron Ghilay

since a document produced in a newer version of Office does not allow the
document to be viewed on a computer with an older version. PDF overcomes
these difficulties by standardizing all documents and platforms. Moreover, the
PDF output is identical to that of the source so it can be read and printed.
Another advantage of PDF is the possibility of creating a single file which
combines text from different sources that can be numbered and arranged in
any order enabling lecturers to prepare digital booklets that include texts from
a variety of sources, such as a word processor, a spreadsheet, or a scanner, etc.
Preparing such a booklet can be undertaken using software tools, a large
number of which are freeware. These booklets can then be uploaded to the
learning management system (detailed in Chapter 2).

RESEARCH FINDINGS
The findings of a two-year long study focusing on training faculty
members to manage online courses (see Chapter 12), show that lecturers’
appreciation of management of PDF files is high (3.83, 3.89 on a 5-point
Likert scale). There was no statistically significant difference between the two
years (Paired Samples T-test,   0.05 ), as presented in Table 3.1 which is
an indication of their validity (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2014).

Table 3.1. Appreciation of management of PDF files in lecturers' work

2012-13 2013-14 Paired Samples T-Test

N Mean S.D N Mean S.D
18 3.83 1.42 18 3.89 1.079 𝑇(13) = −.425, 𝑝 = .678

CREATING PDF FILES

Creating PDF files does not entail creating something from scratch, but
rather converting existing files into PDF files. There is a variety of tools for
doing this: common word processors such as Word (Microsoft Office 2007
and above) or Pages (Apple) allow users to convert files into PDF quickly and
easily without additional software.
The converted files also include the links, if any in the original document.
The same is true of internal links such as automatically generated tables of
 Text, Hypertext and Screen Capture 21

contents or links to bookmarks that were defined in the word processor file.
Operating the internal and external links are easier in a PDF file than in the
original file; only one click is required, whereas in Word, the Ctrl key must
also be depressed. The same applies to spreadsheets (such as Excel or
Numbers) and presentations (PowerPoint or the equivalent). Most of the
scanning software produces documents in PDF with the ability to save
multiple scanned pages in a single file.
When necessary to convert files originating from sources that are not
Microsoft Office, Pages (Apple) or a scanned page, additional software may
be required. The full version of Adobe Acrobat Professional allows conversion
of any text file with operations such as merging, splitting, deleting pages,
changing page order, video embedding, numbering and more; however, most
of these central operations can be performed using free tools.
The main steps required to support online learning with PDF files are:

1) Re-pagination: Includes changing page order, deletion of unnecessary

pages or rotation of pages which are inverted or slanted. An
unwelcome though familiar phenomenon is the posting of scanned
multiple-page files on a course website in reverse or at a rotation of
90°; sometimes, individual pages are straight while others are
crooked. As students can now read text on a computer monitor, tablet
or even on a phone screen comfortably, correctly displaying all pages
in an upright position is easily accomplished with Adobe Professional
or free software such as Pdfsam.
Although such operations can be performed for each page
individually, it is better to run a particular change on a group of pages
(for example, a 90° clockwise rotation of all 20 pages).
2) File merging: Combining files obtained from several sources
(including text that has been typed into special files) and
consolidating them into a single file whose pages have a designated
order. It is possible to layout each of the components before the
merger, and only then merge them or the merger can be done before
the layout. When the file merge is done using Adobe Professional, it
automatically generates a bookmarked menu which allows readers to
jump between components of the consolidated file.
3) Splitting a file into parts: There are many cases of large files wherein
only a part is relevant to students. The files may be split into smaller
files and published separately. Such file splitting can be based on the
following alternatives:
22 Yaron Ghilay

 Number of pages: For example, three consecutive pages can

become separate files.
 Volume: The main file can be divided into several files, each of
which has a capacity of 0.5 MB.
 Main bookmark headlines: File splitting to accord with the main
bookmark headlines.
4) Screen capture and conversion of output to PDF: When writing a text
for an academic course, only parts of screenshots may need to be
integrated into the text. For example, when writing instruction
manuals for computer courses, many screenshots of different sizes
may be needed to help visualize the descriptions in the text. With the
“Print Screen” operation the entire computer screen is captured, yet
only a particular area may be required. The internal Windows tool
called “Scissors” can be used to remove unwanted parts of the image.
However, “FastStone Capture,” a free version of which can be
downloaded at http://bit.ly/21uMnWn is a better tool.

Below is the methodology for incorporating a screenshot in the text:

 Open the text file on a word processor.

 Project an image, diagram or any other element on the screen and
mark the area of capture using FastStone Capture. The computer
performs a “Copy” command of the marked area.
 Note: FastStone Capture also allows the saving of the area marked as
a file of different types (image, PDF and so on) instead of “copying”.
 Go back to the word processor and embed the screenshot using
“paste”.
 The embedded image can be reduced/enlarged by dragging one of its
corners. The location can also be changed (right, center, left) using the
Microsoft Office icons shown in Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1. Changing screenshot location.

 Text, Hypertext and Screen Capture 23

 Save the word processor file that now includes all screenshots and
then save to PDF. The PDF file will include all selected screenshots.

ADDING LINKS TO PAGES OF TEXT

Add relevant links in the body of the text to refer learners to additional
resources. In converting a Word file to PDF all links remain active. Links can
be created in the text in several ways:

1) Full URL without hyperlink: Pasting the full-length URL into the text.
For example, https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/index.php.

This alternative has two shortcomings:

 The address is long, cumbersome and looks forbidding. When it

appears on printed paper, users must enter it into the browser
manually to make use of it. The longer the size, the greater the
chances of a typo.
 To activate it from within the text file, the user needs to copy and
paste it into the browser address bar.
2) Full URL with hyperlink: Pasting the full-length URL into the text
page and turning it into a hyperlink, such as
https://www.novapublishers.com/catalog/index.php. When reading
digital files, left-clicking activates the link obviating the need for a
copy/paste.
3) Short URL: Pasting a short URL into the text, with or without a
hyperlink, for example, goo.gl/ze89E3 or https://goo.gl/ze89E3. Short
URLs can be created using different tools; the Google URL shortener
(https://goo.gl) is one of the most reliable. After entering a personal
Google account, type the long URL and the short equivalent will be
retrieved from the Google database. This shorter address always
includes the string, goo.gl/ with the addition of only another six
characters. The advantage of the shorter URL is that it is less
cumbersome. Moreover, when such addresses are printed on paper,
learners can enter them into the browser without much risk of error.
4) Hypertext: Hypertext is a word or group of words that can be clicked
upon in order to activate a link to another site without showing the
actual web address. This option only works in digitally displayed text.
24 Yaron Ghilay

If using printed paper, the short URL (Paragraph 3 above) is the

preferred option for showing a link.
5) QR Code: QR code (Quick Response code) is a two-dimensional
barcode that contains graphically encoded textual information. It is
helpful for encoding links (and other information) in combination
with text. Scanning and decoding QR code is easy using smartphones
or tablets with cameras and appropriate applications (such as Qrafter
for iPhone or Barcode Scanner for Android). Through various
websites and applications on mobile devices, links and other data can
be converted to QR Code.
The advantage of QR code is when transferring links (or text) to a
casual audience, for example, students who come to an open day
before registration. In such cases, it is possible to project the code
onto the screen, distribute it on printed paper or present it on a poster.
People can immediately reach the desired link (or other relevant
information) by scanning the code via a smartphone or tablet without
typing. There is a distinction between a Static QR Code and Dynamic
one. When it is necessary to change the linked address (or other types
of information) in static code, a new code must be made. With a
dynamic code, the URL (or other information) of the existing code
can be changed without creating a new code. This is a significant
advantage when making changes in codes that have already been
printed and distributed.
For the ease of readers, all links in this book are presented both in the
shortened version and in a QR code allowing for typing short links or
scanning them via smartphones/tablet without typing.
One of the sites enabling generation of both static and dynamic
QR code is: https://www.the-qrcode-generator.com.

QR - 3.2

For the creation of static QR Code, click on “Generate” in the main

menu, select one of the alternatives (FREE TEXT, URL, CONTACT,
PHONE, SMS,) and paste the link/text (for generating a link, select URL).
 Text, Hypertext and Screen Capture 25

In creating a dynamic QR code one must connect to the system (it is

possible with a Google account) and:
 Select “My Codes” from the main menu.
 Click on the + (top left) and then choose one of the options above and
paste the link/text. All the dynamic codes in the personal account can
be used and the link/text corresponding to it can be updated without
changing the code itself.
Chapter 4

INTEGRATING AUDIO
INTO ONLINE COURSES

Digital audio may be the appropriate option for multi-text courses that do
not require visual elements.
In online learning, digital audio has two main aims:

1) Text reading: this allows students to listen to different texts, stop

whenever necessary and repeat difficult parts or review the entire text.
This can be advantageous for students with learning disabilities, those
with an auditory learning style, or those for whom the language of
instruction is not their native tongue. Listening to texts may allow
greater flexibility in learning by combining listening with other tasks
such as travelling, exercising, etc.
Audio text can be produced by:

 Recording the instructor’s voice: Teachers can read a text and

record the spoken word with a variety of tools such as Windows
Voice Recorder or any of the applications available on tablets or
smartphones.
 Using TTS (Text-To-Speech) technology: it is possible to skip the
actual voice recording by using advanced tools that are able to
decode written text, play it and convert it into an audio file. The
output can be edited (for example, merging several individual
files into one main file) and uploaded to the site. This advanced
software creates time savings for the professor and has excellent
audio quality. Text-to-speech tools for educators can be found at:
28 Yaron Ghilay

goo.gl/ExnzlT - 14 free Text-to-Speech tools for educators

QR - 4.1

goo.gl/GAHwvv - Top 10 Text-to-Speech Software for e-learning

QR - 4.2

Two excellent free tools in the first list are:

Balabolka - goo.gl/p4uH1R: A flexible text-to-speech engine that
delivers high quality

QR - 4.3

WordTalk - goo.gl/xYOf9F: A text-to-speech plug-in for Microsoft

Word
 Integrating Audio into Online Courses 29

QR - 4.4

While there are differences among TTS tools, most have common
attributes such as options for selecting the desired text, listening to the
reading, choosing a male or female voice, controlling the speed of the
reading and saving output to an mp3 file. This is crucial for sharing.
The files generated by the software can be uploaded to the course site
(or other collaborative websites) and learners can listen to them via
appropriate links.
2) Lecture recording: Voice recording of a lecture may be an alternative
to or a supplement for a face-to-face lecture. The recorded lecture is
saved as an audio file. There is no need to record a lecture in one shot.
It is possible, even desirable to prepare the audio file small portions
and merge all the sections into one complete lecture (this requires the
editing procedures described below). When recording each unit, the
instructor can pause and then resume the recording.

RESEARCH FINDINGS: DIGITAL VOICE RECORDING

In the previously mentioned 2012-13, 2013-14 study focusing on training
faculty members to manage online courses (see Ch. 2) lecturers' attitudes
toward the contribution of digital recordings of lectures were examined.
Findings show that faculty appreciation of digital recording technology is high
(4.05 and 4.11 on a 5-point Likert scale, for the two years respectively). There
was no statistically significant difference between these two years (Paired
Samples T-test,   0.05 ), as presented in Table 4.1 which indicates the high
validity of the results (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2014).
30 Yaron Ghilay

Table 4.1. Contribution of digital recording of lectures to academic work

2012-13 2013-14 Paired Samples T-Test

N Mean S.D N Mean S.D
19 4.05 1.471 18 4.11 1.079 𝑇(16) = .960, 𝑝 = .351

Characteristics of Audio Files

The pedagogic and technical features of digital sound recording and its
editing are:

1) Voice Quality: To ensure high quality audio recording, it is best to use

headsets of good quality and test the quality and volume of the sound
before recording. Advanced editing software may increase low
volume (as described below).
2) Division into subtopics: Dividing the lecture to subtopics and treating
each separately is recommended. It is possible to prepare an audio file
of a lecture that relates to a text and add a link which plays that part of
text referred to.
Moreover, all parts of an audio lecture pertaining to the same
topic can be merged including a link placed on the first page that
refers to the whole lecture. Such linking assists learners in activating
those parts of lecture that refer to a specific page that they have read.
Basic editing such as merging audio files can be done via freeware,
for example, Format Factory. This tool can be downloaded at:
http://www.pcfreetime.com.

QR - 4.5

Camtasia Studio users (professional video capture software,

detailed in Chapter 5) can perform advanced editing functions
 Integrating Audio into Online Courses 31

designated for audio recording (splitting, merging, adjusting post-

recording volume control, etc.).
3) Undertaking a recording: Before recording, review the text that is the
basis for the lesson so that the recording will go smoothly. If the work
is done in small portions, the chances are greater that the recording
will come out perfectly the first time eliminating the need for editing
(except for the merging process). During recording, an unlimited
number of breaks can be made. Thus, it is possible to stop and think,
take some refreshment or even repeat an incorrectly performed section
(improper parts can be subsequently deleted during the editing
process).
4) Quality Control: After recording, save the file, listen to it, locate
errors (if any) and correct them. An unnecessary segment can be
deleted during editing. A new recording can be made to replace an
incorrect section. It is easier to perform such operations using
advanced editing tools such as Camtasia Studio, although other
options are also possible.
5) Sharing: After editing, the final product, an mp3 is created and
uploaded to the course site. An audio file, as differentiated from a
video file has no high volume, so there is no particular difficulty in
uploading it to the LMS site. The advantage of mp3 format is that it is
very common, does not take up much space on the website and can be
accessed by and operated on a variety of equipment, not only
computers.
Chapter 5

VIDEO IN ONLINE COURSES

Video is a powerful technology for online learning, especially, for viewing

lectures asynchronously. Video clips can be produced in two principal ways:
via a camera or by an advanced technology called video capture/screencast. In
this chapter, the focus will be on the second alternative.
A screencast is a digital video of a lecturer’s computer screen combined
with an audio recording. While the screen activity and images are recorded in
real time, the accompanying audio can either be recorded simultaneously or
created in post-production with the inclusion of sound effects and music
tracks. During video editing, changes can be made in the raw material such as
splitting and merging sections, adding pictures, music, cover pages, animation
or even new video clips. Screencasting, an excellent multimedia alternative to
video camera recording is able to give learners even more dynamic and
exciting contents (Ruffini, 2012). Moreover, since the clips can be paused or
reviewed anytime, anywhere (Screencast, 2014) students can proceed at their
own pace which serves to improve the learning process both in the classroom
and outside of it.
There is a distinction between “screencasts” and “screenshots” (Ch. 3):
Screenshots generate a single picture of a computer screen, while screencasts
are a movie of real-time changes on a computer screen enhanced with audio
narration.
34 Yaron Ghilay

DISCIPLINARY AREAS
Nowadays, educators in many disciplines use screencasting for
instructional purposes in subjects such as computer programming languages
(Yuen, 2007), instructional design and technology (Sugar, Brown and
Luterbach, 2010), object-oriented programming (Lee, Pradhan, & Dalgarno,
2008), mathematical modeling (Ellington & Hardin, 2008), nursing (Phillips &
Billings, 2007) and more. These screencasts and video tutorials demonstrate
specific actions associated with a particular content area.
A moving picture can be invaluable for explaining and demonstrating the
complicated content in today’s computer world (Yuen, 2007). Pre-recorded
videos of computer-based steps have proven to be effective in showing how
software applications work. Digital video technology and video screen capture
software allow teachers to easily create original, high-quality pre-recorded
software presentations that can be used for in-class demonstrations and
reviewed by students at their convenience on the Web.
Students can follow the videos and then practice on their own and
complete assignments. They can learn complex computing techniques and
tasks via digital videos or access lectures that they may have missed. Video
screen capture software is an effective way of delivering software instruction
and is ideal for student-centered learning and online learning environments
(Yuen, 2007).

THE METHOD’S ADVANTAGES

There are significant advantages in using screencasting for instructional
purposes: Learners can observe what the actual screen looks like when
completing a specific operation (Peterson, 2007). The exponential growth in
use of smartphones and personal handheld devices allows students to watch
these enriched video clips anytime, anywhere (Campbell, Grossman, Kris,
Kazer & Rozgonyi, 2010(.
Screencasts can be pedagogically equivalent to face-to-face instruction
(Pang, 2009; Traphagan, Kucsera, & Kishi, 2010). Hartsell and Yuen (2006)
observe that online video-based instruction “brings courses alive by allowing
online learners to use their visual and auditory senses to learn complex
concepts and difficult procedures” (p. 31).
 Video in Online Courses 35

Mayer’s (2009) theory of multimedia learning suggests that animated

presentations that have a corresponding audio component provide a more
effective learning experience than traditional alternatives of stills accompanied
by text. This corresponds to the dual coding theory of Paivio (2007) wherein
information processed through discrete input channels, both linguistic and
non-linguistic improves the learning experience. By presenting an expert
performing and describing a task, screencasts provide these multiple input
channels (Wouters, Paas, & van Merrienboer, 2008(. Learners in an online
learning environment rely heavily on ‘learning objects,’ reusable digital
resources that are integrated into a ‘lesson or assemblage of lessons grouped in
units, modules, courses and even programs.’ These resources can take the form
of electronic text, a simulation, a website, a graphic image, a movie, etc. The
variety of resources in technology-assisted learning (McGreal, 2004) plays
into Mayer's (2009) ‘learning-preferences hypothesis,’ which states that
information presented in different formats caters to students’ learning
preferences and styles. A method which combines sound and visuals appeals
to a greater variety of learning styles than information presented only through
text and pictures (Gardner, 1983). Video screen capture augments live lessons
with multimedia lessons, itself becoming a cognitive tool that supports, guides,
and mediates the cognitive processing of learners (Kong, 2011).
A multimedia curriculum can be made available to students outside of
school in the form of a flipped classroom; namely, students’ studying
principles at home via screencasts and then receiving guided practice in class
(Smith & Smith, 2012). Smith & Smith (2012) have also found that students
who learned Computer-Aided Design (CAD) by watching screencasted video
clips obtained significantly higher grades than those who studied the same
material using traditional textbook instruction. Walker (2010) obtained similar
results with regard to the statistical functions of Excel.

RESEARCH ON CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE

TRAINING: VIDEO CLIPS AND THEIR ADVANTAGES
A study by Ghilay & Ghilay (2015a) examined the characteristics of
effective training videos and their advantages, trying to determine the
pedagogical and technical attributes of effective videos in order to use these
insights during development and creation of video-based online lessons.
36 Yaron Ghilay

Their study examines video clips produced by screencast technology in

two different computer courses both of which contain dozens of clips that
thoroughly cover the topics:

 PSPP (a statistical software package equivalent to SPSS): A one-year

course given to third-year students at a teacher-training college. The
course includes topics in descriptive statistics, syntax, computerized
variables, case selection, statistical conclusion, crosstabs, reliability
(Cronbach’s alpha), item analysis and factor analysis. In addition to
texts and lectures, 36 high-definition (HD) clips (comprising 3 hours
and 46 minutes of viewing time) fully covered the course material.
 Management of online courses: A two-year course for lecturers in ten
teacher training colleges. The course includes all the topics described
in the TMOC model (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2014) detailed in Chapter 12.
In addition to texts and lectures, all topics were thoroughly covered by
50 HD clips, the length of which was 7 hours and 26 minutes.

