CE 211

MECHANICS OF SOLIDS I

Stress
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Concept of Stress

The main objective of the study of mechanics of materials is

to provide the future engineer with the means of analyzing
and designing various machines and load bearing structures.
Both the analysis and design of a given structure involve the
determination of stresses and deformations. This slide is
devoted to the concept of stress.
• Stress: Stress is defined as the intensity of force per unit
area at any point. To designate stress notations 𝛔𝛔 (normal
stress) and 𝛕𝛕 (shear stress) are used.

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Free Body and Internal Linear Force

Figure 1: Sectioned body: (a) free body with some internal forces,
(b) enlarged view with components of ∆P
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Concept of Stress
• Normal Stress: Stress resulting from force that is normal to
the surface is called normal stress. It can be either tensile
stress or compressive stress. If the normal force is away
from the surface, the resulting stress is tensile normal stress
and if the force acts on an inward direction to the surface
the resulting stress is compressive normal stress. Notations
σ is used to designate normal stress.
• Shear Stress: Stress that results from forces that are along
the surface is called shear stress. Notations τ is used to
designate shear stress.

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

• A member subjected to a general combination of loads is

cut into two segments by a plane passing through Q
• The distribution of internal stress components may be
defined as,
∆𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥
𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 = lim
∆𝐴𝐴→0 ∆𝐴𝐴

∆𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 ∆𝑉𝑉𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = lim 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = lim
∆𝐴𝐴→0 ∆𝐴𝐴 ∆𝐴𝐴→0 ∆𝐴𝐴

• For equilibrium, an equal and opposite internal force and

stress distribution must be exerted on the other segment of
the member.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
• Direction of Stress: Direction of stress is the direction of force from
which the stress occurs. Two subscripts are required to completely
indicate the direction of stress: the first subscript indicates the
direction of normal to the plane on which the stress acts, the
second subscript indicates the direction of the force from which the
stress occurs.

Figure 2
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Thus 𝝈𝝈𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙 is complete notations of

normal stress that occurs on a plane
for which direction of normal is the
direction of x axis and direction of
force is the direction of x axis, and 𝝉𝝉𝒙𝒙𝒙𝒙
is complete notations of shear stress
that occurs on a plane for which
direction of normal is the direction of x
axis and direction of force is the
Figure 2
direction of y axis. For the plane
shown direction of normal is the x axis,
thus first subscript of any stress acting
on this plane is x and the second
subscript is the direction of the force
from which the stress occurs.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Sign convention for stress components: If the direction of the positive
normal stress is the direction of the positive axis on any plane, the
direction of positive shear stress is the direction of respective positive
axis and if the direction of the positive normal stress is the direction of
the negative axis on any plane, the direction of positive shear stress is
the direction of respective negative axis.
Stress Tensor: A force P can be resolved into three components (in the
direction of the axis system in Cartesian coordinate system) , load can
be written in vector form.
Px
𝑃𝑃 = Py
Pz 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥
Analogously, the stress components ≡ 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧
can be assembled as follows: 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑧𝑧 𝜎𝜎𝑧𝑧
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
At first glance it appears that a total of
nine stress components (three on each
face x three face) are required to fully
define the state of stress at a point.
Stress components are defined for the
planes cut parallel to the x, y and z
axes. For equilibrium, equal and
opposite stresses are exerted on the
Figure 2 hidden planes.
The combination of forces generated by the stresses must satisfy the
conditions for equilibrium:
∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑧𝑧 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑥𝑥 = ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑦𝑦 = ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 = 0
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

State of Stress

Figure 3: Elements in
Pure Shear

Consider the moments about the z axis:

∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 = 0 = 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 − 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦. 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 . 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 = 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑦𝑦
Similarly, 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑧𝑧 = 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑦𝑦 and 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑧𝑧 = 𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥
It follows that only 6 components of stress are required to define the
complete state of stress.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Differential Equations of Equilibrium

An infinitesimal element of a body must be in equilibrium. For the two
dimensional case, the system of stresses acting on an infinitesimal
element (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑)(1) is shown in Fig. 4. In this derivation, the element
is of unit thickness in the direction perpendicular to the plane of the
paper.

Figure 4: Infinitesimal Element With Stresses and Body Forces

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Note that the possibility of an increment in stresses from one face of
the element to another is accounted for. For example, since the rate
of change of 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 in the 𝑥𝑥 direction is 𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 ⁄𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 and a step of 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 is
made, the increment is 𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 ⁄𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑. The partial derivative notation
has to be used to differentiate between the directions.
The inertial or body forces, such as those caused by the
weight or the magnetic effect, are designated 𝑋𝑋 and 𝑌𝑌 and are
associated with the unit volume of the material. With these
notations,
𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥
� 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 0 → +, 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 1 − 𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 1
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥
+ 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 + 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 × 1 − 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝑑𝑑𝑥𝑥 × 1 + 𝑋𝑋 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 × 1 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Simplifying and recalling that 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 holds true, one obtains the
basic equilibrium equation for the x direction. This equation, together
with an analogous one for the y direction, reads
𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥
+ + 𝑋𝑋 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦
... ... ... ... ... ... (1)
𝜕𝜕𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎𝑦𝑦
+ + 𝑌𝑌 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦

