CELL MODIFICATION 2 Types of Cilia

3 Types of Cell Modification 1. Motile cilia – Motile cilia grow in clusters

e.g. the cells in the bronchial epithelium
1. Apical Modification
2. Non motile cilia or primary cilia - primary
2. Basal Modification cilia grow as a single cilium e.g. those on
the embryonic node
3. Lateral Modification

APICAL MODIFICATION:

Examples of Apical Modification are the ff:

1. Cilia

2. Flagella

3. Microvilli Flagellum/ Flagella (plural)

4. Pseudopods hairlike structure that acts

primarily as an organelle of
locomotion in the cells of many
living organisms. 
Cilium or Cilia (plural)

Cilia are small hair-like

protuberances on the outside of
eukaryotic cells. They are
primarily responsible for
locomotion, either of the cell
itself or of fluids on the cell
surface. 

Cilia

Some cilia functions to move

materials just like in our
lungs. It keeps our airways
free from dirt and mucus.

 Cilia are usually short, hairlike structures

Cilium or Cilia (plural) that move in waves.
Some unicellular  Flagella are long whiplike structures.
organisms use cilia for  Formed from microtubules
locomotion like
protozoans called villi and microvilli
paramecium.
 Villi are finger-like projections that arise
from the epithelial layer in some organs.
 They help to increase surface area allowing
for faster and more efficient adsorption.

 Microvilli are smaller projections that arise

from the cell’s surface that also increase
surface area allowing faster and more
efficient absorption.

LATERAL MODIFICATION/ CELL JUNCTIONS

Villi
and • Cell junctions are specialized structure that
microvilli serves as intercellular connection between
two adjacent cells.
pseudopods
• Cell modification found on the basal
• Pseudopod comes from the Greek surface of the cell
words pseudes and podos, meaning “false”
and “feet” respectively. 3 Types of Cell Junction:

• It is a temporary 1. Tight Junction

arm-like
2. Adhering Junction
projection of a
eukaryotic cell 3. Gap Junction
membrane that
are developed in Tight Junction
the direction of movement.  • Tight junctions held two adjacent cell
tightly.

BASAL MODIFICATION • It functions to

prevent leakage
Cell modification found of materials
on the basal surface of between cells.
the cell ( ex. Epithelial
cell) • It act as a water seal.

• It is usually found in the epithelial lining

Hemidesmosomes • Tight junction in the epithelial lining in your

urinary bladder that prevent the urine from
 Anchoring junction on the basal surface of leaking.
the cell

 Rivet-like links between cytoskeleton and

extracellular matrix components such as
the basal lamina that underlie epithelia

 Primarily composed of keratin, integrins

and cadherins
Adhering Junction and the time the arising daughter cells also
divide.
• Anchoring  The cell cycle is a repeated pattern of
junction on the growth and division that occurs in
lateral surface of eukaryotic cells.
the cell
 Cells have distinct phases of growth,
• Are specialized reproduction, and normal functions.
structure that
fastens the cell
together STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE
In order to divide, a cell must accomplish several
• It provides a strong mechanical attachment tasks:
to adjacent cell • it must grow
• copy its genetic material ( DNA)
Gap Junction • split physically into two daughter cells
The cell cycle is a regular pattern of growth, DNA
• Also known as
replication, and cell division.
communicating
junctions
In eukaryotic cells ( cells with nucleus), the stages of
• Closable channels that the cell cycle are divided into two main phases:
connect the 1. Interphase - the cell grows and makes a
copy of its DNA
cytoplasm of
2. Mitotic ( M ) phase – the cell separates its
adjoining animal cells.
DNA into two sets and divides its
cytoplasm, forming two new cells.