The following six factors divided into three groups were examined
(n = 30):
Comments:

 For each factor, all the items composing it are presented (questions
that appear in the questionnaire).
 For each factor, high reliability was found (Cronbach's alpha ranges
from 0.568 to 0.707).
 The mean score and standard deviation of each factor are indicated in
parentheses.

Scores were calculated based on the means of the items composing them.
Item scores were graded on a five-point Likert scale.

a) Courses' video quality

_
Clip quality (Alpha = 0.707, x = 4.79,  = .32) included the following
items:

Lecturer’s explanations were clear

Lecturer’s voice was clear
Lecturer’s explanations were made at a moderate pace
 Video in Online Courses 37

The course curriculum was fully covered by the video clips

The learners considered the video clips to be of very high quality, giving
the attribute a score of 4.79 on the 5-point Likert scale. This is a necessary
condition for further examination of the next factors (since it is unreasonable
to examine the characteristics and advantages of clips if they are not
considered to be of high-quality).

b) Characteristics of effective clips

1. Pedagogic characteristics of effective clips

_
(Alpha = 0.673, x = 4.42,  = .46):

Effectiveness of a clip depends upon a lecturer's ability to explain clearly

I prefer that each clip be short and not address too many topics
Effectiveness of a clip depends upon the lecturer's ability to speak clearly
Effectiveness of a clip depends upon the lecturer's ability to talk at a
moderate pace
Video clips should fully cover the whole curriculum

2. Technical characteristics of effective clips

_
(Alpha = 0.568, x = 4.19,  = .59):

Good training videos should be of high quality (HD)

Using the zoom (focusing on certain areas on the computer screen) helps
me learn
The option to download video clips is important to me
The option of watching videos on a variety of platforms (such as a tablet,
smartphone, MP4 Player and so on) is important to me

The study shows that pedagogic (4.42) and technical (4.19)

characteristics are both of great importance although the pedagogic
characteristics are considered to be more important than the technical ones
(t(29)  2.23, p  .034).
38 Yaron Ghilay

c) Advantages of video clips

1) Flexibility in watching video clips

_
(Alpha = 0.641, x = 4.90,  = .30):
It is very advantageous to watch video clips as many times as I wish
It is very helpful to watch video clips at the time that I choose
2) Effectiveness of video clips for learning
_
(Alpha = 0.631, x = 4.68,  = .40):
The video clips were helpful for my learning
The clips made a significant contribution to my ability to deal with the
curriculum
The video clips allow me to follow the course material thoroughly
Videos allow me to assimilate the material optimally
_
3) Advantages of video clips as compared to texts ( x = 4.52,  = .69):
The advantage of video clips is that they explain and illustrate the
performance of actions in a clear and efficient way, better than a
combination of text and screen shots

It turns out that the flexibility of use (4.90) and contribution to learning
(4.68) constitute a significant advantage in learning via viewing video capture
clips. An additionally important finding is that use of video capture technology
is more advantageous (4.52) than use of general texts and images. The results
indicate that this technology should be used to support the learning process
more often.
Respondents were also asked to add verbal notes to describe the learning
process that they experienced through viewing these video clips. The attached
examples reinforce the quantitative findings, giving them more validity:
A student in the PSPP course:

“Video clips have a great advantage and they are very helpful for
learning. They give me the feeling that I am in class even while I am at
home. It helps me understand and succeed. Nevertheless, I would not give
up the face-to-face lectures. They are also very helpful for
communicating with the lecturer in real time. The clips are also useful if I
forgot or did not understand something.”
 Video in Online Courses 39

Lecturers who studied in the course “Management of online courses”:

“Effective learning is based upon a combination of video clips, texts

and the access to lecturers in order to obtain support. The videos are ideal
for practice, repetition and refreshing of the material. They should not be
a replacement for a face-to-face lesson. It is imperative they be focused,
short and clear.”
“The clips accompanying the course enabled me to practice outside
the classroom with very clear guidance. This is helpful. It is much better
for me than reading textual descriptions. This is a perfect tool for
learning computer courses. The ability to watch and exercise repeatedly
makes this form of studying convenient and encouraging.”

PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS
The use of video capture technology does not require significant
investment in technological infrastructure or in software development teams.
Every lecturer needs to learn the educational and technical aspects of video
capture and then with minimal equipment, a personal computer and
microphone, suitable software and access to LMS and file-sharing sites such as
YouTube or Vimeo experiment with the technology.
Many screencast programs exist and they vary in features and cost. Tools
are divided into two main groups:

1) Free tools: Jing, Screenr, Screencast-o-Matic (PC only), CamStudio

and Community Clips (PC only).
2) Commercial tools: Camtasia Studio, iShowU, HD Pro (Mac only),
Adobe Captivate and ScreenFlow (Mac only).

Beginners can use Microsoft Community Clips (freeware) which can be

downloaded from: goo.gl/Dx779C
40 Yaron Ghilay

QR - 5.1

The software is simple to operate but does not have editing options and is
not updated. Editing can be accomplished by an additional free tool such as
Windows Movie Maker, found at: goo.gl/yek0M1

QR - 5.2

For high-quality screencasts without limitations, use of a professional tool

such as Camtasia Studio is recommended. It has a user-friendly interface and
works on both PC and Mac (there are different version for each system). It is
advantageous for advanced editing, importing external video clips, voice
narration, changing audio volume after recording, audio editing, adding tracks
without limitations, subtitles, animation, zoom, adding a table of contents, etc.
High quality (including HD) final output can be produced in different formats
(mp4, avi, flash, mov).
Practical recommendations for the creation of training clips via video
capture:

1) Use professional software such as Camtasia Studio or the equivalent.

Such tools save time and yield high-quality products which can be
further improved in editing.
2) Before starting the video capture, a title page should be prepared
including information such as the name of the institution, the lesson,
and the instructor.
3) For ensuring highest sound recording, it is best to use a good quality
headset. The quality of the audio recording and its volume should be
 Video in Online Courses 41

tested beforehand. If the instructor's video is required, it should be

placed at an appropriate location on the screen. The size of the
lecturers' video should not be too broad so it does not hide other vital
information. It is possible to forgo the lecturer’s presentation or to
place it at the beginning or the end of the clip. If so, only the
instructor’s voice will be heard for the remainder of the time. These
parameters can also be modified during the editing stage (provided
that the lecturer's clip was made via webcam).
4) It is strongly recommended to divide major topics into sub-topics and
sub-sub-topics that are covered by a short clip. Creating menu topics,
each of which is attached to an appropriate video link allows learners
to skip to subjects they are interested in. It is also possible to produce
a long video either with a built-in table of contents or a YouTube
video link that transfers the viewer to a pre-determined point in the
clip. However, short clips are still preferable. Even if a long video was
produced, it can be split very easily it into “smaller portions” during
editing.
5) Before video capture:
 Prepare the text which will form the basis of the lesson: such text
may be the book the lecturer uses for the course.
 Rehearsal: before starting video capture, rehearse all components
of the lesson.
6) In video capture, operating in “small portions” is recommended even
before the editing stage. An unlimited number of breaks for further
thinking, refreshment or even the redoing a scene that was incorrectly
performed (the incorrect section can be deleted during editing) can be
made and the work resumed.
7) When the video capture refers to a text (for example, a solution to a
problem):
 Divide the screen into two halves, left and right. On one side
place the wording of the question. On the other place the
activities relating to the solution. This helps students read the
question and simultaneously observe solution. The instructor can
point out parts of the question and continue the activity. This
gives lecturers the advantage of concentrating on the screen
without referring to paper printouts or other forms of display.
 In the Windows system, it is very easy to place applications only
in one-half of the screen (without the dragging operation) by
pointing to the application window:
42 Yaron Ghilay

 To position the application in the left half of the screen:

press the “Start” key combined with the left arrow.
 To position the application of the right half of the screen:
press the “Start” key combined with the right arrow.
It is not necessary to remain in split-screen throughout the video.
The presentation can be divided between full- and split-screen
displays.
8) After saving the clip to a file, it needs to undergo rigorous quality
control, performing:
 A check for errors: Corrections can be made in several ways
depending on the type of mistake. Deletion, if this is an
unnecessary segment. If the error occurs in the audio explanation,
the soundtrack of that particular section can be deleted and a new
explanation can be recorded instead. Usually, there is no need to
repeat the whole process of capturing the complete clip. Segments
can be repaired or improved.
 Improvement: The video can be enhanced by adding elements that
are not part of the capture process, such as:
a) Zooming: suitable for situations where it is desirable to
focus viewers’ attention on a specific part of the screen.
Remember to cancel the zoom or switch to a new zoom
when done.
b) Changing the cursor size and shape.
c) Adding a table of contents (if required).
d) Increasing or decreasing the volume.
e) Adding transitions between sections.
9) After completing the editing process, the final product has to be
produced in a common format (such as mp4) and shared on the course
website. There are two principal methods for sharing a video clip:
 Uploading the video file to the course site (in LMS): this option is
appropriate when the material only needs to be stored on the
course website and not on an external database. Pay attention to
the capacity constraints of the learning management system
(usually - up to 150 MB per file).
 Uploading the file to a sharing video site: it is possible to upload
the file to a site such as YouTube and create a link to the course
site. This has the advantage of not having a limitation on volume,
length or resolution. There is also a saving on storage capacity on
the institutional server without accruing financial cost. Viewing
 Video in Online Courses 43

without downloading the file is possible (streaming). The video

file can be downloaded with an adequate utility (such as YTD).
Also, it is feasible to create a playlist for a collection of videos or
to create a link to direct the viewer to a specific point in the video
or easily embed the video on the course site.
Chapter 6

CAA – COMPUTER ASSISTED ASSESSMENT

INTRODUCTION
As assessment is critical to learning (Brown, Bull & Pendlebury, 1997),
considerable pressure has been placed on institutions of higher-education to
measure learning outcomes more formally and more often (Brown et al., 1997;
Farrer, 2002; Laurillard, 2002). Computer-assisted assessment (CAA), has the
potential both to ease the assessment load and to provide innovative and
powerful assessment tools (Brown et al., 1997; Bull & McKenna, 2004).
Furthermore, as use of ICT increases, ‘inherent difficulties in teaching and
learning online but assessing on paper’ may arise (Bull, 2001; Bennett, 2002).
Objective test questions (multiple-choice, true/false or numeric answers)
which require the choice of a predetermined answer are the most common
format in CAA. However, other types of questions are also possible (such as
essay, matching, matrix question, drag and drop into text/image, selection of
missing words, etc.). A major concern on the part of both academics and
quality assurance staff (Bull, 1999; Warburton & Conole, 2003) is whether
multiple-choice questions can assess higher-order learning outcomes
(Pritchett, 1999; Davies, 2002). The most optimistic view states that if
sufficient care is taken in the construction of questions (Farthing & McPhee,
1999; Duke-Williams & King, 2001), item-based testing may successfully
examine the full range of learning outcomes. This can be done using questions
that students cannot answer by relying solely on memory. Good questions
should examine understanding and the ability of students to apply, analyze,
evaluate and create.
46 Yaron Ghilay

CAA is not a new approach; it has been rapidly developing over the last
decades in schools, universities, and other institutions, offering educational
and technical sophistication that includes simulations and multimedia-based
questions which are not feasible in paper-based assessments (Bull &
McKenna, 2004). As the numbers of students are increasing while financial
resources are decreasing, objective tests may offer a way to cut costs.
CAA systems must be tailored so students receive advanced training
before taking part in summative evaluations so as to avoid the danger that
CAA evaluates competence in the use of information technology rather than
the knowledge of the course content.
Possible advantages of CAA are (Bull & McKenna, 2004):

1) Increasing the frequency of evaluation which may motivate students

to practice their skills and learn more
2) Broadening the range of knowledge assessed
3) Increasing feedback to students and lecturers
4) Extending the range of assessment methods
5) Increasing objectivity and consistency
6) Decreasing marking loads
7) Boosting administrative efficiency

RESEARCH: EFFECTIVENESS OF CAA

A study focusing on advantages and disadvantages of computerized
assessment as compared to traditional methods of evaluation was undertaken
at the NB School of Design and Education, Haifa, Israel. Students experienced
computerized tests in five courses for two years (2010-11, 2011-12) and
traditional assessment in their other subjects. Learners' attitudes (n = 54) to
traditional assessment and CAA were examined with respect to test
effectiveness, test experience, test flexibility, and test integrity on a 5-point
Likert scale (Alpha Cronbach reliabilities for both methods appear in
parenthesis in Table 6.1). The scores for each factor are the means of the
items composing them.
 CAA – Computer Assisted Assessment 47

The items included:

1) Test effectiveness (0.891, 0.702)

 The test measures the level of my knowledge accurately
 The test covers the required course material well
 The test assesses basic learning objectives (knowledge and
understanding)
 The test assesses higher learning objectives (implementation,
analysis, etc.)
 The test covers broad areas of the course
 The test is objective and consistent

2) Test experience (0.882, 0.769)

 I enjoyed the exam

 I felt comfortable during the exam
 Receiving my score at the end of the exam was an advantage
 I am sure my answers reached the lecturer in a proper manner
 It is convenient for me to give answers on a computer screen
 It is a convenient method for updating answers that I want to
change before submission
 I'm not worried about the exam
 It is easy to concentrate on questions displayed on a computer
screen/paper
 The test includes a variety of assessment methods
 The time limit does not disturb my concentration
 I can appeal the examination results

3) Test flexibility (0.889, 0.649)

 I can get multiple opportunities to be tested
 There are many opportunities to improve my grade

4) Test integrity (0.853, 0.670)

 Getting help from other examinees is difficult
 There is no chance of exam questions being leaked
 Examinees receive different test questionnaires
 Test integrity is carefully maintained
48 Yaron Ghilay

This study reveals that CAA has significant advantages over traditional
assessment, as is shown in Table 6.1 (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2012(:

Table 6.1. Comparison of computerized and traditional assessment

Factors Mean N S.D Significance of difference

Test effectiveness Computerized 4.55 52 .47 𝑡(51) = 3.276, 𝑃 = 0.002
Traditional 4.19 52 .74
Test experience Computerized 4.12 53 .52 𝑡(52) = 3.328, 𝑃 = 0.002
Traditional 3.70 53 .81
Test flexibility Computerized 4.33 52 .58 𝑡(51) = 5.851, 𝑃 = 0.000
Traditional 3.38 52 1.16
Test integrity Computerized 4.20 51 .65 𝑡(50) = 3.999, 𝑃 = 0.00
Traditional 3.66 51 .96

Table 6.1 shows the advantage of CAA over traditional assessment in all
four areas: test effectiveness (4.55, 4.19, respectively), test experience (4.12,
3.70), test flexibility (4.33, 3.38) and test integrity (4.20, 3.66). The
advantages of CAA over traditional assessment are statistically significant as
indicated by the Paired Samples T-test,   .05 . These advantages are:

1) Relevant knowledge is checked more accurately, comprehensively

and objectively (effectiveness).
2) CAA is more convenient for students, decreasing the level of test
anxiety and increasing concentration (test experience).
3) There are more opportunities to be examined and hence, improve
achievement (flexibility).
4) A computerized exam more effectively precludes forbidden assistance
and question leak and promotes proper discipline during the
examination (test integrity).

Respondents were asked to add verbal comments regarding their

experience in taking computerized exams. Their verbal responses strengthen
the quantitative findings, giving them added validity. Below are a few
examples:

“The computerized test has no weaknesses – all the questions are

clear, accurate and understandable. I have no complaints whatsoever.”
 CAA – Computer Assisted Assessment 49

“I enjoyed the computerized tests and, in my opinion, it is preferable

to paper-based exams. A computerized test is much more convenient and
exciting. In my view, computerized exams only have advantages.”

CAA VIA MOODLE

CAA is known for its credibility, flexibility, and ability to deal with large
amounts of students being tested simultaneously. Elimination of the use of
paper eliminates the time and expense of sending questionnaires out for
printing and reproduction of scanning pages of answers. With computerized
assessment, all these tasks are done via digital means. Due to the growing
popularity of a mobile, lightweight computing, it is now possible to conduct
computerized tests in regular classrooms (not only in a computer lab). Use of
the institutional Wi-Fi with students connected via different private devices -
laptops, tablets, and even smartphones - is feasible. A Moodle application
allows all registered users to be identified and examined by entering username
and password.
The Moodle assessment tool is sophisticated, regularly updated, and
includes lots of options. There are various tools for building computerized
tests. Therefore, serious preparation toward universal computerized
assessment should be made, with instructors learning the details of the
application and constructing question banks and exams.