The moment equilibrium of the element requiring ∑ 𝑀𝑀𝑧𝑧 = 0 is assured

by having 𝜏𝜏𝑥𝑥𝑥𝑥 = 𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 .
It can be shown that for the three-dimensional case, a typical
equation from a set of three is :
𝜕𝜕𝜎𝜎𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜏𝜏𝑦𝑦𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜏𝜏𝑧𝑧𝑥𝑥
+ + + 𝑋𝑋 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Note that in deriving the previous equations, mechanical

properties of the material have not been used. This means
that these equations are applicable whether a material is
elastic, plastic, or viscoelastic. Also it is very important to note
that there are not enough equations of equilibrium to solve
for the unknown stresses. In the two-dimensional case, given
by Eq. 1, there are three unknown stresses, and only two
equations. For the three-dimensional case, there are six
stresses, but only three equations.

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Maximum Normal Stress in Axially Loaded Bars

Figure 5: Successive Steps in Determining The Largest Normal Stress

in an Axially Loaded Bar
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Bearing Stress
Sometimes compressive stresses arise where one body is supported by
another. If the resultant of the applied forces coincides with the centroid
of the contact area between the two bodies, the intensity of force, or
stress, between the two bodies can again be determined from equation:
𝜎𝜎 = 𝑃𝑃⁄𝐴𝐴. It is customary to refer to this normal stress as a bearing
stress.
Figure 6, where a short block bears on a
concrete pier and the latter bears on
the soil, illustrates such a stress.
These bearing stresses can be
approximated by dividing the applied
force P by the corresponding contact Figure 6: Bearing Stresses Occur
area giving a useful nominal bearing Between the Block and Pier, as well
stress. as Between the Pier and Soil
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Shear Stresses

Figure 7: Loading Conditions Causing Shear Stresses Between Interfaces of Glued Blocks
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Figure 8: Loading Conditions Causing Shear and Bearing Stress in Bolts

Figure 9: Loading Condition

Causing Critical Shear in
Two Plates of Fillet Welds

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Example 1:
The beam BE in Fig. 10(a) is used
for hoisting machinery. It is
anchored by two bolts at B, and
at C it rests on a parapet wall.
The essential details are given in
the figure. Note that the bolts
are threaded, as shown in Fig.
10(d), with 𝑑𝑑 = 16 mm at the
root of the threads. If this hoist
can be subjected to a force of 10
kN, determine the stress in bolts
BD and the bearing stress at C.
Assume that the weight of the
beam is negligible in comparison
with the loads handled.
Figure 10
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Solution:
To solve this problem, the actual
situation is idealized and a free-
body diagram is made on which all
known and unknown forces are
indicated. This is shown in Fig.
10(b). The vertical reactions of B
and C are unknown. Figure 10 (b)

They are indicated, respectively, as 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 and 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 , where the first subscript
identifies the location, and the second the line of action of the unknown
force. As the long bolts BD are not effective in resisting the horizontal force,
only an unknown horizontal reaction at C is assumed and marked as
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 . The applied known force P is shown in its proper location. After a free-
body diagram is prepared, the equations of statics are applied and solved
for the unknown forces.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Figure 10 (b)

∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 0
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 = 0 ↷ + 10 2.5 + 1 − 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 × 1 = 0 𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 35 kN↑
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 = 0 ↷ + 10 × 2.5 − 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 × 1 = 0 𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 = 25 kN
Check: ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0 ↑ + −25 + 35 − 10 = 0

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Cross-sectional area of one 20-mm bolt: 𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋102 = 314 mm2 .
This is not the minimum area of a bolt; threads reduce it.
The cross-sectional area of one 20-mm bolt at the root of the
threads is:
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝜋𝜋82 = 201 mm2
Maximum normal tensile stress in each of the two bolts BD:
𝑅𝑅𝐵𝐵𝑦𝑦 25×103
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = = = 62 N⁄mm2 = 62 MPa
2𝐴𝐴 2×201
Tensile stress in the shank of the bolts BD:
25×103
𝜎𝜎 = = 39.8 N⁄mm2 = 39.8 MPa
2×314
Contact area at C:
𝐴𝐴 = 200 × 200 = 40 × 103 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚2
Bearing stress at C:
𝑅𝑅𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 35×103
𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = = = 0.875 N⁄mm2 = 0.875 MPa
𝐴𝐴 40×103
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Example 2:
The concrete pier shown in Fig. 11(a) is loaded at the top with a uniformly
distributed load of 20 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2 . Investigate the state of stress at a level 1 m
above the base. Concrete weighs approximately 25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚3 .