 The main phases of the cell cycle are gap 1,

synthesis, gap 2, and mitosis.
 Gap 1 (G1): cell growth and
CELL CYCLE normal functions
 DNA synthesis (S): copies DNA
 Gap 2 (G2): additional growth
(chromatids become replicated
chromosomes)
 Mitosis (M): includes division of
the cell nucleus (mitosis) and
division of the cell cytoplasm
(cytokinesis)
  Cell cycle, the ordered sequence  Mitosis occurs only if the cell is large
of events that occur in a cell in preparation enough and the DNA undamaged.
for cell division.
 It is an orderly set of stages that occurs
between the time eukaryotic cell divides INTERPHASE
  Cells spend the majority of their cell cycle M PHASE
in interphase.
 Longest part of a cell's life cycle, called the During the “Mitotic” phase, the cell divides its
"resting stage" because the cell isn't copied DNA and cytoplasm to create two new cells.
dividing
 Purpose: cells grow, develop, & carry on all Includes two division -related processes :
their normal metabolic functions
There are 3 parts: 1. Mitosis ( nuclear division) – the nucleus of
1. Gap 1 the cell divides. It take place in four stages:
2. Synthesis (a) Prophase (b) Metaphase ( c) Anaphase
3. Gap 2 and
 By the end of interphase a cell has two full
sets of DNA (chromosomes) and is large (d) Telophase
enough to begin the division process.
2. Cytokinesis ( division of the cytoplasm) – the
1. G1 ( 1st Growth Phase ) cytoplasm of the cell is split in two, making two new
cells.
• cells mature and increase in size ( the cell
grows in size, organelles such as CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS
mitochondria and ribosomes increase in
number, and it gathers materials that will Checkpoint is a critical control point in the cell cycle
be utilized for DNA synthesis. where “stop” and “go ahead” signals can regulate
• normal metabolic activities ( such as the cell cycle. Note that a signal is an agent that
communicating with other cells and influences the functions of a cell. Overall, it ensure
performing cellular respiration that the cell cycle stages follow one another in the
normal sequence.
• must pass through a checkpoint before it
can go to S phase 1. G1 checkpoint ( the restriction point ) is the
primary checkpoint of the cell cycle.
2. S (Synthesis Phase )
In mammalian cells,
• DNA is replicated ( copied )
a. the signaling protein p53 ( protein 53
kilodaltons-its molecular) stops the cycle at
the G1 checkpoint when DNA is damaged.
First, p53 tries to initiate DNA repair, but
rising levels of p53 can bring about
apoptosis, which is programmed cell death.
3. G2 Phase ( 2nd Growth Phase)
b. another protein, called RB
• Additional growth ( retinoblastoma) is tasked to interpret
growth signals and nutrient availability
In this stage, the cell
signals. If a cell receives a ‘go –ahead’
creates the proteins that will signal at the G1 checkpoint, it usually
aid in cell division. The cell continue with the cell cycle. If it does not
makes final preparations to receive such signal, it will exit the cell cycle
divide (additional and switch to a non- dividing state Go.
organelles/ proteins).
2. The cell cycle may also halt at G2 checkpoint if
DNA has not finished replicating. This checkpoint
prohibits the initiation of the M stage before
completion of the S stage. If DNA is damaged 2. Repair of damaged tissue
physically, such as from exposure to solar radiation 3. If cell gets too big, it cannot get enough
or X-rays, the G2 checkpoint offers the opportunity nutrients into the cell and wastes out
for DNA to be repaired. of the cell

3. M checkpoint happens during the mitotic stage.  The original cell is called the
The cycle stops if the chromosomes are not parent cell; 2 new cells are
attached properly to the mitotic spindle. Usually,
called daughter cells
the mitotic spindle assures that the chromosomes
 Before cell division occurs , the
are distributed correctly to the daughter cells.
cell replicates (copies) all of its
DNA, so each daughter cell
gets complete set of genetic
PHASES OF THE CELL CYCLE
information from parent cell
 Each daughter cell is exactly
like the parent cell – same kind
and number of chromosomes
as the original cell
DNA

• DNA is located in the nucleus and

controls all cell activities including cell
division
• Long and thread-like DNA in a non-
dividing cell is called chromatin
• Doubled, coiled, short DNA in a
dividing cell is called chromosome

• Chromosomes: One long continuous

thread of DNA that consists of
numerous genes along with regulatory
information.

Consists of 2 parts: chromatid and centromere

o 2 identical “sister”
chromatids attached at an area
MITOSIS in the middle called a
centromere
Cell Division — process by which a cell divides o When cells divide, “sister”
into 2 new cells chromatids separate and 1
goes to each new cell
Why do cells need to divide?
Chromosomes & Their Structure
1. Living things grow by producing more
• DNA wraps around proteins called
cells, NOT because each cell increases
histones, forming chromatin.
in size
 • Histones interact with each other, – 1. Gap 1 (G1): cell growth and
further compacting the DNA. normal functions

Telomeres: repeating nucleotides on G1 (1st Growth phase)

the end of the chromosome that do not • Cells mature & increase in size
code for genes. • Normal metabolic activities
• Must pass through a
Chromosome number checkpoint before it can go to S
phase
• Every organism has its own specific
number of chromosomes – 2. DNA synthesis (S): copies
Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes DNA
• 46 chromosomes (23 from
each parent) S (Synthesis Phase)
• Pairs 1-22= autosomes • DNA is replicated (copied)
(autosomal)
chromosomes – 3. Gap 2 (G2): additional
• Pair 23= sex growth (chromatids become
chromosomes replicated chromosomes)
• Male- XY
• Female- XX
• All somatic (body) cells in an organism G2 (2nd Growth Phase)
have the same kind and number of
chromosomes • Has to pass a checkpoint
• Everything must be in order-
adequate cell size, undamaged
Cell Cycle -- series of events cells go through as DNA- before the cell goes
they grow and divide through mitosis and division.