Characteristics of CAA in Moodle

Computerized assessment via Moodle has unique characteristics requiring

precise definition depending on the desired educational objectives:

1) Time and duration: The date of the test can be restricted (or not) to a
specified time window (e.g., between two dates or on a specific day at
scheduled hours). Additionally, the duration can be set so that the
timer starts only from the beginning of the test. Examinees can submit
the test on their own initiative before the end of the time limit, but
automatic submission occurs as soon as time runs out. There is no
way for an examinee to extend the duration of the test by delaying its
delivery. If, for example, the time of the test is set to be between
09:00 and 12:00 on a specified date and the test duration is two hours,
50 Yaron Ghilay

then students who start 10 minutes late will be allowed to finish 10

minutes later (automatically and without human intervention) without
losing any of the total time allotted. However, if the time frame of the
exam is set from 09:00-11:00, those who start at 09:10 do lose ten
minutes because the test will automatically be submitted at 11:00. The
duration of an exam can also be unlimited, an option that is
appropriate for formative assessment or practice.
2) The number of answering attempts: The system allows lecturers to
determine the number of response attempts allotted to examinees. If
this is a summative evaluation (a final exam), only one attempt will be
permitted. However, if it is a practice exam, examinees may be
allowed to submit answers several times. Another option is to allow
unlimited attempts – with respondents being able to go back and
restart the test/exercise as they wish. With multiple response attempts,
the system can allow new attempts to be built upon preceding answers
(or not). This option is suitable for practicing. If students prefer every
new attempt to start from scratch, all answers are blank. Instructors
may give students the option to choose the response method they
prefer.
If questions are randomly selected from a databank, it is most likely
that examinees will have different items than on previous exams or
that questions appear in a different order. Moreover, because in
Moodle, duplicating tests is very easy, a practice exercise can be made
in two versions: in one alternative, new attempts are built upon
preceding answers and in the other one, every new attempt starts from
scratch.
Another relevant consideration in multiple response options is
determining how the final score should be calculated: highest grade,
average grade, or last attempt. Also, a minimum wait period between
two successive attempts can be set so as to encourage students to
study the material before answering another exercise or test.
3) Place limitations: Since Moodle is an internet platform, any
authorized user can respond to the test/exercise on any computer
connected to the net. However, there may be occasions (particularly
those of summative assessment) where it is necessary to limit the
place from which students are allowed to respond. For example,
students must take the exam in specific rooms in the institution and
not in their homes. Therefore, specific IP addresses from which
students are allowed to register to take the test can be set. Anyone
 CAA – Computer Assisted Assessment 51

logging in from an address that does not belong in the institution

network (including cellular networks) will be automatically blocked.
4) Producing different questionnaires: The computerized system has
unlimited capacity to produce a large collection of profiles for a given
test at a given time enabling each and every questionnaire to be
different. This feature is key to maintaining exam integrity. With
manual methods, it is hard if not impossible to approach such
differentiation. Configuration of the question bank into topics and
subtopics enables random selection of X questions out of Y items in
the database. With big databases, more sophisticated test
questionnaires can be created. For example, separate databases can be
set up for voluntary exercises and for compulsory exercises (tests). In
such a reservoir, random selection of questions by topic ensures no
overlap among issues relating to different tasks (exams, practice
exercises, and so on).
Another option in creating differentiation in test questionnaires is
control of question order and in multiple-choice questions, the order
of options. While the order can be predetermined, random order is
preferred.
5) Setting different parameters for different examinees or groups: The
system allows significant degrees of freedom for meaningful
exceptions to the general test conditions. Deviation from the general
settings can be adding an additional password to certain students for
entering the test, changing the start/stop time, the time limit, or the
number of attempts allowed. For example, a group of students with
learning disabilities for whom (and only for them), the time limit
could be three hours instead of two. In other words, in the same test,
there may be different deadlines for different students. Such a
differentiation can also exist on an individual basis - a particular
student can have various restrictions designed just for him/her. For
instance, it is possible to give a particular student a time extension for
submission of an exercise due to special personal circumstances, a
relief which does not pertain to the rest of the class.
As mentioned above, the system is improving over time with options
increasing and becoming more sophisticated.
6) Grade management: Even in this area, computerized systems have
great flexibility and save on manual work. Assessment of “objective
test questions” is performed automatically and grades are retained
within the system. Lecturers may update any grade they wish. Also,
52 Yaron Ghilay

any item can have a weight (the default is 1) for automatic weighting
of the final score. In the case of open-ended questions where manual
evaluation is required, scores can be automatically weighted for final
score calculation.
Lecturers can determine whether and when test scores will be posted
as well as different types of feedback received. Also, the class grade
sheet including a collection of exercises or tests (all or part of them)
can be exported to common data management formats such as Excel
which might be helpful for further processing, reporting or external
storage.
Instructors have the option to review the results of the test of every
student, read all the answers, seeing what was done right and what
was done wrong. So, without any paperwork, full and detailed
documentation of all student responses is possible. Based on these
digital reports alone, it is possible to have a discussion with students
concerning test results.
7) Restricting access to the test/exercise: Lecturers can set advanced
restrictions on access to tests/exercises, for example, access to late-
testing questionnaires for those who have not yet been tested at all.
This may be relevant in situations where some students are retaking
the test while others are just making their first attempt. Without any
human intervention, it is possible to ensure that each group of students
is tested only on a suitable questionnaire, enabling various tests to be
held at the same time.
8) The variety of questions: It is believed that computerized assessment
deals only with multiple-choice questions, but actually this is not true.
Moodle enables more than 30 different types of questions, the most
common of which are:
 Multiple-choice: An unlimited number of distractors can be
mixed and numbered in different forms (or not numbered at all).
Numbering is not recommended because it has no advantage and
may disturb test integrity.
Lecturers can decide whether students must select only one
answer or are allowed multiple answers. If there is only one right
answer, wrong answers can get a zero or a partial score. When
required to select multiple answers, each correct answer has to
receive a partial mark so that the total grade adds up to 100%.
Other distractors are scored as zero.
 CAA – Computer Assisted Assessment 53

The following are examples of the two types of multiple-choice questions:

Figure 6.1. One answer.

Figure 6.2. Multiple answers.

 Numerical: In numerical questions a final numeric answer is

required with examinees writing the correct answer in a box at the
bottom of the question as shown in Figure 6.3: It is also possible
to require that students include measurement units for the
numerical values. Permissible deviation from the exact value can
also be defined.
54 Yaron Ghilay

Figure 6.3. Numerical answer.

 Matching: A matching question displays two lists of items on

either side of the screen. Students select an answer from the list of
items on the right side that match an item listed on the left side.
For example:

Figure 6.4. A matching question.

 Matrix: Adjustment of statements to headlines as shown in Figure

6.5:

Figure 6.5. A matrix.

 CAA – Computer Assisted Assessment 55

 Entering missing words in a paragraph: Examinees are asked to

add missing words in a text by choosing from a menu with
several options:

Figure 6.6. Missing words in a paragraph.

Constructing and Administering Computerized

Assessment Tools

In Moodle construction of evaluation tools (summative tests, practice

tests, compulsory and noncompulsory exercises, etc.) and their operation are
based on a three-stage process:

1) Construction of a question bank: The process of building a question

bank includes:
 Determination of main categories/subcategories: The question
bank is divided into topics and sub-topics so that tests cover all
the required areas of study
 Question determination: Associating each question with the
appropriate topic and sub-topic, selecting the type of question
(multiple-choice, numeric, short answer, long open question,
matching answers, etc.), wording the question, determining the
question weight, formulation of feedback, etc. An existing
question can be duplicated, changed and converted into a new
question (without repeating all its characteristics).

2) Test construction: One or more tests can be built from the question
bank. Construction of tests relies on:

Defining the test characteristics: Relevant characteristics can be:

56 Yaron Ghilay

 Date (including start and end time)

 Entrance restrictions based on different characteristics (belonging
to a group, completing previous tasks, date, etc.)
 Duration
 Number of answering attempts
 Whether each new attempt builds on the last (or not)
 Various protections designed for summative evaluation
 Different types of feedback

Selecting questions from the reservoir and their order of appearance:

Each test presents questions from the database according to the
lecturers' decisions. The following parameters can be controlled:

 The number of questions

 Presentation of items belonging to primary and secondary
categories
 Presentation of questions in fixed or random order
 Fixed or random order within each separate category (including
randomization of the various issues relating to a category)

After constructing one test, similar exams can be created just by

replicating the source and changing certain parameters. There is no
need to starting the question generating process from the beginning.

3) Administering the test/s: Before administering a test, especially a

summative assessment, it is crucial to ensure that the students know
how the system works and have had previous experience using it. A
rigorous monitoring process (especially before the first administration
of a test) should be in place to ensure quality control:
 The wording of the questions is right and fits the curriculum
 There are no wrong questions or double questions (a phenomenon
that could occur with duplication of items) and that all the
parameters listed above are accurate

Any wrong parameter can cause a failure in administering the test. For
example, an incorrect date might mean students are not able to start the test or
that time duration may be too short. A similar error might occur in the wrong
determination of the number of permitted answering attempts. In such cases,
 CAA – Computer Assisted Assessment 57

students need to be allowed to retake the test. It is desirable that during the
administration of an exam there be technical assistance in case of
malfunctions, problems relating passwords, unsuitable browsers, etc. The
consequences of power failures or involuntary rebooting of the computer
before answers have been saved should be very carefully considered in
advance for in such cases, answers may be lost with all the implications
involved.
In order to avoid such loss, it is recommended that students save their
answers as often as possible. The system automatically saves answers after a
page break (including the transition to the final part of the test). If every
question appears on a separate sheet, there is low probability of fault since data
is saved each time the examinee passes to the next question. Also, students
receive an indication (“Answer saved”) when returning to a page containing an
item that has been already answered. The most problematic situation is when
all test questions are on the same page. In such cases, answers are not saved
until the examinee passes to the final stage (the examinee can jump to the final
page after each question without finishing the test). Before submitting an
exam, it is desirable to go back over the questions including the indicators of
whether questions were saved or have yet to be answered. Sometimes, students
do not answer all the questions owing to lack of attention. It is highly
recommended to remind students to save their work frequently, making sure
that all questions have been answered before submitting a test. Moreover, if
few questions are placed on each page, saving takes place frequently.
Chapter 7

TBAL:
TECHNOLOGY-BASED ACTIVE LEARNING

INTRODUCTION

Lectures in higher education courses traditionally consist of teachers

verbally communicating information to students who passively receive it and
then encode it in their memories (Boyer, 1990; Michel, Cater III, & Varela,
2009; Stewart-Wingfield & Black, 2005). Many studies (Bonwell & Eison,
1991; Michel et al., 2009) suggest that this passive method may not be the
most pedagogic methodology. Teaching techniques that encourage students to
actively engage with the material promote deeper levels of thinking and better
facilitate encoding, storage, and retrieval of information than do traditional
lectures (McGlynn, 2005; Peck, Ali, Matchock, & Levine, 2006).
A common definition of active learning is:

Active learning is an approach that provides opportunities for

students to meaningfully talk and listen, write, read, and reflect on the
content, ideas, issues, and concerns of an academic subject (Meyers &
Jones, 1993, p. 6).

Another definition describing active learning is:

Any strategy that involves students in doing things and thinking

about the things they are doing (Bonwell and Eison, 1991, p. 2).
60 Yaron Ghilay

Learning should include any technique that involves students in the

learning process and holds them accountable for their own learning (Bonwell
& Eison, 1991; Michel et al., 2009; Yoder & Hochevar, 2005). Unfortunately,
most students do not function as active learners unless they are in an active
learning environment. Active learning shifts the focus from what instructors
teach or deliver to what they want students to be able to do with the course
material. When students recognize that a course involves active learning, they
realize that in order to succeed they must engage with the material (Instruction
at FSU Handbook, 2011).
Alas, educators’ use of the term “active learning” relies more on intuitive
understanding than on a common definition. Many faculty assert that all
learning is inherently active and that students can be involved even when
listening to formal presentations in the classroom. Analysis of the research
literature, however, suggests that students must do more than just listen: they
must read, write, discuss, or be engaged in solving problems (Chickering &
Gamson, 1987).
Active learning has many benefits (McKeachie & Svinicki, 2014):

 Students are more likely to access their prior knowledge which is key
to learning
 Students are more likely to find personally meaningful solutions to
problems
 Students receive more frequent and immediate feedback
 Students increase their self-confidence and self-reliance
 For most learners, it is more motivating to be active than passive
 A task that one has done by himself/herself or as part of a group is
more highly valued

The benefits of active learning in higher education have been widely

acclaimed. Guthrie and Carlin (2004) maintain that modern students are
primarily active learners and traditional lecture courses are increasingly out of
touch with how students engage with the world. Chickering and Gamson
(1987), early proponents of active learning designate “encouraging active
learning” as one of the seven principles of good practice in higher education
(the others are encouragement of contact between students and faculty,
development of cooperation among students, giving prompt feedback,
emphasizing time on task, communicating high expectations and respecting
diverse talents and ways of learning).
 TBAL: Technology-Based Active Learning 61

The use of clickers, more formally denoted as Student Response Systems

(SRS), Audience Response Systems (ARS), or Personal Response Systems
(PRS) are one approach to employing active learning in the classroom.
Clicking allows students to participate in classroom activities, regardless of
class size. These remote gadgets transmit individual student responses to an
instructor’s computer in real time so they can be recorded and even shared
back to the class (Johnson, 2004; Kenwright, 2009).
Johnson (2004) describes how clickers address three of Chickering and
Gamson’s (1987) seven principles of good practice in undergraduate
education:

 They actively engage students during the entire class period

 They gauge students’ level of understanding of the material being
presented
 They enable prompt feedback to student questions

Beatty (2004) claims that since clickers help students actively engage in
the learning process, they encourage more robust, integrated and useful
understandings of concepts and their applicability. Clickers are superior to
some active learning methods such as classroom discussion where only a few
students get the opportunity to answer a question. Even if the answer is
correct, the instructor has no way to gauge if other students know the correct
answer. SRS helps to overcome this quandary. Another benefit of clickers is
that they follow the principles of game-based learning with which students are
well acquainted having grown up playing computer games for entertainment
(Martyn, 2007).
Students in higher education all have smartphones, tablets or laptops.
These devices, when connected to an LMS or other web-based application can
function as more sophisticated clickers than the devices of the previous
generation. They make transforming a regular class into a technology-based
one easy and effective. This is the first step to active learning.

A MODEL FOR TECHNOLOGY-BASED ACTIVE

LEARNING (TBAL)
Instead of just lecturing to a passive audience of students, the TBAL
model (Technology-Based Active Learning) is designed to create a series of
62 Yaron Ghilay

activities in which all students in the class participate. Ghilay & Ghilay
(2015c) recently examined the effectiveness of the model.

Description of the TBAL Model

In using students’ private mobile devices TBAL significantly improves

the learning process in multi-text, face-to-face courses (Ghilay & Ghilay,
2015c). In creating an environment of active and experiential learning it:

1) Enables every student to participate while using his/her preferred

technological device
2) Creates an environment of collaboration and teamwork
3) Links everyone to what is taking place in class
4) Creates multiple opportunities for all students to participate and
express themselves

In this technology-based learning environment every student needs to

come to class with either a smartphone, tablet or laptop. All devices should be
linked via the institute’s Wi-Fi network (or students’ private 3G/4G mobile
network) to the institutional LMS or other web-based application.
The components of a course based on LMS technology (such as Moodle)
are:

1) All course texts are presented on the course website which is divided
into main topics that comprehensively cover the curriculum.
2) Each main theme is divided into subtopics, one of which includes a
few activities. Each activity includes a short text from the course
syllabus and an open-ended question. Such activities are introduced
via tools like Moodle “Chatroom” or the equivalent. In the classroom
all students are able to answer simultaneously while watching answers
that appear on the main screen. Every student in the course may
answer questions via any mobile device.
3) Each activity is hidden until its turn arrives. Students can read the text
and the question either on the main screen in the classroom or on their
personal device. The instructor can show responses on the main
screen in real time, including student names. The lecturer can refer to
answers presented on the main screen by adding his/her own oral
explanations, questions, or relevant assessments. Such pedagogy
 TBAL: Technology-Based Active Learning 63

encourages students to participate, express their views or ask

questions either orally or in writing. Moreover, the instructor can turn
to those who did not respond to encourage them to be active.
4) When each subtopic is finished, students are given a short
computerized quiz including a few objective questions covering the
specific subtopic. Such an option is feasible via Moodle “Quiz” or an
equivalent tool. During that activity, students can give answers using
their private device, although only the lecturer can view their answers
and scores. At the end of the quiz, each student gets an automatic
grade. That score can be informational only or it can be weighted into
the total course grade. The instructor can establish a time limit and
even allow students to have more than one answering attempt. After
the quiz, the lecturer can explain questions that require additional
treatment.
5) At the end of each main topic, students are given a more detailed
computerized quiz including closed questions covering all the
subtopics in the main theme. Such a quiz can be timed, taken in class
or at home and its score may be informational only (or not), according
to the instructor’s discretion.
6) At the end of the course, students have to take a final computerized
test given at the institution. This exam is a significant component of
the final grade. Before that examination, all activities mentioned
above are shown on the course website so learners can go over the
material using whatever device they wish. It might be more
convenient at home to use a PC or tablet rather than a smartphone.

Research Findings: Effectiveness of TBAL

A study by Ghilay & Ghilay (2015c) examined student attitudes towards

TBAL at the NB School of Design and Education (Haifa, Israel). Participants
were enrolled in the “Strategic Management” course given to fourth-year
students in the Department of Management. The course has nine main topics:
Introduction, Mission statement, External assessment, Internal assessment,
Strategies in action, Strategy analysis and choice, Strategy implementation
(two main themes) and Strategy evaluation.
The course, based on the TBAL model was given during the first
semesters of 2013-2014 and 2014-2015. The aim of the Ghilay & Ghilay study
64 Yaron Ghilay

was to investigate whether the model enhances the learning process in face-to-
face courses and if so, what the characteristics of such learning are.
Six factors were examined (n = 67):
Comments:

 For each factor, all the items composing it are presented below
(questions in the questionnaire). High reliability was found for each
factor (as indicated in parentheses).
 Items were scored on a five-point Likert scale. Factor scores are the
means of the items composing them.

1) Improvement in the learning process (Alpha = 0.810):

 Using technology in class causes me to be active and therefore I
learn better
 Integration of technology into a lecture enables me to learn better
than just listening to the lecturer
 Active learning based on technology is helpful in preparation for
the final exam
 Integration of technology enables me to deepen my understanding
of the material presented during the lesson
 The use of technology significantly contributes to learning
2) Successful learning experience (Alpha = 0.872):
 Learning through technology is better than passive learning and
listening to a lecturer
 The use of technology during the lesson enables me to be active
 The use of technology during the lesson creates a better learning
experience
 I enjoy learning with technology
 The use of technology makes the lesson more interesting
 The use of technology increases my motivation to study
 The use of technology causes me to be active in class
3) Student choice of technological equipment (Alpha = 0.725):
 The option of using a smartphone, tablet or laptop allows any
student to express personal choice and yet feel part of the whole
classroom enterprise
 The opportunity to use my choice of device in the classroom
makes it convenient and contributes to flexibility
4) Collaboration and teamwork (Alpha = 0.755):
 TBAL: Technology-Based Active Learning 65

 The use of technology encourages teamwork and cooperation

among students
 Collaborative learning through technology allows me to learn
better than in a regular class
 Collaborative learning through technology allows me to learn
from friends
 Collaborative learning through technology allows me to get
feedback in real time from the lecturer
 Collaborative learning through technology allows me to get real-
time feedback from colleagues
 Displaying the answers of all students helps me
5) Link to the lesson (Alpha = 0.742):
 Active learning through technology compels me to be constantly
“connected” during the whole lesson
 Active learning through technology improves my concentration
 Active learning through technology keeps my mind on the topics
of the lesson
6) Student opportunities to participate (Alpha = 0.732):
 The use of technology allows all students to participate and
express themselves
 The use of technology makes it easier for shy students to
participate

There was no significant difference in the mean scores of all factors

examined over the two years that the TBAL course was administered (T-test,
  0.05 ). The replication of results strengthens the findings and gives them
greater validity.
Table 7.1 presents the mean scores of both years combined:

Table 7.1. Effectiveness of Technology-Based Active Learning

No. Factor N Mean S.D Independent Samples T-test

1 Improvement of the learning process 67 4.49 .49 t(65)  .079, p  .937
2 Successful learning experience 67 4.64 .47 t(65)  .205, p  .838
3 Student choice of technological equipment 67 4.58 .59 t(65)  .052, p  .959
4 Students’ opportunities to participate 67 4.53 .58 t(65)  .019, p  .985
5 Link to the lesson 67 4.51 .50 t(65)  .031, p  .975
6 Collaboration and teamwork 67 4.32 .54 t(65)  .310, p  .758
66 Yaron Ghilay

The findings indicate that TBAL significantly enhances the learning

process in a face-to-face course (4.49). The other factors also received high
assessments: successful learning experience (4.64), student choice of
technological equipment (4.58), students’ opportunities to participate in the
class (4.53), link to the lesson (4.51), collaboration and teamwork (4.32).
Participants were also asked to add verbal comments on the effectiveness
of TBAL. The following quotes strengthen the quantitative findings and give
them more validity:

“Learning with technology has made a significant contribution to my

learning. The opportunity to have a quiz summarizing a topic and to get
feedback gives me an excellent indicator of my understanding of the
specific course content. In case I did not succeed, I can query the lecturer
during the lesson itself and gain an understanding of my mistake.”

“Using technology during the lessons was very helpful for my

learning. The process was extremely effective because the lecturer is an
expert in educational technology and he continuously develops this field.
Technology has been tremendously helpful for me in understanding the
course content.”

SUMMARY: TECHNOLOGY-BASED ACTIVE LEARNING

According to international research, passive learning is problematic
because students are not engaged in the lesson and are frequently disconnected
from what is said in class (Bonwell & Eison, 1991; Michel et al., 2009).
Research stresses that active learning leads to better outcomes (McGlynn,
2005; Peck et al., 2006).
While no controversy regarding the advantages of active learning exists,
its implementation is not straightforward. Faculty members face barriers when
trying to transfer from traditional to active learning. The TBAL model is
intended to overcome this difficulty and help lecturers to create an active
environment in their class. The model simplifies the practical procedures of
converting traditional study methods into active learning.
According to Ghilay & Ghilay (2015c), the TBAL model is very helpful
in providing faculty members with practical tools to assist them in
transitioning to the world of active learning. Students in the course based on
the model report that it substantially improved their learning process. Students
 TBAL: Technology-Based Active Learning 67

claim that they had multiple opportunities to participate and they were
completely focused and linked to the lessons. Collaboration and teamwork
were significantly improved as well.
Chapter 8

FEEDBACK-BASED LEARNING (FBL)

Promoting student success in learning has become an issue of concern

among educators all over the world (Elton & Johnston, 2002; Knight & Yorke,
2003a; Marton & Booth, 1997; Marton & Saljo, 1997; Prosser & Trigwell,
2001; Race, 2005; Ramsden, 2000). Substantial numbers of students come into
a class with all the appropriate prerequisites, but yet they are incapable of
handling the course material (Wilson & Scalise, 2006). The usual explanation
for student difficulties is that students do not study enough or they are not
interested (Hesse, 1989). In light of the fact that communication between
faculty and students is a critical element of higher education, effective
feedback (Felder & Brent, 2004) may be the missing component in successful
outcomes. Higher education will not be significantly improved, Burksaitiene
(2011) argues until the feedback system is changed.
A common definition of the term “feedback” in education is:

“Information describing student performance in a given activity that

is intended to guide their future performance in the same or a related
activity” (Ende, 1983, p. 777).
Black and Wiliam (1998) define the term “feedback” as:
“Any information that is provided to the performer of any action
about that performance.” (p. 40).

Feedback can have different functions depending upon the learning

environment, the needs of the learner, the purpose of the task, and the
feedback paradigm adopted (Knight & Yorke, 2003b; Poulos & Mahony,
2008).
70 Yaron Ghilay

There is a substantial body of research reporting both university student

and lecturer dissatisfaction with feedback (Ferguson, 2011). Most student
complaints focus on: feedback content, organization of assessment activities,
untimeliness of criticism, and lack of clarity about requirements or guidance as
to how to use feedback to improve subsequent performance (Higgins, Hartley,
& Skelton, 2002; Huxham, 2007). From the lecturers’ perspective, complaints
revolve around students not making use of or acting upon feedback in
subsequent tasks (Spiller, 2009) and being concerned only with the mark.
Hence, both students and faculty (Evans, 2013) deplore what is known as the
feedback gap.
In order to be effective, feedback should close the gap between students’
actual performance level and the level required by lecturers. Efficient feedback
gives specifics regarding shortcomings (Hattie and Timperley, 2007): Does the
information imparted in the critique help students close the gap between
current knowledge and the program’s desired outcomes? (Croton, Willis III &
Fish, 2014). Providing such feedback is not an easy task.
Yet international research indicates that students respond very well to
feedback delivered in digital form. A meta-analysis of more than 7,000 studies
(Hattie and Timperley, 2007) reveals that multimedia feedback is one of the
most effective ways to obtain positive results from feedback.
While the term “feedback” refers to information provided to students to
encourage them to improve their learning, information from students to
lecturers may be just as transformative, assisting academic staff in changing
their manner of teaching to better fit learners' needs. Often students are the
first notice whether teaching is good or not. That said, too many institutions
are not geared to accept student insights in an atmosphere that genuinely
welcomes such feedback. Although requesting student feedback on their
learning experience at the end of a semester has become common practice in
many institutes, their views may not have any actual impact. Institutions of
higher education need to create environments and mechanisms that allow
student views, learning experiences, and performance to be taken into account
(McAleese et al., 2013).

FEEDBACK-BASED LEARNING (FBL) MODEL

The Feedback-Based Learning (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2015b) model confronts
the challenge of getting institutions of higher education to appreciate the
validity of students’ learning experience. It provides immediate student
 Feedback-Based Learning (FBL) 71

responses to lecturers’ practice via use of personal smartphones (or

tablets/laptops) to online questionnaires concerning the delivery of the
educational program. Undertaken at the NB School of Design and Education
(Haifa, Israel), the model significantly improves student feedback to faculty. It
informs lecturers how each subtopic has been understood and implemented by
all students in the course. This enables instructors to respond in real time to
student difficulties either by explaining topics over again or by discussing
issues that are surrounded by lack of clarity. Depending upon the prevalence
of the difficulty, a lecturer’s response may involve a specific student or the
whole class. The feedback effect is achieved by:

1) Having each student answer an online questionnaire that has been

prepared by the lecturer querying understanding of all subtopics in a
main theme at the end of every main topic. Using Google Forms (via
Google Drive) or an equivalent tool, the online questionnaire is
compatible with the width of a smartphone screen and the evaluation
can be projected onto a large screen in a regular classroom
immediately after results have been obtained and without the delay of
statistical data processing.
2) The format of a feedback questionnaire is presented in Figure 8.1.

Figure 8.1. The questionnaire format.

72 Yaron Ghilay

3) The result of each subtopic can include a frequency table combined

with a frequency bar chart. Figure 8.2 presents such an example (15
responses to two subtopics in one theme in a course in online course
management).

Figure 8.2. An example of a questionnaire results.

4) The lecturer’s response to every question (relating to one subtopic) is

standard:
a) If all responses have the value of 4 or above (on a 5-point Likert
scale), no intervention is required regarding absorption of the
material in the specific subtopic.
b) If up to one-tenth of all responses (or other threshold determined
by the instructor) have a value of 3 or below, this indicates lack of
understanding of the course material. The lecturer should provide
those students with tutoring.
c) If more than one-tenth (or equivalent value) of responses have a
value of 3 or below, this indicates that a significant percentage of
the class did not understand the course material as delivered. The
lecturer should review that specific subtopic again with the whole
class until fuller understanding is achieved.
 Feedback-Based Learning (FBL) 73

The FBL Model – Research Findings

A study by Ghilay & Ghilay (2015b) examined student perceptions of

FBL in three courses (n = 62) at the NB School of Design and Education:

1) Strategic Management (34 students): a multi-text, four academic hour

per week course.
2) PSPP - statistical software which is equivalent to SPSS (13 students):
A computer course including use of statistical routines combined with
principles of statistics (two academic hours per week).
3) Management of online courses (15 lecturers): A course designed to
teach lecturers how to manage online courses (three academic hours
per week).

The study measured learners’ views of the effectiveness of the FBL

model. Respondents gave their opinions online measured on a five-point
Likert scale to 19 questions concerning feedback. An open-ended question was
also included to elicit other comments in addition to a verbal description of the
benefit (if one existed) of learning through FBL.
Four factors were examined (n = 62). The first refers to improvement in
the learning process as a result of FBL, while the other three offer possible
explanations for this outcome:
Comments:

 All the items composing each factor (questions that appear in the
questionnaire) are presented. High reliability was found for each
factor (as indicated in parentheses).
 The score for each factor is the mean of the items composing it
(presented in Table 8.1).

1) Improvement in the learning process (Alpha = 0.872)

 Feedback causes me to learn better
 Feedback causes me to be better prepared for the final exam
 Feedback enables me to better understand the material that was
taught
 Feedback causes me to have meaningful learning

2) Diagnosis: Identifying learning difficulties (Alpha = 0.879):

74 Yaron Ghilay

 Feedback enables me to inform the lecturer as to topics I did not

understand
 Feedback allows the lecturer to know what difficulties I have
encountered
 Feedback allows the lecturer to know what subjects I am familiar
with
 Feedback enables the lecturer to know my weaknesses and
strengths

3) Sense of belonging and motivation (Alpha = 0.727):

 Feedback gives me a feeling that the lecturer is interested in me

 When the lecturer is interested in my learning, my motivation to
study increases
 It is important that the lecturer be interested in my learning
 Following the feedback, I feel more comfortable in contacting the
lecturer

4) Prognosis: Handling problems (Alpha = 0.933):

 Feedback allows the lecturer to explain unclear issues

 Feedback highlights the difficulties common to most students in
the class
 Feedback allows for treating specific difficulties even if they are
not common to most of the class
 Feedback allows the lecturer to address problematic issues in
learning
 The lecturer can adjust the pace of the lesson to students’ progress
 Feedback allows the lecturer to treat each student appropriately
and individually
 Feedback enabled me to get responses to difficulties I faced

No significant difference appeared in the mean scores obtained in all three

courses (T-test,   0.05 ). This strengthens the findings and gives them more
validity. Table 8.1 presents the mean scores in all three courses grouped
together and the results of the ANOVA test which shows the differences
among the three courses to be negligible (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2015b).
 Feedback-Based Learning (FBL) 75

Table 8.1. Effectiveness of Feedback-Based Learning

No. Factor N Mean S.D ANOVA

1 Improvement of the learning 62 4.54 .62 f (61)  2.720, p  .104
process through use of FBL
2 Diagnosis: Identifying learning 62 4.69 .57 f (61)  .526, p  .471
difficulties
3 Prognosis: Handling problems 59 4.69 .59 f (58)  .714, p  .402
4 Sense of belonging and 62 4.51 .59 f (61)  2.505, p  .119
motivation

The findings show that FBL significantly improves the learning process
(4.54). Also the next three factors received high scores: diagnosis: identifying
learning difficulties (4.69), prognosis: handling problems (4.69) and sense of
belonging and motivation (4.51).
Respondents were asked to add verbal comments on the effectiveness of
FBL. The following quotes from students and lecturers confirm the positive
influence of FBL on the learning process:
Students:

“It is very helpful to have feedback to inform the lecturer in real time
what we understand and what is unclear. In such a way, the instructor can
go over difficult issues. FBL improves the whole learning process.”
“In my view, feedback has many advantages because relevant data is
given to the lecturer concerning the extent of students’ understanding.
FBL can be especially appropriate for students who need targeting and
close monitoring to improve their learning.”

Lecturers:

“FBL is extremely useful and significant for learning in large groups

because, in such classes it is tough for the lecturer to know the exact
situation of every student. Nevertheless, it should be helpful in a class of
any size.”
“I think that FBL is the right method pedagogically and it is
appropriate for learning improvement in higher education.”
“In my opinion, FBL is helpful in realizing how students feel
concerning their learning process. I will definitely try it in my class. The
method gave us an excellent opportunity to directly inform the instructor
about our difficulties and it was tremendously helpful. It gave me a
76 Yaron Ghilay

feeling that the lecturer is attentive to our challenges and it made me

comfortable to contact him and ask questions, even though no
questionnaire was given in every lesson. I am convinced that FBL has a
positive influence, both direct and indirect, on student learning.”

SUMMARY – FEEDBACK-BASED LEARNING

Instructors may know of gaps in student knowledge mainly after checking
the final exams or assignments at the end of the semester. By that point it is
usually too late to intervene and make a real change. Therefore, institutions of
higher education should encourage, welcome, and take account of student
feedback which could detect problems in the teaching and learning
environment early on and lead to faster, more effective improvements
(McAleese et al., 2013).
FBL meets this challenge by enabling faculty to consistently monitor
student progress and intervene when required. Such intervention might consist
of: Slowing down the pace of presentation of new material, explaining
misunderstood topics once again or in a different way, emphasizing difficult
issues, etc. Underlying the model is the availability of real-time continuous
diagnosis and prognosis carried out during the learning process. Lecturers can
focus precisely on student difficulties and provide a feeling that the faculty is
interested in student progress.
The model is particularly suitable for hierarchically structured courses in
which understanding of each topic depends upon knowledge of a prior topic.
When students accumulate gaps in knowledge, understanding subsequent
themes becomes more challenging.
Chapter 9

ONLINE LEARNING – ADDITIONAL TOOLS

Technology offers a huge range of tools for online learning needs. Here
we focus on the main well-known utilities that offer high-quality reliable
solutions for specific educational needs or use in learning models. The tools
are intended to promote:

1) File sharing: Google Drive

2) Video sharing: YouTube
3) Development of a personal website: Google Sites
4) Remote control: TeamViewer-Remote Control
5) Synchronous online learning: Blackboard Collaborate and
TeamViewer-Meeting
6) File backup: FreeFileSync

FILE SHARING: GOOGLE DRIVE

Google Drive (https://drive.google.com/drive/my-drive) is a tool not only
for file sharing but also has excellent additional services.

QR - 9.1
78 Yaron Ghilay

With regard to online learning, three important tools that are part of
Google Drive are:

 File storage and sharing

 Google Docs
 Google Forms

Google’s sharing alternatives are similar to most of the company's tools:

 Only the account holder is authorized

 Specific users are allowed privileges of viewing or updating
 Anyone with the appropriate link can view or update

Entrance to every single service is through the same username and

password, so one entry enables many activities in a variety of applications.
Each account comes with 15 free GB, which can be increased for a fee.

File Storage

Google Drive allows the uploading personal files on any computer, but
installing the Google Drive application on the PC and linking it to an account
automatically syncs between the PC and the server. Moreover, if there are
several computers belonging to the same user, the application can be installed
on each and then all computers will be connected to the same account,
permitting automatic synchronization of the drive folder (and subfolders) on
all computers. Different sharing settings for specific files or even folders
(including subdirectories) are possible. For example, a collection of files can
be uploaded to Google Drive (instead of Moodle), and a link posted on the
course’s Moodle website or other sites. This makes just one database
necessary which can be shared with students in different courses or even at
various institutions without the necessity of duplicating files.

Google Docs

This application allows the creation of collaborative online documents so

multiple users can simultaneously update them, subject to the permission of
 Online Learning – Additional Tools 79

the document creator. Authorization may be for an individual, all Internet

users, or only link holders. With Google Docs interesting educational activities
such as exercises in which a group of students jointly write an academic paper
can be created. The writing can be synchronous with all participants working
at the same time or asynchronous – participants are active whenever they wish.
In any case, every change can be seen immediately by all group members. A
similar possibility also exists for spreadsheets (Google Sheets) and
presentations (Google Slides).

Google Forms

Google Forms easily allows the creation of online questionnaires. Such

questionnaires can be helpful for doing research (instead of using paper forms)
and for creation of quick and efficient feedback surveys. The prevalence of
mobile devices (smartphones, tablets) has made the collection of student
answers easy, eliminating the need for a computer room. The account holder
receives feedback in real-time in spreadsheet format allowing for immediate
transfer (without typing) to statistical processing software. The application
itself automatically generates frequency diagrams and tables. Therefore, basic
data can be viewed while questionnaires are being filled out which can
facilitate class discussions relating to the results while projecting them on the
class screen as in the FBL (Feedback-Based Learning) model (detailed in
Chapter 8).
Questionnaires can be updated, duplicated or shared with others. It is very
easy to prepare a pilot, modify the questionnaire and immediately transfer it to
another group. Each form has a screen in which it is created and updated and a
different link for receiving answers. There is a variety of question types (short
answer, paragraph, multiple-choice, checkboxes, dropdown, multiple choice
grid, etc.). It is easy to add photos, video clips, titles and page breaks. Each
item can be duplicated or modified including its location on the questionnaire.
The order of questions is not necessarily fixed. A question may appear that is
the result of a specific answer given to a prior question. Someone who
answered the prior question differently may get an entirely different follow-up
question.
80 Yaron Ghilay

VIDEO SHARING: YOUTUBE

YouTube from Google (https://www.youtube.com) is one of the most
common video sharing tools although other similar applications exist as well.

QR - 9.2

YouTube allows users to search, view, upload, share and even download
video clips. HD videos can be uploaded without a limit on the length of the
video. After producing a video clip (detailed in Chapter 5), it can be uploaded
to a YouTube account and shared on the course site by:

1) Linking: Clicking on the link takes the user to the specific clip on
YouTube. A regular link to the video can be created by copying the
video’s URL links to various points on the video’s runtime line. This
makes it possible to create a “table of contents” for a long film by
setting up links that bring viewers to different sub-topics. Another
type of link can present the video in full-screen without any reference
to parts of the clip or to other clips.
2) Embedding: Video can be embedded into the course site (or any other
site) and can be activated on the website.

In both alternatives the videos are not on the course website and there is
no need to download them (although that is possible). They are linked to
YouTube directly and operated via video streaming. The advantages of this
method are:

1) There is no overload on the academic institute’s LMS server (videos

are high volume).
2) Users can watch videos instantly without having to wait for a
download.
 Online Learning – Additional Tools 81

Many options for downloading YouTube videos exist; one of which is

YouTube Downloader (free download: http://goo.gl/yWa5Ov).

QR – 9.3

Reasons for downloading a video file might be:

 To view the clip on a PC/video player that is not connected to the

Internet (usually, a high-speed connection is required).
 To ensure viewing of the clip even if it has been deleted or hidden by
the owner.
 To edit the clip (cropping, merging, adding audio/subtitles) before
publication to learners.

In a YouTube account, the user can create playlists which can be

published via a single link. Such playlists allow automatic play of all clips one
after another in an order set by the account holder (lecturer). Specific videos
from the group may be selected according to user preferences. Each account
holder can create playlists that include any YouTube video, not just his/her
own clips. A playlist covering a complete course or part of it can be created
and published on the course site using a single link pointing to an entire group
of videos. The account holder is entitled to add or remove clips from the list
and also change their order. In this way, a link to a playlist whose address is
fixed can be posted, but its contents can be changed at any time.