• The cell cycle is a repeated pattern of – 4. Mitosis (M): includes

growth and division that occurs in division of the cell nucleus
eukaryotic cells. (mitosis) and division of the cell
cytoplasm (cytokinesis)
• Cell grows, prepares for division, then – Mitosis occurs only if
divides to form 2 daughter cells – each the cell is large
of which then begins the cycle again enough and the DNA
• This cycle consists of three phases: G1, undamaged.
S, G2
• The first phase represents cell growth
while the last two phases represent cell
division.
Interphase—period of cell growth and
development
The cell cycle has four main stages.
• Longest part of a cell's life
The main stages of the cell cycle are cycle
gap 1, synthesis, gap 2, and mitosis.
 • Called the "resting • The purpose of mitosis is cell division:
stage" because the cell making two cells out of one.
isn't dividing • Each cell has to have its own
• Purpose: cells grow, develop, & cytoplasm and DNA.
carry on all their normal • The DNA is replicated in interphase
metabolic functions when two chromosome strands
• There are 3 parts became four strands (two strands per
• 1.) Gap 1 chromatid).
• 2.) Synthesis • In mitosis the four strands (two sister
• 3.) Gap 2 chromatid) have to break apart so that
each new cell only has one double-
stranded chromosome.
• DNA replication (copying) occurs • Two sister chromatids together make a
during Interphase chromosome
• During Interphase the cell also grows,
carries out normal cell activities,
replicates all other organelles Why does mitosis occur?
The cell spends most of its life cycle in So each new daughter cell has nucleus with a
complete set of chromosomes
Interphase
4 phases of nuclear division (mitosis),
By the end of interphase a cell has two full directed by the cell’s DNA (PMAT)
sets of DNA (chromosomes) and is large
enough to begin the division process. 1. Prophase is characterized by four events:
1. Chromosomes condense and
are more visible.
2. The nuclear membrane
M Phase/(Mitosis):
(envelope) disappears.
• Includes two processes : Mitosis and 3. Centrioles have separated and
taken positions on the opposite
Cytokinesis
poles of the cell.
4. Spindle fibers form and radiate
Mitosis – division of the nucleus into 2 nuclei,
toward the center of the cell.
each with the same number of chromosomes 2. Metaphase—(Middle) (the shortest phase of
Mitosis occurs in all the somatic (body) cells mitosis) is characterized by two events:

• Somatic (body) Cells: contains 1. Chromosomes line up in

both sets of homologous middle of cell
2. Spindle fibers connect to
chromosomes (one from each chromosomes
parent) 3. Anaphase—(Apart) is characterized by three
events:
• Diploid (2n) “two sets-
2 chromosomes at 1. Centromeres that join the
sister chromatids split.
each pair- 23 pairs = 46 2. Sister chromatids separate
chromosomes total” becoming individual
chromosomes.
 3. Separated chromatids move to Benign tumors are not cancerous –
opposite poles of the cell. these cells do not spread to other parts
4. Telophase—(Two) consist of four events of the body
1. Chromosomes uncoil Malignant tumors are cancerous –
2. Nuclear envelopes form
these cells break loose and can invade
3. 2 new nuclei are formed
4. Spindle fibers disappear and destroy healthy tissue in other
parts of the body (called metastasis)

Cytokinesis — the division of the rest of the a. Cancers of the epithelial cell
cell (cytoplasm and organelles) after the are called carcinomas
nucleus divides
b. Connective tissue cancers
• Cytokinesis is the division of the are called sarcomas.
cytoplasm into two individual cells.
• The process of cytokinesis differs Cells divide at different rates
somewhat in plant and animal cells.
• Rate of division is linked to your body’s
• In animal cells the cell membrane
need for those cells
forms a cleavage furrow that • Rate of division is greater in embryo
eventually pinches the cell into two and children than adults.
nearly equal parts, each part containing • Varies with tissue
its own nucleus and cytoplasmic
organelles.
• Cells that rarely divide are thought to
Cytokinesis differs in animal and plant
cells.
– In animal cells, the membrane
pinches closed.
– In plant cells, a cell plate forms. enter a stage G0
After mitosis and cytokinesis, the cell returns to • In G0 - cells are unlikely to divide and
Interphase to continue to grow and perform carry out normal metabolic functions.
regular cell activities Cell size is limited
• Cells have upper and lower size limits.
Cell Division Control • too small—> can’t contain all the
organelles & molecules
• DNA controls all cell activities including • too big —> not adequate for the
cell division exchange of materials
• Some cells lose their ability to control
their rate of cell division – the DNA of
these cells has become damaged or
changed (mutated)
• These super-dividing cells form masses
called tumors
Ratio of cell surface area to volume
• When a cell grows the volume
increases much faster than the surface
area.
• Cell will not be able to move
substances in and out of the cell at
sufficient rates/quantities.

Diploid

• Autosomal cells – body cells or any

non- sex cell.
• A cell that contains 2 sets of
chromosomes.
-The number is represented as 2n (n= number
of chromosomes)
Humans have 2 sets of 23 chromosomes for a
total of 46 chromosomes. 2n or 2(23)=46

Somatic Cells

• In any given somatic cell there are 22

pairs of regular chromosomes and 1
pair of sex chromosomes.

Karyotype – the number and appearance of

chromosomes

• Homologous chromosomes are two

chromosomes that are the same. This
happens because diploid organisms
have two of each chromosome. Each of
the pairs is a homologous pair. One of
the homologous chromosomes was
inherited from the individual's mother
and the other one was inherited from
the individual's father. For example,
the two chromosomes #1 are
homologous. However, a chromosome
#1 and a chromosome #2 are not
homologous because they are different
chromosomes.