DEVELOPMENT OF A PERSONAL WEBSITE: GOOGLE SITES

Google Sites system (https://sites.google.com( enables the account holder
to develop a personal website relatively easily and to store it on Google
servers. The tool allows creation of a horizontal or vertical menu bar, the
uploading of files, links, images, embedded video clips, scrolling messages,
82 Yaron Ghilay

site design, etc. The above tasks are usually controlled by a menu system, but
various features can be determined using code language. Each site has a
relatively small volume of 100 MB only. However, this does not pose a real
problem because an unlimited number of websites can be created and linked so
high-volume files from other databases (such as Google Drive) can be
accommodated. As for video clips, it is recommended to create links to
YouTube which has no volume limit.

QR - 9.4

REMOTE SUPPORT: TEAMVIEWER-REMOTE CONTROL

Sometimes an instructor or technician needs to connect to a student’s
computer remotely in order to help learners with operational difficulties,
failures, and installation of software or academic counseling. Several tools are
available to create a situation in which instructor and student work
simultaneously on the same computer even though they are in different
locations. During the session, it is possible to talk on the phone or to use
software. This technology allows for solving many problems without going to
the learner’s location. It becomes an especially significant factor in distance
learning courses based on the OTLA model (detailed in Chapter 10). The
lecturer can guide the student through the texts, using different software
tools, etc.
One of the best tools for this type of remote control is TeamViewer-
Remote Control. Connecting to a remote computer requires the consent of the
student who is asked to pass an identification number and password to the
instructor. Both sides can stop the connection at any time. The software also
allows additional operations such as voice/video or file transfer (unlimited
capacity), the switching of roles between lecturer and student, control of the
local computer by several remote computers simultaneously, control of
multiple computers by one remote computer, video recording of a lesson, etc.
 Online Learning – Additional Tools 83

The software has several versions and is distributed free for personal non-
commercial use.
Major releases of this software:

1) A complete set: Designed to perform all functions

http://download.teamviewer.com/download/TeamViewer_Setup_
he.exe

QR - 9.5

2) Quick support:
http://download.teamviewer.com/download/TeamViewerQS_he.exe
A single file given to the learner through a link via the course site for
downloading and operating without installation.

QR - 9.6

Lecturers should use the full version while the simpler version is sufficient
for students.

SYNCHRONOUS ONLINE LEARNING: BLACKBOARD

COLLABORATE AND TEAMVIWER-MEETING
Blackboard Collaborate System (formerly, Elluminate) allows the lecturer
to manage synchronous online lessons (this requires installation on a server
84 Yaron Ghilay

and incurs a cost). Lessons are scheduled for a specific date and time and all
participants can see who is in the session. The lecturer either gives a
presentation prepared in advance or shows everything that is on his/her screen
with relevant oral explanations. The instructor can also present a live video of
him/herself. Learners can “raise a hand” to ask a question and the instructor
can reply. Learners can signify applause, satisfaction, dissatisfaction, etc. They
are also allowed to communicate with the instructor and among themselves via
text messages. If necessary, a participant may get permission to speak as a
lecturer enabling seminars in which there are several lecturers in remote
places.
Before the beginning of a synchronous meeting, it is important that the
instructor and the learners test their equipment, the software, and microphone.
A synchronous lesson can also be recorded so it can be watched
asynchronously (of course, without active participation).
TeamViewer-Meeting is a similar single file application which the learner
can download at:
http://download.teamviewer.com/download/TeamViewerQJ_he.exe.

QR - 9.7

The complete set for the lecturer, TeamViewer-Remote Control is

available at:
http://download.teamviewer.com/download/TeamViewer_Setup_he.exe.
The advantage of this tool over Blackboard Collaborate is that it can
function both as remote control and a meeting. It does not require installation
on a server and is free for private non-commercial use.

FILE BACKUP: FREEFILESYNC

An essential need of all computer users in general and online learning
managers in particular is file management and backup. A hard drive has no
 Online Learning – Additional Tools 85

absolute reliability and its lifespan is limited. Performing daily backups of

everything created and/or updated is one method of damage control.
A straightforward and cheap backup technique is saving files with a new
name each day by attaching the date to the title. With this method, an archive
is created and saved. The cost of saving many files for a given task (instead of
one file only) is relatively minimal.
There are two main ways a daily backup can be performed:

 Backup to an external device (such as a portable drive)

 Backup to the server (“cloud”)

External backup device

The advantage of a portable hard drive is that the current price of a two-
terabyte disk that does not require an electrical outlet is relatively low. It has
large volume and high reliability. Degradation of the portable disk is largely
eliminated due to the fact that it is rarely used, only during the backup
operation. For this reason, the chance of it being exposed to net attacks is also
minimized. The most basic requirement is a daily backup of files that have
been changed/added (backing up the entire content of the computer is
unnecessary). There are tools which automatically do this. One of the
recommended free tools is FreeFileSync which can be found at:
http://www.freefilesync.org.

QR - 9.8

The software quickly and reliably compares the two drives and copies
only new files or those that have changed. Various parameters can be set such
as the method of comparison (time, file size, file content), the method of
synchronization (two-way, mirror, upgrade) and the folders that should be
synced. A tutorial is found at: http://goo.gl/TDKQ1t.
86 Yaron Ghilay

QR - 9.9

Backup to Server

Backing up files to an external server creates “a second protective line” in

addition to the local backup. There are many “cloud” services, some of which
are free although the volume is not always sufficient. Common cloud services
are Google Drive and Dropbox (https://www.dropbox.com), both of which can
perform an automatic sync and Microsoft OneDrive (https://
onedrive.live.com).

QR - 9.10

QR - 9.11

For a small charge, it is possible to get higher storage capacity, enabling

back-up of all personal files. The advantage of server backup is that servers are
protected and secure in the event of theft or physical damage to local devices.
This prevents irretrievable loss of information. Moreover, saving files in the
cloud enables the account holder to access them anywhere via any device,
including smartphones and tablets.
Chapter 10

ONLINE LEARNING: A FULL SUBSTITUTE

FOR FACE-TO-FACE LEARNING

Online learning has roots in the tradition of distance education going back
at least 100 years to the early correspondence courses. With the advent of the
Internet and the World Wide Web, the potential to reach learners around the
world has increased exponentially. Today’s online learning offers rich
educational resources in multiple media and has the capability to support both
real-time and asynchronous communication between instructors and learners
as well as among students themselves. Institutions of higher education and
corporate training have been quick to adopt online learning (Means et al.,
2010).
Online learning has become popular because of its potential to provide
flexible access to content and instruction at any time and from any place with a
focus on:

1) Increasing the availability of learning experiences for learners who

cannot or choose not to attend traditional face-to-face offerings.
2) Assembling and disseminating instructional content more cost-
efficiently.
3) Enabling instructors to handle more students while maintaining
learning quality that is equivalent to that of face-to-face instruction.

Different technology applications are used to support synchronous and

asynchronous models of online learning. While earlier online programs tended
to implement one model or the other, more recent applications tend to combine
88 Yaron Ghilay

both synchronous and asynchronous online interaction as well as occasional

face-to-face interaction (Means et al., 2010).
Also, online learning is designed to promote learning quality. A common
thesis is that asynchronous discourse is inherently self-reflective and,
therefore, more conducive to deep learning than is a synchronous one (Harlen
and Doubler, 2004; Hiltz and Goldman, 2005; Jaffe, Moir, Swanson, &
Wheeler, 2006).

ONLINE LEARNING – MAIN COMPONENTS

Three key elements of online learning are (Means et al., 2010):

1) Objective: Whether the activity serves as a replacement for or an

enhancement to conventional face-to-face instruction.
2) Learning experience: The type of pedagogical approach.
3) Communication type: Synchronous or asynchronous.

Objective

An essential characteristic in classifying online activities is whether the

activity serves as a replacement for face-to-face instruction or as an
enhancement to it. A replacement application is considered a success if it
provides learning without sacrificing student achievement. If student outcomes
are the same whether a course is taken online or face-to-face, then online
instruction which is inherently more cost-effective is preferred. Online
enhancements that produce learning outcomes that are equivalent to (but not
better than) face-to-face instruction are a waste of time and money
(Means et al., 2010).

Learning Experience

The type of learning experience depends upon who (or what) determines
the way learners acquire knowledge and can be classified according to the
amount of control students have over the content and nature of the learning
activity. In traditional didactic or expository learning, they have none. Content
is transmitted in a lecture, written material, or other mechanisms. Such
 Online Learning – A Full Substitute for Face to Face Learning 89

conventional instruction is often contrasted with independent learning in

which students can control what and how they learn. In this type of learning,
students choose their own curriculum and ways of learning. Another category
of learning experience stresses collaborative or interactive learning activity in
which learning content emerges as learners interact with one another and with
a teacher or other knowledge source.
Technology can support three types of learning experiences:

1) Expository instruction: Digital devices transmit knowledge.

2) Independent learning: Learners build knowledge through inquiry-
based manipulation of digital artifacts such as online drills,
simulations, games, or micro-worlds (an environment wherein
students are given room to explore, and determine goals and learning
activities).
3) Interactive learning: Students build knowledge through inquiry-based
collaborative interaction with other students. Teachers become co-
learners and act as facilitators.
(Means et al., 2010)

In expository instruction, technology delivers content. In independent

learning, technology allows students to control digital artifacts to explore
information or address problems. In interactive learning, learning emerges
through synchronous or asynchronous interactions with other students and the
technology (Dede, 2006).

Communication Type

A third characteristic commonly used to categorize online learning

activities is whether they are synchronous or asynchronous.
Research findings show that asynchronous learning has advantages over
synchronous learning. Bernard et al. (2004) aver that in terms of achievement,
student attitude, and outcomes, asynchronous environments have more
positive effects than synchronous ones. Studies of distance learning
applications show that combined synchronous and asynchronous
communication has more positive effects than distance learning with just one
of these interaction types (Zhao, Lei, Yan, Lai, & Tan, 2005). Zhao et al.
(2005) find advantages in blended learning (“Face-to-Face Enhancement”)
over purely online learning. They also find advantages in courses with
90 Yaron Ghilay

instructor involvement as compared to technology-based courses without

significant lecturer participation.

OTLA: ONLINE TEACHING LEARNING AND ASSESSMENT

- A MODEL FOR FULL ONLINE DISTANCE LEARNING
The OTLA Model (Online Teaching, Learning, and Assessment) is a
means of “expository academic instruction” (detailed on page 89) via full
online asynchronous distance learning. It is based upon LMS (Learning
Management System) such as Moodle combined with other technological
tools.
Examined in institutes of higher education, the model was found to be
useful for multi-text courses. However, with minor changes, it can be applied
to other types of courses as well (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2013).
For each course, there is an LMS website which is divided into main
topics and is open to registered students only. OTLA includes the following
six digital components:

1) Text: All relevant documents are included on the course website

(created in LMS such as Moodle), so students do not have to collect
any bibliographical material. All texts are in pdf format (including
relevant links), enabling them to be read on screen, printed out,
searched or saved. No software besides the free Adobe Reader is
required. Texts are divided into main topics.
2) Hypertext: The pdf documents include relevant links that add
explanations to challenging notions or supplement the material with
additional examples. Documents may include links to other texts or
recorded lectures.
3) Text-reading: Each topic in a multi-text course is accompanied by
audio files enabling students to listen to the text. This is especially
crucial for students whose native language is not the same as the one
in which the course is given. Students can activate the audio links
from the relevant page (each page separately) or from a primary link
that spans the whole topic. It is possible to listen to text reading online
or to download files to be listened to later on any supportive device.
 Online Learning – A Full Substitute for Face to Face Learning 91

4) Lectures (audio/video): Each topic is accompanied by a lecture

recorded in “lab conditions,” i.e., not a live lesson. This is more
effective because there is no time-wasting or audience disturbance.
Recordings can be:

 Audio only (detailed in Chapter 4): Appropriate for multi-text

courses in which students do not have to “watch things” while
listening. Audio files can be uploaded to the course website.
 Video (detailed in Chapter 5): Suitable for courses in which it is
essential to “see things” during the lecture: formulas,
mathematical expressions, diagrams, pictures, computer screens,
etc. Video files are uploaded in HD resolution to a video-sharing
site such as YouTube and linked to the course website. A
combination of audio and video lectures is also possible.

A recorded lecture is an asynchronous replacement for a live

lecture given in a classroom. In audio recordings, each lecture topic is
separately recorded for every accompanying text page. The separate
files are combined to create one complete file covering the whole
topic. Students can either activate a link from every single text page in
the lecture or from the main link which actuates an entire lecture on a
single main topic. For video recordings, it is worthwhile to divide a
lecture into small portions so as to allow subtopics to receive their due
emphasis (detailed in Chapter 5).
5) Exercises (described in detail in Chapter 6): Both optional and
compulsory exercises are enabled in the OTLA model. Optional
exercises give students practice in the skills entailed in a certain topic.
While optional exercises are not included in the final score,
compulsory exercises are summative assessments that receive a
certain weight in the final grade (for example, 20% for all exercises
together). Compulsory exercises can have a time limit for submission
ensuring that all learning activities are completed by the end of the
semester. Students are not able to submit overdue exercises unless the
lecturer confirms a delay. LMS such as Moodle enables lecturers to
alter deadlines (and other parameters), both at the group and the
individual level.
Exercises may have permitted time durations. There should be
different questions in optional practice than in compulsory practice on
the same topic. It is possible even desirable to enable students to
92 Yaron Ghilay

submit an activity (voluntary or mandatory) more than once in order

to improve learning. In such a case, subsequent submissions should
contain new questions.
6) Final computerized exam: The final exam can be given in class or at
home and is similar to the compulsory exercises containing questions
not given before.

In addition to the technological components, the OTLA model includes

lecturer involvement in the whole learning process. The lecturer has intensive
daily participation in what students do and how they advance. That connection
depends on:

a) Continuous monitoring of student progress: Done by checking student

entries on the course website and by examining their exercises. This is
essential to ensure that all students advance according to schedule.
b) Giving assistance to students in real-time: Student queries are divided
into:
 Academic issues: Questions and answers can be sent and
answered by: Email, phone, text messages or remote control.
Responses to students should be sent as quickly as possible so as
not to delay their learning process.
 Technical issues: Proper technical proficiency is required of every
student and should be condition for registration in an online
distance course. Technical problem may affect student
advancement and should be handled rapidly and efficiently via
remote control (such as with TeamViewer-Remote Control).

To prepare, run or update a course based on the OTLA model, lecturers

need to be familiar with online learning technologies: LMS (Moodle or
equivalent), pdf applications, hypertext, audio recording, video capture, CAA
(Computer Assisted Assessment) and techniques for remote control of
computers (detailed in Chapter 9).

OTLA Model – Research Findings

Research undertaken at the Neri Bloomfield School of Design and

Education, Haifa, Israel (College A, n = 50) and at Jerusalem College (College
B, n = 46) has examined the effectiveness of the OTLA model by checking
 Online Learning – A Full Substitute for Face to Face Learning 93

students attitudes toward the model during 2011-12, 2012-13 (Ghilay &
Ghilay, 2013). The research was carried out in three courses:

College A: Entrepreneurship (B.A - fourth year)

Management of technology (B.A - third year)
College B: Theories in educational management and leadership (M.A in
Management of Educational Systems)

The Model Effectiveness – Colleges A and B

Participants were asked to answer an online questionnaire on a five-point
Likert scale that included 32 items. The questionnaire also included two open-
ended questions focusing on the advantages/disadvantages of the model over
face-to-face instruction.
The following eight factors, divided into three main groups were
examined:
Comments:

 For each factor, all the items composing it are presented (questions
that appeared in the questionnaire). High reliability was found
(Cronbach's alpha) as indicated in parentheses.
 Factor scores were the means of the items composing them.

1) Inputs:
 Hypertext: Hypertext is helpful for learning.
 Lectures/texts (Alpha = 0.818):
 Listening to the lecture recordings helps in learning
 I listened to the professor's recordings
 Lecturer's assistance (Alpha = 0.569):
 Getting assistance from the lecturer is possible
 I got help from the lecturer during the course
 Exercises (Alpha = 0.682):
 Optional exercises are helpful
 Mandatory exercises are useful
 The required activities reflected my knowledge
2) Learning process:
 Learning Effectiveness (Alpha = 0.932):
 I could understand the material well
 The texts in the course website are clear and understandable
94 Yaron Ghilay

I had a successful learning experience

Due to the course design I was able to progress throughout
the whole semester
 Online learning is efficient
 I prefer an online course
 Towards the end of the semester, I felt ready for the exam
 I had no difficulties with online learning
 Online learning is more efficient than face-to-face learning
 The learning process in an online course is effective
 I expect to obtain a high grade in the course
 I am not afraid of failing the course
 Learning flexibility and convenience (Alpha = 0.926):
 Studying in an online course is convenient
 An online course has great flexibility
 The option to study when I wish is helpful
 The opportunity to submit exercises when I wish is useful
 Online learning saves time
 I enjoy online courses
 There is flexibility regarding exercise submission dates
 Studying in an online course is easy
 I can ask the lecturer questions anytime and get answers
3) Time:
 Time pressure (Alpha = 0.899:
 There is time pressure in the course
 Time pressure in the course disturbs me
 Time investment: I invest much time in an online course

There was no significant difference in the mean scores of all factors in

College A between the years 2011-2012 and 2012-2013 (T-test,   0.05 ).
This replication strengthens the validity of the findings. In light of this, mean
factor scores for both years are presented together in Table 10.1 (Ghilay &
Ghilay, 2013).
 Online Learning – A Full Substitute for Face to Face Learning 95

Table 10.1. College A – effectiveness of the OTLA model

Groups Factor Mean N S.D

Inputs Exercises 4.36 50 .63
Hypertext 4.29 48 .77
Lecturer assistance 4.26 50 .81
Lectures/texts 3.97 50 1.03
Learning process Flexibility and convenience of learning 4.26 50 .66
Effectiveness of the learning process 3.89 50 .69
Time characteristics Time investment 3.88 50 .92
Time pressure 3.20 50 1.25

According to the findings, learners perceive the OTLA model to be

effective for all three categories:

1) Inputs: Students rate all OTLA inputs with high scores. The
contribution of the exercises (4.36 out of 5), hypertext (4.29), lecturer
assistance (4.26) and lectures/text reading (3.97) is substantial.
2) The learning process: Flexibility and convenience of learning is rated
as very effective (4.26). The learning process is considered to be
effective as well (3.89).
3) Time characteristics: Time pressure is moderate (3.2) and students
invest much time in learning (3.88) which should be considered
positively.

Respondents were asked to add verbal comments regarding the

effectiveness of the model. The following examples indicate that the OTLA
model has significant positive influence on students’ learning process (College
A, 2012-2013):

“I prefer the OTLA model because it enables me to study other

courses and work full time” (a student who participated in both courses -
Entrepreneurship and Technology Management).
“There is a huge advantage to OTLA owing to the way contents are
displayed, the many examples and the great availability of the lecturer.”
(Entrepreneurship)
“I prefer the OTLA model because it saves time, it is easier, and
when I need any help, the lecturer supports me immediately.”
(Entrepreneurship)
96 Yaron Ghilay

“In such a course, I prefer online learning since it mainly includes

texts. Although we do not meet the lecturer, he is available for answering
questions, so there is no problem.” (Technology Management)
“In such courses, I prefer online learning because it includes
theoretical material which I have to read over and understand.
Furthermore, the wonderful recordings that our lovely lecturer prepared
help us a lot.” (Entrepreneurship and Technology Management)

In College B (Table 10.2), the findings were similar to those presented in

Table 10.1:

Table 10.2. College B – Effectiveness of the OTLA model

Groups Factor Mean N S.D

Inputs Exercises 3.90 46 .63
Hypertext 3.62 45 .77
Lecturer assistance 4.15 46 .81
Lectures/text reading 3.50 46 1.03
Learning process Flexibility and convenience of learning 4.31 46 .66
Learning process effectiveness 4.08 46 .69
Time characteristics Time investment 3.72 46 .92
Time pressure 2.75 46 1.25

There were no significant differences between the two colleges with

regard to all factors except:

Exercises: College A – 4.36,

College B – 3.90 (𝑡(77) = 2.75, 𝑃 = 0.007)
Hypertext: College A – 4.29,
College B – 3.62 (𝑡(72) = 3.088, 𝑃 = 0.003).

The following examples of verbal responses from College B strengthen

the previous findings and give them more validity (M.A in Management of
Educational Systems, 2012-2013):

“OTLA is much more efficient and practical than traditional

learning. It is easier to study and assimilate the material. The flexibility
helps a lot in the learning process. The course was fascinating and clear
and the texts were readable and pleasant. The audio recordings were
 Online Learning – A Full Substitute for Face to Face Learning 97

interesting and helpful for understanding and, of course, the lecturer's

support was outstanding.”
“I love the model of online distant learning very much. Over the last
years, I have taken some online courses and this is the first one in which I
enjoyed the professionalism, the high level of study and the account taken
of different learning styles (visual and auditory). It is the first online
course in which I felt that learning was more meaningful than classroom
learning. The course was clear, professional, and accessible (texts,
recorded lectures, video clips, links and kindness and availability of the
lecturer). All these undoubtedly contributed to the quality and efficiency
of the learning.”

OTLA Model – Additional Studies

In 2016 two studies were undertaken at College A to validate the above

research (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2013):

1) Comparison of learning achievements in traditional learning and

distance learning:

Student achievement in the “Entrepreneurship” course over the

last 13 years (2002-2003 until 2015-2016, for 2004-2005 the course
was not taught) were examined. The course was given for seven
years: 2002-2003 until 2009-2010 in the face-to-face learning format
and six years, 2010-2011 to 2015-2016 in the online distance learning
format based on the OTLA model. In every one of these 13 years, the
course was conducted by the same lecturer and included similar
content and requirements.

2) Comparison of the effectiveness of multi-text courses provided in the

classroom to similar courses provided via distance learning:

A follow-up study examined whether active learning in class in

multi-text courses (based on TBAL model, detailed in Chapter 7) is
superior to distance learning (based on the OTLA model). If no
superiority exists, then administratively (from the organization’s and
the individual student’s perspective) there is an advantage to distance
98 Yaron Ghilay

learning due to savings in classrooms, equipment, electricity, travel,

the ability to teach many students with fewer lecturers, etc.

Face-To-Face Courses and Distance Learning – a Comparison of

Student Achievement
In order to compare the achievement obtained in the two forms of
learning, the mean grade over the years of traditional classroom learning and
distance learning was calculated (except 2004-5 in which the course was not
given). A T-test (   0.05 ) examined whether the difference in the mean
grades was statistically significant.
Table 10.3 compares the mean grades during the period 2002-2010
(classroom learning) and 2010-2016 (online distance learning based on the
OTLA model).

Table 10.3. College A – A comparison of achievement in face-to-face

learning and online distance learning (OTLA)

Course Year Mean N S.D T-test

Face-to-face 2002-2010 81.25 106 11.86 t(237)  1.639, p  .103
(7 cohorts)
Distance learning- 2010-2016 83.74 133 11.45
OTLA (6 cohorts)
Overall 82.64 239 11.99

The t-test shows that as there was no significant difference in student

achievement in both learning formats, namely, course achievement is stable
over an extended period, regardless of the form of learning. Assuming a
similar level of student ability in both groups (the threshold for admission was
not changed), the conclusion is that distance learning does not adversely affect
learning achievement.

Face-to-Face Courses and Distance Learning – A Comparison of

Student Attitudes
Students who studied multi-text courses in both formats (College A,
n = 40) were requested to compare the quality of learning as well as to give
reasons for their conclusions with respect to: Concentration, the contribution
of the lectures, learning experience, and the suitability of the course website.
 Online Learning – A Full Substitute for Face to Face Learning 99

The study addressed the three courses:

 Entrepreneurship (Department of Management - fourth year) and

Fundamentals of Technology Management (Department of
Management - second year). The courses were given in the distance
learning format according to the OTLA model.
 Strategic Management (Department of Management - third year). It
was given in face-to-face learning format based on the TBAL model
(detailed in Chapter 7).

Students who participated in the study attended one of the two distance
learning courses as well as the face-to-face course given during 2014-15 and
2015-16. They were asked to answer an online questionnaire giving their
impressions of both modes of learning upon completion of the courses. The
questionnaire which included 28 items evaluated on a five-point Likert scale
and an open-ended question that focused on the preferred way of learning with
an explanation of students’ reasoning was administered twice, once for OTLA
and once for TBAL.
The following five factors were examined:
Comments:

 For each factor, all the items composing it are presented (questions
that appeared in the questionnaire). High reliability (Cronbach's
alpha) was found for each factor (consisting of two items or more)
indicated in parentheses, for Part A – online distance learning (the
value on the left side) and Part B – active learning in a classroom (the
value on the right side).
 Factors’ scores were calculated based on the means of the items
composing them.

Outcome:

 Learning quality (Alpha = 0.881, 0.948):

 I understand the course topics well
 The learned material is clear
 I made progress during the semester
 I feel ready for the exam at the end of the semester
 I expect a high mark
100 Yaron Ghilay

 I am not afraid of failure

 My learning process was meaningful
 The topics were given in the right sequence
 I felt that the material was not too difficult

Possible reasons:

 Concentration in learning (Alpha = 0.868, 0.941):

 It was easy to concentrate
 I succeed in listening to the lectures well
 I succeed in deepening my understanding of the material
 I concentrated during the whole lecture
 Effectiveness of the lectures (Alpha = 0.923, 0.918):
 The lectures explained the course material
 Lectures were useful in my learning process
 Lectures have added value beyond reading texts
 Lectures are helpful for understanding the topics covered in the
course
 Learning experience (Alpha = 0.904, 0.952):
 The exercises helped me to learn
 Studying is convenient
 The course is enjoyable
 The learning experience is adequate
 The course is flexible
 Learning is efficient
 Learning is effective
 An evaluation of the course website (Alpha = 0.971, 0.977):
 The site includes everything needed for the course
 The site enhances the learning process
 The site includes all the necessary tools
 The site facilitates the learning process

Table 10.4 presents the mean scores mentioned above for distance
learning (OTLA) and classroom learning (TBAL).
 Online Learning – A Full Substitute for Face to Face Learning 101

Table 10.4. College A – Comparison of online distance learning (OTLA)

and classroom learning (TBAL)

Factors Mean N S.D. Significance of difference between

distance learning (OTLA) and
classroom learning (TBAL)
Learning quality Distance 4.18 40 .46 𝑡(39) = −.990, 𝑃 = .328
Classroom 4.27 40 .65
Concentration Distance 3.97 38 .66 𝑡(37) = −1.428, 𝑃 = .162
Classroom 4.19 38 .76
Effectiveness of Distance 4.50 38 .47 𝑡(37) = −.328, 𝑃 = .745
Lectures Classroom 4.53 38 .54
Learning Distance 4.29 40 .60 𝑡(39) = .209, 𝑃 = .835
experience Classroom 4.27 40 .72
The course Distance 4.57 38 .82 𝑡(37) = .417, 𝑃 = .679
website Classroom 4.54 38 .75

The study reveals that all factors received high scores and there was no
significant difference between distance learning and classroom learning
(Paired Samples T-test), as shown in Table 10.4. This means that since quality
of learning received high scores in both formats (4.18, 4.27 respectively), both
learning methods are considered to be effective. This may be explained by
students' high concentration (3.97, 4.19), effectiveness of the lectures (4.50,
4.53), quality of the learning experience (4.29, 4.27) and the effectiveness of
the course website (4.57, 4.54).
Respondents were asked to add verbal comments concerning their
preferred way of learning. Below are some samples:

“For me, there is no significant difference between a distance

learning course and face-to-face learning.”
“In a distance learning course, I logged on more to the course
website, I learned by myself and enjoyed learning at times when it was
convenient for me. In class, it is harder to concentrate. I was able to read
the texts and listen to recorded lectures in distance learning, so I
understood the material better.”
“In my opinion, it is better that multi-text courses be in distance
learning format because the site includes all the material and the
possibility to listen to lectures while reading the material. Graded
exercises also helped me learn - we can just do everything at home. The
lecturer usually replies to any question via email or phone and this gives
us the feeling that he is with us.”
102 Yaron Ghilay

“I felt that distance learning is dependent upon the lecturer. There are
instructors whom I cannot understand without repeating the material.
There are others with whom it is pleasant to learn. However, I felt that
distance learning is easier for me than learning in the classroom.”
“I think that in the 21st century, distance learning substantially
connects to millennials. Technological systems and rapid access via
mobile phone or landline enable students to learn quickly and thoroughly.
It is different and unique, and I find this method superior to the
classroom. Furthermore, the lecturer is courteous, professional, listens
and helps remotely at any time. I had a lot of fun.”
“I prefer learning in the classroom, although I certainly love the
distance learning courses. The significant advantage of distance learning
is that we can hear the text and then listen to the lectures. The lectures are
recorded in the best way and sometimes I feel like I am in the classroom.
The lecturer highlights the important points in the recording and explains
everything very well. I enjoyed learning in the distance learning courses.”

The students’ verbal comments substantiate the claim of the quantitative

part of the research that there is no essential difference between the two
learning formats. Nevertheless, it looks like many students prefer distance
learning and not only due to its administrative advantages, but also to
considerations of quality, ease, and efficiency of learning, the ability to
concentrate and the possibility of obtaining a lecturer response in real time
without restrictions.

SUMMARY: THE OTLA MODEL FOR ONLINE

DISTANCE LEARNING
As Mayer (2009) claims, one of the main challenges of ICT is to adopt
technology to learning. The OTLA model is a comprehensive asynchronous
alternative to learning in the classroom with a solid technological foundation
in teaching, learning and assessment. The model has been examined and tested
in three studies in institutions of higher education and findings show that it is
an excellent way to manage distance academic courses.
The striking finding of these studies is that the OTLA model allows
students to get what they want the most - flexibility combined with effective
and efficient learning. Although the model does have technological
components, it does not succeed without personalized daily lecturer
 Online Learning – A Full Substitute for Face to Face Learning 103

involvement as an alternative to face-to-face meetings. If students feel lonely

or helpless while sitting in front of a computer screen, it is crucial that
lecturers provide students with the feeling that they have someone to turn to.
The lecturer must be patient and attentive to student needs, maintaining daily
contact and taking care to provide fast and effective response to all student
requests.
Chapter 11

COMPREHENSIVE TECHNOLOGY-BASED
LEARNING (CTBL)

Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning (CTBL) improves learning in

hierarchic knowledge-based quantitative courses such as computer technology
and mathematics where mastery of current topics depends upon mastery of
previous ones. When gaps in students’ knowledge occur, they are difficult to
overcome, making progress arduous. As gaps widen, learning becomes more
and more onerous often culminating in loss of the learner’s connection with
the course.
This model offers a comprehensive package featuring wide coverage of all
course material. It is designed to provide solutions in real-time to deal with the
occurrence of knowledge gaps. The model’s educational outlook fosters the
learning processes of all learners regardless of administrative issues such as
poor attendance at lectures. Smaller lecture attendance is offset by the increase
in learning quality. Face-to-face instruction is just one of the components of
the package. Learners may avail themselves of whatever suits their learning
style, preferences and specific difficulties. The integration of technology
provides a richer learning experience and greater opportunity to meet student
needs.
Design of a quantitative course based on the CTBL model requires
enormous investment of labor, especially in the preparation phase.
The coverage the model provides includes:

1) Text: Full textual coverage of the material including answers to

exercises. When repeating the material taught in class or completing a
106 Yaron Ghilay

missing element due to absence, it is possible to review all the

material including exercises and solutions.
2) Video: Video clips provide full coverage of all theoretical material
and exercises. To assist students with difficulty in solving a question,
a link to a video showing the solution is provided at the end of the
question. Solutions to all exercises can be created through video
capture technology (detailed in Chapter 5).
3) Feedback questionnaires: To ensure that what was taught has been
thoroughly assimilated, the FBL model as described in Chapter 8
(Ghilay & Ghilay, 2015b) is used to transfer student feedback to the
lecturer at the end of each topic. Every problematic issue receives a
relevant answer from the lecturer (or the tutor), either individually or
as a group until all irregularities have been resolved.
4) Guided practice: Lessons also include guided practice with the
material in the classroom.
5) Answering questions: Each student is invited to ask questions about
troubling issues and to get answers within a reasonable time, even
outside of class via remote communication with the lecturer or tutor
(including remote control of students' computers, if required).

CTBL MODEL – RESEARCH FINDINGS

A study examining whether Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning
improves the learning process and if so, what is the explanation, was
conducted at the NB School of Design and Education (Haifa, Israel).
Participants in the study (n = 29) were enrolled in the PSPP (statistical
software equivalent to SPSS) course that was conducted along the lines of the
CTBL model. The course included the following topics: descriptive statistics,
syntax, computerized variables, case selection, T-test, ANOVA, crosstabs, chi-
square, reliability (Cronbach's alpha), item analysis and factor analysis. This
one-year course was taken by third-year students in the Department of
Management (two hours per week). Respondents taking the course during
2014-15 and 2015-16 answered a fifty-item questionnaire evaluated on a five-
point Likert scale and an open-ended question focusing on the contribution of
CTBL to their learning process (if it existed) and the reasons explaining it.
The following five factors were examined: the first is learning
improvement while the other four factors present possible reasons for it.
 Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning (CTBL) 107

Comments:

 All items (questions in the questionnaire) composing each factor are

presented. High reliability for each factor was found (indicated in
parenthesis).
 Factor scores were the means of the items composing them.

1) Learning improvement (Alpha = 0.854) included the items:

 Comprehensive learning is helpful for better understanding of the

material
 Comprehensive learning helps me to be well prepared for the final
exam
 Comprehensive learning allows me to deepen my understanding of the
material
 Comprehensive learning produces meaningful learning
 Comprehensive learning is better than traditional learning
 I prefer comprehensive learning over regular modes of learning

2) Comprehensiveness (Alpha = 0.965):

 The variety of learning alternatives allows me to overcome difficulties

 Full textual coverage of the material helps me learn
 Full video coverage of the material helps me learn
 Full video coverage of all exercises is helpful
 The variety of alternatives allows the lecturer to focus on important
issues
 The variety of alternatives allows learners to select the most
appropriate tools
 Ways of learning can be suited to personal learning styles
 The lecturer shares helpful techniques for learning
 Students are exposed to a huge variety of exercises to solve
 The variety of learning alternatives improves my ability to handle
difficulties
 Practicing various alternatives improves learning
 The variety of practice exams is excellent preparation for the final
exam
 Having academic assistance in class is helpful
108 Yaron Ghilay

 Having assistance with installation and use of software tools is useful

3) Learning experience: (Alpha = 0.953):

 Comprehensive learning allows me to be active

 The learning experience is much better
 I enjoy learning with technology
 Comprehensive learning makes learning much more attractive
 Comprehensive learning increases my motivation
 Comprehensive learning helps overcome difficulties more easily
 I have the feeling that the lecturer is interested in me
 I have the impression that the lecturer is interested in my progress
 It is convenient for me to turn the lecturer even outside of class
 The lecturer invites us to keep in touch with regard to our studies
 It is very easy to give examples of tough issues
 Comprehensive learning improves my ability to concentrate

4) Prevention of knowledge gaps: (Alpha = 0.951):

 Overcoming gaps is easy

 It is easy to understand issues that are unclear by watching video clips
again
 It is easy to understand unclear issues by reviewing comprehensive
texts again
 It is easy to understand unclear issues by having additional help from
the lecturer in real-time
 The lecturer's willingness to help is crucial for eliminating gaps
 Only few gaps are created since difficulties are dealt with
immediately
 The clips on all the theoretical material are helpful for my progress
 The clips on all the exercises are useful for my progress
 Concurrent online feedback is helpful in diagnosing difficulties in
real-time
 Concurrent online feedback is useful in eliminating knowledge gaps
in real-time
 Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning (CTBL) 109

5) Flexibility (Alpha = 0.963):

 Getting an answer using various channels of communication is helpful

 The combination of technology and connection to the lecturer has
added value
 There is a complementary relationship between technological tools
and human involvement
 The limitation of meeting time and location is significantly reduced
 It is easy to continue learning outside of class
 It is possible to get better by repeating recorded lectures and exercises
 It is easy to have both human or technological feedback in real-time

Table 11.1 presents the means of the factors:

Table 11.1 Effectiveness of Comprehensive Technology-Based Learning

No. Factor N Mean S.D

1 Learning improvement 29 4.59 .42
2 Flexibility 29 4.65 .44
3 Comprehensiveness 29 4.59 .61
4 Prevention of gaps 29 4.58 .59
5 Learning experience 29 4.51 .59

The findings show that CTBL model significantly improves the learning
experience in a quantitative course (4.59). Possible explanations for this may
be: Flexibility, comprehensiveness (the variety and coverage of material), the
ability to overcome knowledge gaps, and the excellence of the learning
experience, 4.65, 4.59, 4.58, 4.51, respectively.
The learners’ verbal comments on the model show that comprehensive
learning has a significant positive impact:

“I appreciate the lecturer who has invested much time preparing the
training tools and is very interested in how we progressed in the course.
Investment in videos helps us to learn a lot of the material and to prepare
better for the test.”
“There is no doubt that the material is comprehensive and is well
grounded in Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences. This
makes a significant contribution to learning. For me it was also very
helpful to enter the course website anytime and learn.”
“It was very enjoyable and useful for the learning process.”
110 Yaron Ghilay

SUMMARY: COMPREHENSIVE
TECHNOLOGY-BASED LEARNING
A common phenomenon in quantitative courses at institutions of higher
education is the difficulty in absorbing new material due to lack of a strong
base. Because of the hierarchic nature of the knowledge, breaks in
understanding impair comprehension and integration of new information.
Differentiated instruction overcomes the formation of these gaps, effectively
meeting various student needs and learning styles. The Comprehensive
learning model is based on:

 Providing thorough training covering the whole curriculum including

all exercises.
 Inclusion of the FBL model (Feedback-based learning, detailed in
Chapter 8) in CTBL.
 Personal attention by the instructor (or tutor) in and outside of the
class in order to address specific difficulties.

This leads to:

 Reduction in difficulties arising from misunderstanding material.

 Identification of existing difficulties in real-time and receipt of a
satisfactory response.
 Learners who feel they still need help despite the above interventions
may contact the lecturer or tutors for personal attention in or outside
the classroom.

The model’s effectiveness was found to be high in a two-year study. In

spite of the initial labor needed in designing an effective online course, when it
is intended to be given for many years, this is a worthwhile investment
because of the many benefits.
Chapter 12

TRAINING FOR MANAGEMENT OF ONLINE

COURSES (TMOC)

BARRIERS TO ONLINE TEACHING AND LEARNING

In many institutions of higher education faculty members are expected to
conduct online distance learning course as a part of their regular duties (Kim
& Bonk, 2006). However, many lecturers hesitate to convert their traditional
courses to an online format. This resistance is attributable to lack of training
and support (Allen & Seaman, 2008; Keengwe, Kidd, & Kyei-Blankson,
2009).
Rockwell, Schauer, Fritz, & Marx (1999) examine the types of training
and support that faculty claim is needed in order to successfully manage online
courses and report that faculty most often request support in developing
instructional materials, in developing interaction with students, and in
applying specific technologies.
Faculty members perceive that teaching online is harder than conducting
traditional courses (Gerlich, 2005), maintaining that online delivery is more
labor intensive due to the time required to grade papers and respond to
questions (Lao, & Gonzales, 2005; Wegmann, & McCauley, 2008; Sellani &
Harrington, 2002).
In other studies, faculty concerned about the quality of their online courses
and the amount of technical assistance and training available to them at their
institutions assert that additional instructional and technical support is needed
(Allen & Seaman, 2008; Keengwe et al., 2009). Brogden & Couros (2002) and
Lorenzetti (2004) point out that the time and effort required to develop online
112 Yaron Ghilay

courses and learn the new technologies required to maintain them cause
faculty frustration.

IMPLICATIONS FOR ONLINE LEARNING AND TEACHING

To successfully transfer from traditional to online pedagogy, academics
must change their old teaching styles and adopt new skills (Colaric, &
Taymans, 2004; Johnson, 2008; Kurzweil & Marcellas, 2008; Panda &
Mishra, 2007). This demands thorough understanding of the design and
delivery of online education as well as its challenges and opportunities
(Ginzburg, Chepya, & Demers, 2007; Pankowski, 2008). In order to support
faculty, professional development opportunities must be created that include
preparation of relevant instructional materials so that all the elements of
pedagogy, course management, and technology can be addressed (Grant &
Thornton, 2007; Keeler & Horney, 2007; McQuiggan, 2007).
As online learning is an integral part of contemporary academic practice in
higher education (no matter the kind of online course), comprehensive
knowledge of creation, delivery, and development is demanded. Yet some
lecturers have only basic knowledge of educational technology. Technological
competence requires training, experimentation, and contemplation. As
institutions of higher education face the challenge of training faculty to
become qualified online course managers, the TMOC (Training for
Management of Online Courses) model can provide an answer to this
challenge (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2014).

THE TMOC MODEL

The TMOC model has two fundamental components:

1) Curriculum: The specific topics lecturers should be familiar with in

order to manage online courses.
2) Learning methodologies: Exemplification of the diverse ways in
which lecturers can design their own online curriculums to meet
various student needs and learning styles.
 Training for Management of Online Courses 113

The Curriculum

The TMOC curriculum includes:

1) LMS: Knowledge of a Learning Management System (such as

Moodle), one of the fundamental elements of management of online
courses. This includes knowledge of basic applications for the
administration, documentation, tracking, reporting and delivery of
academic courses (detailed in Chapter 2). Although LMS does not
answer all needs, it functions as the hub of all transactions between
students and lecturer. It enables the creation of course websites that
are open to specific groups. With knowledge of LMS, lecturers can do
almost everything on their own. However, lecturers need to be
carefully instructed. Lecturers should be familiar with: Management
of files/directories, menus, forums, photo albums, assignments,
glossaries, links (internal and external), groups, attendance,
announcements, blogs, wikis, user registration, and the import, backup
and restoration of course websites. Lecturers being trained should
have a practice site of their own that includes lecturer authorization.
2) Computerized Assisted Assessment (CAA): As mentioned in Chapter
6, CAA has significant advantages over traditional assessment.
Lecturers need to be properly trained in CAA so as to be able to:
 Create/update a question bank
 Create/update different exams (based on the question bank)
 Administer computerized exams
3) Video: As presented in Chapter 5, a recorded video lecture is an
asynchronous replacement or supplement to a face-to-face lecture
suitable for courses in which “watching things” is essential. Lecturers
need to know how to present formulas, mathematical expressions,
diagrams, pictures, computer screens, etc. professionally so students
can watch the videos they provide several times. Training of lecturers
in producing recorded lessons should include:
 Creation of clips based on video capture technology: Knowledge
of Camtasia Studio, Microsoft Community Clips or the equivalent
is mandatory. If lessons include mathematical formulas, tools
such as MathType combined with PowerPoint, Camtasia, etc.
should be taught.
 Searching for clips across the net: There are numerous video
clips, suitable for academic courses, i.e., lectures on TED or
114 Yaron Ghilay

YouTube or other sites. Lecturers should be taught to download

YouTube clips via YTD (YouTube Downloader) and to upload
video files to the course website with or without editing.
 Editing video clips: Usually an edit of a video clip before placing
it on the course website is required. Lecturers should be instructed
in cutting, joining, or adding subtitles or audio. Professional
editing tools like Camtasia or free software such as Microsoft
Movie Maker, should be taught.
 Format conversion: Sometimes format conversion is required to
place videos on the course website. Format Factory (a free
comprehensive tool) for accomplishing this can be downloaded
at: http://www.pcfreetime.com and its use should be thoroughly
taught.

QR - 12.1

 Uploading clips to the net: Techniques of direct upload to the

course website or to a sharing site such as YouTube should be
thoroughly mastered.
 Linking and embedding clips: When a video clip is on an external
server (such as YouTube) either links to it must be created or the
clip must be embedded into the course website. Lecturers need to
be familiar with these techniques.
4) Audio: Like video, this can also be an asynchronous replacement for
or a supplement to a face-to-face lecture. It is especially suitable for
multi-text courses. Audio files can be uploaded to the course website
or to any other digital database. Lecturers need to be familiar with
voice recording, format conversion (especially to mp3) and editing.
Recordings done with standard Microsoft applications or via mobile
devices such as tablets or smartphones need to be taught. Knowledge
of TTS technology (detailed in Chapter 4) for text reading is also
essential.
 Training for Management of Online Courses 115

5) Text files: One of the most critical components of online courses

(detailed in Chapter 3). It is essential for lecturers to know how to use
the Portable Document Format (PDF) as each PDF file encapsulates a
complete fixed-layout flat document, including the text, fonts,
graphics, and other information.

Lecturers need to be acquainted with:

 Text conversion to PDF (including links): Converting any file to

PDF so as to share texts and hypertexts no matter in what
software the original text was created. To read all these files,
students need only the free Adobe Reader.
 Merging files: Helpful for creation of course booklets based on
various sources and formats.
 Splitting files: Helpful for dividing material into manageable
portions.
 Reorder/rotate pages: Enabling lecturers to improve booklet
design by changing page order, rotation or deletion. Use of tools
like Adobe Acrobat Professional and PdfSam should be included
in the curriculum.
6) Remote control: Lecturers need to know how to connect to students'
remote computers in order to support them with operational
difficulties, tool installation as well as real academic assistance.
Relevant tools for remote control such as TeamViewer-Remote
Control (detailed in Chapter 9) should be taught.
7) Online synchronous learning: A complementary component to
asynchronous online learning. Lecturers should be familiar with
Blackboard Collaborate (detailed in Chapter 9) in order to present
slides or the lecturer's computer screen to remote participants.
Lecturers should become familiar with TeamViewer-meeting to
manage interactive synchronous online lessons.
8) Website development: Although lecturers use LMS (such as Moodle)
for the creation of course websites, they may also need a personal
website that does not belong to the higher education institution.
Academics need to acquire basic knowledge of website building using
tools such as Google Sites (detailed in Chapter 9) or the equivalent
and how to link their personal site or items in databases they have
built such as Geocities (geocities.ws) to the main LMS website.
116 Yaron Ghilay

QR - 12.2

9) Screen capture: Screen capture which includes screenshots is a

relatively straightforward technique for writing training literature
which all lecturers should know. Practice with the extremely useful
FastStone Capture (detailed in Chapter 3) and Microsoft Windows’
Snipping Tool should be included in the curriculum of the practice
sessions.
10) Principles of online courses which are a full substitute for face-to-
face learning: Even if lecturers have minimal knowledge of
educational technology, it is usually insufficient to completely
manage online distance learning. The OTLA model which defines a
framework for online teaching, learning and assessment (detailed in
Chapter 10) should be carefully studied.

Learning Methodologies

The TMOC model features a combination of the main modes of learning

which lecturers should incorporate into their own online courses:

1) Face-to-face lectures: The first nine topics in TMOC are practical and
require much practice. Therefore, all these lessons should be based
both on demonstrations and exercises (course restricted to a maximum
of 25 learners). The rate of presentation of material should match
student progress; learners have to practice each sub-topic at least on a
basic level after its presentation. The practice stage requires both a
lecturer and a tutor.
2) Booklets: Each topic/subtopic in a lecture needs to be accompanied by
a comprehensive text as it is essential to enable learners to repeat,
deepen or complete lessons they did not attend or did not fully absorb
during face-to-face meetings.
 Training for Management of Online Courses 117

3) Instructional video clips: In addition to booklets, each topic/subtopic

should be completely covered by an instructional video. Each clip
should be short, including only one item so learners can rapidly find
specific help on any issue. This tool is vital for enlarging the support
package given to learners. Although at first glance, multi-coverage of
a topic (text plus video) may seem unnecessary or redundant, but it is
imperative owing to different learning styles. Video clips (as
compared to lecturers or booklets) may be essential for visual learners
whereas, for others, it is only complementary. This multiplicity of
presentation of learning material is a significant instrument in building
asynchronous curriculums.
4) Personalized guidance: Personalized guidance (face-to-face or
remote) takes place at the learner's request. Its main aim is to convey
material that has not yet been absorbed despite all the preceding
means. Personalized guidance is also helpful in assisting learners to
install software tools or use applications.
5) Classroom practice: Lessons that cover topics already taught and
consist only of exercising. The purpose is to enable learners to deal
with more challenging tasks than that which was covered in the
lecture. Learners are guided and get relevant answers to their
difficulties in real-time.
6) Home practice: This complements classroom practice enabling
learners to review more issues than can be covered in a time limited
lesson. In this kind of practice, learners can also send questions to
tutors and get answers in a reasonable amount of time.
7) Final project: The final project is a comprehensive assignment
integrating most of the topics in the course. It extends over the whole
year and has to be carefully guided. The project should be based on
learners' proposals and should be relevant to students’ academic
practice.
8) Pedagogic implications of technology: Each technological tool should
be learned based on technological as well as pedagogic criteria. Any
instructional activity (lessons, booklets, exercises, etc.) should have
educational significance and not only a technological function. The
technology taught is always in the service of education. Technology
that makes no contribution to teaching, learning or assessment is
irrelevant.
118 Yaron Ghilay

RESEARCH – EFFECTIVENESS OF THE TMOC MODEL

Lecturers' perceptions of the TMOC were examined in a biennial study
conducted during 2012-13 and 2013-14. The study examined twenty lecturers
in ten different Israeli teacher-training colleges who participated in a two-year
course based on the TMOC model (seven academic hours-per-week). The aim
was to measure the curriculum’s contribution to the instructors’ management
of online courses.
Lecturers were asked to answer an online questionnaire at the end of each
academic year regarding their perceptions of the model. The questionnaire
included 21 items and was divided into two parts:

 Part 1: Ten topics on the TMOC curriculum

 Part 2: Eight instructional methodologies for teaching these topics

For each item, respondents were requested to give their opinion (on a five-
point Likert scale) on the item’s contribution/effectiveness. The questionnaire
included two open-ended questions so students could elaborate both on the
contribution of the course contents and the related learning methodologies.
All items regarding the ten components of the curriculum are presented
separately except for four items relating to video clips that were combined into
one factor: videos. This factor's reliability (Cronbach’s alpha) was found to be
high (first year: 0.904, second year: 0.756). The score of the video factor was
determined by calculating the mean value of the four items composing it.
Table 12.1 introduces all the items on the questionnaire relating to
curriculum:

Table 12.1. Items relating to curriculum

Factor The questionnaire’s questions

Video: Video editing and format conversion
First year - Uploading video to the net
Alpha = 0.904 Video capture
Second year - Subtitling videos
Alpha = 0.756
CAA (Computer Assisted Assessment)
Recording, editing and integrating a lecture on a course
website
 Training for Management of Online Courses 119

Factor The questionnaire’s questions

LMS (management of files/directories, menus, forums,
photo albums, assignments, glossaries, links, groups,
attendance, announcements, blogs, wikis, user registration,
file import, backup and restore)
Principles of full distance online courses (OTLA)
Online synchronous learning (Elluminate)
PDF files
Control of a remote computer
Screen Capture (FastStone Capture)
Websites built with auxiliary tools such as Google Sites

Table 12.2 introduces all the items on the questionnaire relating to

learning methodologies:

Table 12.2. Items relating to learning methodologies

Instructional booklets
Discussion of pedagogical implications of ICT tools and applications
Instructional video clips
Personalized instruction
Lectures
Final project
Home practice
Classroom practice

For each item/factor, a mean score was calculated (including standard

deviation). A paired samples t-test was done (   0.05 ) to check if there
were significant differences between the first and second year.
At the end of the first year, learners were only questioned on seven
content areas of the curriculum (CAA, recording lectures, video, LMS, PDF,
synchronous online learning and remote control). At the end of the second
year, they were questioned on all ten topics. There was no significant
difference between the mean scores of the seven items examined in both years
(T-test,   0.05 ). The replication of the results strengthens the findings and
gives them greater validity. Table 12.3 presents the mean scores of both years
and the t-test which shows that differences between scores in the two years are
insignificant.
120 Yaron Ghilay

Table 12.3. Evaluation of the curriculum in year one and two

Items First year Second year Paired Samples

N Mean S.D N Mean S.D T-Test
CAA 19 4.42 .77 16 4.69 .48 𝑇(14) = .899,
𝑝 = .384
Recording and editing a 19 4.05 1.47 18 4.11 1.08 𝑇(16) = .960,
lecture 𝑝 = .351
Principles of full - - - 16 4.11 1.02 -
distance online courses
Video 20 3.91 1.05 18 4.10 .58 𝑇(17) = 1.170,
𝑝 = .258
LMS 19 4.00 1.45 18 4.06 0.99 𝑇(17) = .226,
𝑝 = .824
PDF files 18 3.83 1.42 18 3.89 1.08 𝑇(13) = −.425,
𝑝 = .678
Website building - - - 16 3.88 1.09 -
Synchronous online 20 3.95 1.28 17 3.82 1.13 𝑇(16) = .000,
learning 𝑝 = 1.000
Screen capture - - - 16 3.81 1.11 -
Control of a remote 20 3.90 1.165 17 3.76 .83 𝑇(16) = .000,
computer 𝑝 = 1.000

As shown in Table 12.3, at the end of the second year lecturers give CAA
(Computer Assisted Assessment) the highest score (4.69). There is a
significant difference in this item’s score and all the others (with the exception
of lecture recording and principles of full distance online courses). All the
other items received high scores as well: recording and editing a lecture (4.11),
principles of full distance online courses (4.11), video (4.10), LMS (4.06),
PDF files (3.89), website building (3.88), synchronous online learning (3.82),
screen capture (3.81) and control of a remote computer (3.76). There was no
significant difference among these nine items.
The findings indicate that lecturers in the TMOC course evaluated the
contents of the curriculum as having made a big contribution to their ability to
manage online courses.
At the end of each year, learners were asked about learning methodologies
for delivering the curriculum. There were no significant differences between
the two years (t-test,   0.05 ) except with regard to:
 Training for Management of Online Courses 121

1) Booklets: The score at the end of the first year, 3.79 increased to 4.65
at the end of the second year (𝑇(15) = 2.236, 𝑝 = .041).
2) Final project: The score at the end of the first year, 3.33 increased to
4.00 at the end of the second year, 𝑇(15) = 2.551, 𝑝 = .022).

This indicates that most learning methodologies got high scores during
both years. Regarding the two above mentioned learning methodologies, lower
scores in the first year picked up significantly at the end of the second year.
Table 12.4 presents the mean scores of both years and the t-test showing the
significance of differences between the two years.

Table 12.4. Evaluation of the learning methodologies in year one and two

Items First year Second year Paired Samples T-Test

N Mean S.D N Mean S.D
Booklets 19 3.79 1.13 17 4.65 .60 𝑇(15) = 2.236,
𝑝 = .041
Videos 20 4.20 .95 17 4.59 .79 𝑇(16) = 1.329,
𝑝 = .203
Discussions of pedagogic 20 4.40 .94 18 4.56 .70 𝑇(17) = .511,
implications 𝑝 = .616
Personalized instruction 19 4.42 .84 17 4.35 .70 𝑇(15) = −.436,
𝑝 = .669
Lectures 20 3.85 1.23 18 4.17 .92 𝑇(17) = 1.141,
𝑝 = .270
Final project 18 3.33 1.40 17 4.00 .79 𝑇(15) = 2.551,
𝑝 = .022
Home practice 18 3.94 1.00 17 3.88 .93 𝑇(15) = −.159,
𝑝 = .876
Classroom practice 20 4.35 .87 18 3.78 1.06 𝑇(17) = −1.567,
𝑝 = .135

As can be seen in Table 12.4, lecturers give all the learning methodologies
high or very high scores at the end of the course. Booklets (4.65), videos
(4.59), discussion of pedagogic implications (4.56), personalized instruction
(4.35) and lectures (4.17) receive very high scores. The final project (4.00),
home practice (3.88) and classroom practice (3.78) are rated with high scores.
There is no significant difference in the ratings of Booklets, Videos,
Discussions of pedagogic implications, Personalized instruction, and Lectures
(second year). However, significant differences in the ratings of Booklets-
122 Yaron Ghilay

4.65, Videos-4.59, and Discussions of pedagogic implications-4.56 as

compared to the Final project-4.00, Home practice-3.88, and Classroom
practice-3.78 are revealed in the paired sample t-test (   0.05 ) which
examined all possible combinations of pairs.
The quantitative findings show that the TMOC model is very suitable for
preparing lecturers in higher education to become managers of online courses.
The open-ended questions strengthen the quantitative research as shown by the
following examples (lecturer's quotes):
Regarding the TMOC curriculum:

“The combination of ICT tools and pedagogy was very helpful for
me. It significantly improved my ability to manage an online course
effectively.”
“The Moodle lessons were systematic and relevant to my basic need
to manage online courses.”
“The lessons dealing with website building by Google Sites had high
value for me. It is a fantastic complement to Moodle because it is
absolutely personal.”
“The tools selected in the curriculum reflect real needs we all have in
the college. Therefore, the learning process was meaningful.”
“CAA was crucial for me. If possible, I would be delighted to go into
this topic even more intensively.”

Quotes about learning methodologies for presenting the curriculum reveal:

“The texts and videos were so clear and comprehensive that I am

sure they could replace some lectures. Such helpful material allows
lectures to be less detailed because most topics can be studied
asynchronously.”
“The tutors' dedication was outstanding. They were both welcoming
and accessible on a constant basis. Personalized guidance helped me a lot
in overcoming difficulties.”
“The wonderful video clips enabled me to adopt the notion of the
'flipped classroom': to watch a video before class and then start the lesson
with practice activities.”

The lecturers’ quotes stress the importance of the contents of the TMOC
model, especially the necessary linkage between tools and pedagogy.
Instruction in LMS, website building and CAA all reflect the real needs of
academics. The lecturer quotes relating to learning methodologies emphasize
 Training for Management of Online Courses 123

the power of comprehensive texts and video clips combined with tutor
dedication and accessibility.

SUMMARY: TRAINING FOR MANAGEMENT

OF ONLINE COURSES

Faculty encounter many obstacles when transitioning from traditional

learning to 21st century learning models. Lack of training and support (Allen &
Seaman, 2008; Keengwe et al., 2009) is the main reason for these difficulties.
It is obvious that institutions of higher education need to train staff
systematically and thoroughly before asking them to manage online courses.
The TMOC model offers a comprehensive solution in this regard, training
lecturers to function successfully.
The model is a package with many components for creation, delivery and
developing of online courses. Successful courses based on TMOC principles
require texts, exercises and video clips that cover the entire curriculum to be
comprehensively prepared. Tutors available on a daily basis must guide hands-
on practice (Ghilay & Ghilay, 2014).
Chapter 13

SUMMARY - ONLINE LEARNING

IN HIGHER EDUCATION

UNIQUENESS OF ONLINE LEARNING

Online learning with its technological inputs contains so many
components differentiating the learning process from the traditional one. A
narrow measure of “benefit” of online learning is the extent to which the new
models improve student achievement. Using a broader perspective, online
learning exceeds traditional instruction in many empowering ways. The
advantages of online learning are found in:

 Learning experience
 Flexibility
 Monitoring and evaluation
 Communication

Learning Experience

Instead of bored students counting the minutes to the end of the lesson,
appropriately integrated technology opens up new worlds of experience,
interest, activity, and enjoyment. Engaged learners have improved motivation
and this is reflected in the quality of learning.
126 Yaron Ghilay

Flexibility

Acknowledging differences among learners, the philosophy behind online

learning enables it to fit into every learner’s personal learning style as opposed
to the traditional approach which is based upon the perception that all learners
have similar needs and therefore get the same services. Thus the benefit of
online over traditional learning is comparable to the benefit of a specially
tailored suit over a ready-made one.
Integrating technology into education fulfills the moral dictum that
variation among people should be accepted and dealt with practically. The
flexibility of the online world allows students to maintain different learning
styles enabling them to better fulfill their own potentials. Online learning
grants students freedom in choosing different paths towards educational
targets and thus is a significant innovation. Everyone is given the opportunity
to consume the resources suitable to their unique learning style. Some learners
prefer to watch video lectures (including the possibility of reviewing a lecture
more than once) while others read texts or receive personalized guidance
(either face-to-face or distance).
A student in a course based on the CTBL model (Comprehensive
Technology Based Learning, detailed in Chapter 11) can attend all lectures and
watch all the video tutorials or be present only at some of the lectures and rely
on the comprehensive texts and the video solutions to exercises. The old-
fashioned insistence upon mandatory attendance makes unnecessary and
onerous demands upon students who prefer to learn in a different way.
The flexibility of online learning grants students the benefit of learning
without limits upon time and location. This also accrues cost savings to both
students and institutions in terms of classrooms, travel, etc. The benefits of
online flexibility are also found in the broad range of devices with which
students can use to connect to online courses: Not only via desktop or laptop
computers, but also via lightweight mobile devices such as tablets or
smartphones which are in the hands of almost every student. Also, wired
internet service, wireless (Wi-Fi) or mobile (3G/4G) allow learners to take
online courses everywhere, globalizing learning.

Monitoring and Evaluation

Technology allows lecturers to manage control processes and monitor the

progress of learners so much more comprehensively than was ever feasible
 Summary - Online Learning in Higher Education 127

heretofore. With computerized evaluation tools and online feedback

questionnaires, instructors can monitor the status of students during the
learning process both by an actual knowledge test (computerized formative
evaluation) and by receiving real-time feedback about learner assimilation of
course material (detailed in Chapter 8). With this information, instructors can
modify the course in real-time to better suit student needs.
Another benefit of CAA is the easy opportunity to update assessments.
Unlimited quantities of differentiated versions of summative evaluation
questionnaires can be generated. The benefit: not only in preserving test
integrity, but also in providing multiple opportunities for practice and re-
testing. This is surely enhances learning and student performance (detailed in
Chapter 6).

Communication

Online learning directly contributes to a significant improvement in

communication between the students and instructors as well as among students
themselves. Digital communication allows for sharing resources, asking
questions and receiving answers and working in teams. Sometimes, the quick
and efficient response of a lecturer to a student makes the difference between
progress and regress or even preventing a situation of a student dropping-out
of a course. A variety of tools and resources are available to lecturers and
instructors to provide learners with practical answers within a reasonable time,
another benefit.

NECESSARY CONDITIONS FOR ONLINE LEARNING

In order to manage online learning effectively, faculty must have the
knowledge and skills to utilize the pedagogical and technical tools contained
in the TMOC model (Training for Management of Online Courses, detailed in
Chapter 12):

 Learning Management System (LMS): This is a necessary

infrastructure tool linked to many other worlds. The system is a
central node for learners, directing them to internal and external
resources.
128 Yaron Ghilay

 CAA: Moodle has a powerful tool for computerized assessment.

Formative evaluation has been shown to improve the learning process.
 Video: Lecturers have to master video capture, editing and sharing to
create different training videos. Video lectures and clips of solutions
to exercises may either be an alternative or an addition to similar class
activities.
 Audio: Creating a replacement for or a supplement to face-to-face
lessons in multi-text courses or those that do not require visual
displays.
 Text files: Text is an essential element of any course and the aim is to
share text files including hyperlinks and graphics (diagrams, pictures,
and so on).

In addition to these five fundamental components, acquiring skills with

regard to controlling a remote computer, synchronous online learning, building
a personal website and principles of online distance learning are beneficial.
Not every academic needs to be familiar with all these fields, but it is
important to assure that instructor training and guidance addresses all the areas
of expertise required for successful online course management. Preparation of
an online course requires not only knowledge and skill but also an investment
of much work. This kind of investment is surely worthwhile for courses that
are given year after year because the hard labor bears fruit many times over.
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AUTHOR CONTACT INFORMATION

Yaron Ghilay, Ph.D.

Senior Lecturer
The Neri Bloomfield School of Design and Education
25 Yeshayahu street, Holon 5883726, Israel
Email: [email protected]; [email protected]
 INDEX

class size, 61
A classes, 75
classroom, 3, 11, 33, 35, 39, 60, 61, 62, 64,
academic administrative system (AAS), v,
71, 91, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 106,
ix, 7, 15, 16
110, 117, 121, 122, 129, 132, 133, 134
academic learning, 5
coding, 35, 134
access, 6, 7, 11, 17, 19, 34, 39, 52, 60, 86,
cognitive load, 136
87, 102, 123
cognitive processing, 35
administrative efficiency, 46
cognitive tool, 35, 133
administrators, 135
collaboration, 62, 66
age, 14, 19
colleges, 9, 36, 96, 118
ANOVA, 74, 75, 106
commercial, 83, 84
ARS, 61
communication, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 69, 106,
assessment, ix, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 52,
109, 127, 129
56, 63, 70, 102, 113, 116, 117, 128, 129,
communication systems, 129
130, 131, 132, 135, 136
comprehension, 110
assessment tools, 45
comprehensive technology-based learning
asynchronous communication, 87, 89
(CTBL), vi, ix, 2, 3, 105, 106, 109, 110,
asynchronous learning, ix, 1, 89, 132
126
computer, ix, 19, 20, 21, 22, 33, 34, 36, 37,
B 39, 47, 49, 50, 57, 61, 73, 78, 79, 82, 84,
85, 91, 103, 105, 113, 115, 119, 120,
banks, 7, 8, 49 128, 130
blogs, 113, 119 computer assisted assessment, ix
browser, 14, 23 computer technology, 105
computer use, 84
computerized assisted assessment (CAA),
C vi, ix, 2, 3, 45, 46, 48, 49, 92, 113, 118,
119, 120, 122, 127, 128, 130, 131, 136
CAD, 35 computing, 34, 49
class period, 61 construction, 45, 55
142 Index

cooperation, 60, 65 equipment, 31, 39, 64, 65, 66, 84, 98

corporate sector, 135 Europe, 134
cost, 39, 42, 84, 85, 87, 88, 126 European Union, 134
cost saving, 126 examinations, 137
counseling, 82 exercises, 3, 5, 8, 11, 14, 39, 50, 51, 52, 55,
course content, 6, 12, 46, 66, 118 79, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 100, 101, 105,
covering, 12, 63, 81, 91, 110 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 116, 117, 123,
criticism, 70 126, 128
curriculum, 12, 35, 37, 38, 56, 62, 89, 110, expertise, 128
113, 115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123,
132
F

D face-to-face interaction, 88
face-to-face learning, ix, 1, 2, 3, 11, 12, 13,
data processing, 71 94, 97, 98, 99, 101, 116
database, 17, 23, 42, 51, 56, 78, 114 facilitators, 89
decision makers, 1 factor analysis, 36, 106
decoding, 24 faculty development, 134
deep learning, 88 feedback-based learning (FBL), vi, ix, 1, 3,
Delta, 129 69, 70, 73, 75, 76, 79, 106, 110, 131
demonstrations, 34, 116 financial, 42, 46
Department of Education, 134 financial resources, 46
dissatisfaction, 70, 84 flexibility, 27, 38, 46, 47, 48, 49, 51, 64, 94,
distance education, 87, 129, 137 96, 102, 126
distance learning, 5, 11, 12, 13, 82, 89, 90, freedom, 51, 126
97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 111, 116, 128,
131
diversification, 1 G

Google, vi, 23, 25, 71, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81,
E 86, 115, 119, 122
grades, 8, 35, 51, 98
education, 1, 45, 60, 69, 112, 117, 126, 130, grants, 126
131, 132, 133, 135, 136 group membership, 6, 7, 8
educational institutions, 5
educational objective, 49
educational system, 5 H
educators, ix, 2, 27, 28, 34, 60, 69
handheld devices, 34
e-learning, 28
higher education, ix, 1, 4, 5, 10, 59, 60, 61,
electricity, 98
69, 70, 75, 76, 87, 90, 102, 110, 111,
employability, 133
112, 115, 122, 123, 130, 131, 133, 134,
encoding, 24, 59
135, 136
encouragement, 60
hypertext, v, ix, 3, 5, 19, 23, 90, 92, 93, 95,
engineering, 131
96
entrepreneurship, 12
 Index 143

light, 69, 94
I Likert scale, 11, 20, 29, 36, 37, 46, 64, 72,
73, 93, 99, 106, 118
ideal, 34, 39
logging, 51
improvements, 9, 76
love, 97, 102
in transition, 66
individuals, 3
information and communications M
technology (ICT), v, ix, 3, 17, 45, 102,
119, 122 management, ix, 1, 3, 4, 5, 9, 12, 20, 42, 51,
information technology, 46 52, 72, 84, 93, 112, 113, 118, 119, 128,
infrastructure, 10, 39, 127 131
institutions, 1, 45, 46, 70, 76, 78, 102, 110, manipulation, 89
111, 112, 123, 126, 134 materials, 13
instructional design, 34 mathematics, 105
instructional materials, 111, 112 media, 87
integration, ix, 17, 105, 110 medical, 131
interface, 6, 7, 14, 40 memory, 45
intervention, 3, 50, 52, 72, 76 mentoring, 132
investment, 13, 39, 94, 95, 96, 105, 110, messages, 5, 9, 17, 81, 84, 92
128 meta-analysis, 70, 129
IP address, 8, 50 methodology, 22, 59
Israel, 46, 63, 71, 92, 106, 139 Microsoft, 20, 22, 28, 39, 86, 113, 114, 116
issues, 8, 51, 56, 59, 71, 74, 75, 76, 92, 105, Microsoft Word, 28
106, 107, 108, 117 mobile device, 9, 19, 24, 62, 79, 114, 126
item bank, 14 mobile phone, 13, 102
models, ix, 1, 2, 77, 87, 123, 125, 130, 132,
136
L modules, 35
moodle, v, vi, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14,
laptop, 11, 62, 64, 126
15, 16, 49, 50, 52, 55, 62, 63, 78, 90, 91,
leadership, 93, 133
92, 113, 115, 122, 128
learning activity, 88
motivation, 64, 74, 75, 108, 125, 134
learning difficulties, 73, 75
multimedia, 33, 35, 46, 70, 135
learning disabilities, 8, 27, 51
multiple-choice questions, 45, 51, 52, 53
learning environment, 60, 62, 69, 76
learning management system (LMS), v, ix,
2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 15, 17, 20, 31, N
39, 42, 61, 62, 80, 90, 91, 92, 113, 115,
119, 120, 122, 127 New Zealand, 136
learning outcomes, 45, 88, 130 nursing, 34, 133, 135
learning process, ix, 2, 3, 6, 10, 11, 12, 13,
14, 33, 38, 60, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 73, 75,
76, 92, 94, 95, 96, 100, 105, 106, 109, O
122, 125, 127, 128
learning styles, 35, 97, 110, 112, 117, 126 objective tests, 46
objectivity, 46
144 Index

online courses, ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, 10, 14, 20, reliability, 12, 36, 64, 73, 85, 93, 99, 106,
29, 36, 39, 73, 94, 97, 111, 112, 113, 107, 118
115, 116, 118, 119, 120, 122, 123, 126, remote control, ix, 3, 77, 82, 84, 92, 106,
131 115, 119
online learning, ix, 1, 3, 10, 19, 21, 27, 33, replication, 65, 94, 119
34, 35, 77, 78, 84, 87, 88, 89, 92, 94, 96, reproduction, 49
112, 115, 119, 120, 125, 126, 127, 128, resources, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11, 12, 14, 17, 23,
132, 133 35, 87, 126, 127
operating system, 19 restrictions, 8, 51, 52, 56, 102
operations, 21, 31, 82 routines, 73
opportunities, 47, 48, 59, 62, 65, 66, 67,
112, 127
overlap, 51 S

savings, 27, 98
P school, 35, 46
science, 131, 132
password, 6, 49, 51, 78, 82 screen capture, 3, 22, 34, 35, 116, 120, 136
pedagogy, 62, 112, 122 self-confidence, 60
personal choice, 64 seminars, 84
personal learning, 107, 126 servers, 81, 86
platform, 3, 5, 19, 50 simulation, 35, 46, 89
post-compulsory education, 135 SMS, 9, 24
principles, 1, 3, 35, 60, 61, 73, 120, 123, software, 19, 20, 21, 27, 29, 30, 34, 36, 39,
128, 130 40, 73, 79, 82, 83, 84, 85, 90, 106, 108,
prior knowledge, 60 114, 115, 117
professional development, 112, 130, 132 speech, 27, 28
programming languages, 34 spreadsheets, 21, 79
psychology, 135 SPSS software, 19
staff members, 9, 10, 14
standard deviation, 36, 119
Q Statistical Package for the Social Sciences,
19
quality assurance, 45
statistical processing, 79
quality control, 42, 56
statistics, 36, 73, 106
quantitative research, 122
storage, 9, 42, 52, 59, 78, 86
query, 66
strategic management, 12
questionnaire, 10, 11, 12, 36, 51, 52, 64, 71,
stress, 122
72, 73, 76, 79, 93, 99, 106, 107, 118, 119
structure, 2
student achievement, 88, 98, 125
R student attitudes, 63
synchronization, 7, 15, 16, 17, 78, 85
reading, 19, 23, 27, 29, 39, 90, 95, 96, 100, synchronous learning, ix, 89, 115, 119
101, 114
real time, 33, 38, 61, 62, 65, 71, 75, 102
 Index 145

T U

teacher training, 36 undergraduate education, 61

teachers, 1, 6, 17, 34, 59, 130, 132, 134 United States, 129
teams, 6, 39, 127 universities, 46, 130
technical assistance, 57, 111
technical support, 111
technician, 82 V
techniques, 34, 59, 92, 107, 114
variables, 36, 106
technology, ix, 1, 2, 3, 12, 27, 29, 33, 34,
variations, 16
35, 36, 38, 39, 61, 62, 64, 65, 66, 82, 87,
video capture, ix, 2, 3, 30, 33, 38, 39, 40,
89, 90, 92, 93, 102, 105, 106, 108, 109,
41, 92, 106, 113, 118, 128
111, 112, 113, 114, 116, 117, 125, 126,
video clips, 5, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40,
129, 132, 133, 136
79, 80, 81, 97, 106, 108, 113, 114, 117,
technology-based active learning (TBAL),
118, 119, 122, 123
vi, ix, 3, 59, 61, 62, 63, 65, 66, 97, 99,
videos, 34, 35, 37, 39, 43, 80, 81, 109, 113,
100, 101, 131
114, 118, 121, 122, 128, 136, 137
test anxiety, 48
test scores, 52
testing, 45, 52, 127, 130 W
text/hypertext, ix, 3, 5
textbook, 35 waste, 88
theft, 86 web, 5, 17, 23, 61, 62, 135
time frame, 50 websites, 3, 7, 24, 29, 82, 113, 115
time pressure, 94 Wi-Fi, 49, 62, 126
tracks, 33, 40 workflow, 7
training, ix, 3, 4, 9, 14, 20, 29, 35, 36, 37, workload, 133
40, 46, 87, 109, 110, 111, 112, 116, 118, World Wide Web, 87
123, 128, 131, 132, 133, 135
training for management of online courses
(TMOC), vii, ix, 4, 36, 111, 112, 113, Y
116, 118, 120, 122, 123, 127, 131
training programs, 3 yield, 40
true/false, 45
tutoring, 10, 72