Figure 11
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Solution:
In this problem, the weight of the structure itself is appreciable and
must be included in the calculations.
Weight of the whole pier:
W = [(0.5 + 1.5)/2] × 0.5 × 2 × 25 = 25 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Total applied force:
𝑃𝑃 = 20 × 0.5 × 0.5 = 5 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0, reaction at the base:
𝑅𝑅 = 𝑊𝑊 + 𝑃𝑃 = 30 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Using the upper part of the pier as a free body, Fig. 11(b), the weight of
the pier above the section :
𝑊𝑊1 = 0.5 + 1 × 0.5 × 1 × 25⁄2 = 9.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
From ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0, the force at the section :
𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 = 𝑃𝑃 + 𝑊𝑊1 = 14.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Hence, using equation: 𝜎𝜎 = 𝑃𝑃⁄𝐴𝐴, the normal stress at the level a-a is
𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 14.4
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎 = = = 28.8 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘⁄𝑚𝑚2
𝐴𝐴 0.5×1

This stress is compressive as 𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 acts on the section.

Using the lower part of the pier as a free body, Fig. 11(c), the weight of
the pier below the section:
𝑊𝑊2 = 1 + 1.5 × 0.5 × 1 × 25⁄2 = 15.6 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
From ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0, the force at the section:
𝐹𝐹𝑎𝑎 = 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑊𝑊2 = 14.4 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Example 3:
A bracket of negligible weight shown in Fig. 12(a) is loaded with a vertical force
P of 3 kips. For interconnection purposes, the bar ends are clevised (forked).
Pertinent dimensions are shown in the figure. Find the axial stresses in
members AB and BC and the bearing and shear stresses for pin C. All pins are
0.375 in in diameter.

Figure 12
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Figure 12
Solution:
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 = 0 ↶ + +𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 3 + 6 − 3 6 = 0 𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = +2 k
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ⁄2 = 2⁄2 = +1k
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 = 2 5⁄2 = +2.23 k
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴 = 0 ↷ + +3 6 + 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 9 = 0, 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 = −2 k
𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 = −2 k
𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶 = 2 −2 = −2.83 k
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Tensile stress in main bar AB:
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 2.23
𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = = = 17.8 ksi
𝐴𝐴 0.25 × 0.50
Tensile stress in clevis of bar AB, Fig. 12(e):
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 2.23
𝜎𝜎𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = = = 11.2 ksi
𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2 × 0.20 × (0.875 − 0.375)

Figure 12 (e)

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Compressive stress in main bar BC:
𝐹𝐹 2.83
𝜎𝜎𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 = 𝐶𝐶 = = 12.9 ksi
𝐴𝐴 0.875×0.25
In the compression member, the net section at the clevis need not be
investigated; see Fig.12(f) for the transfer of forces. The bearing stress at
the pin is more critical.
Bearing between pin C and the clevis:
𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶 2.83
𝜎𝜎𝐵𝐵 = = = 18.8 ksi
𝐴𝐴𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 0.375×0.20×2

Bearing between the pin C and the main plate:

𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶 2.83
𝜎𝜎𝐵𝐵 = = = 30.2 ksi
𝐴𝐴 0.375×0.25
Double shear in pin C:
𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶 2.83
𝜏𝜏 = = = 12.9 ksi
𝐴𝐴 2𝜋𝜋 0.375/2 2 Figure 12 (f)
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Deterministic Design of Members: Axially Loaded Bars

Allowable and ultimate stresses may be converted into the
allowable and ultimate forces or “loads,” respectively, that a
member can resist Also a significant ratio may be formed:
ultimate load for a member
allowable load for a member

This ratio must always be greater than unity. Traditionally this

factor is recast in terms of stresses as :
maximum useful material strength (stress)
F. S. =
allowable stress

and is widely used not only for axially loaded members, but also
for any type of member and loading conditions.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

The application of the ASD approach for axially loaded

members is both simple and direct. From equation: 𝜎𝜎 = 𝑃𝑃⁄𝐴𝐴, it
follows that the required net area A of a member is:

𝑃𝑃
𝐴𝐴 = ... ... ... ... ... ... (2)
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎

where P is the applied axial force and 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 is the

allowable stress. Equation 2 is generally applicable to tension
members and short compression blocks.

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Example 4:
Reduce the size of bar AB in Example 3 by using a better material such as
chrome-vanadium steel. The ultimate strength of this steel is approximately
120 ksi. Use a factor of safety of 2.5.
Solution:
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 120⁄2.5 = 48 ksi. From Example 3, the force in the bar AB:
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴 = +2.23 kips. Required area: 𝐴𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 2.23⁄48 = 0.0464 in2 . Adopt:
0.20 in by 0.25 in bar. This provides an area of 0.20 0.25 =
0.050 in2 , which is slightly in excess of the required area. Many other
proportions of the bar are possible.

With the cross-sectional area selected, the actual or working

stress is somewhat below the allowable stress: 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 2.23⁄0.050 =
44.6 ksi. The actual fact or of safety is 120/(44.6) = 2.69, and the
actual margin of safety is 1.69.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Example 5:
Select members FC and CB in the truss of Fig. 13(a) to carry an inclined force P
of 650 kN. Set the allowable tensile stress at 140 MPa.

Figure 13
Solution:
∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 0 𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 − 520 = 0 𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷𝑥𝑥 = 520 kN
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐸𝐸 = 0 ↷ + 𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷𝑦𝑦 × 3 − 390 × 0.5 − 520 × 1.5 = 0
𝑅𝑅𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 = 325 kN
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐷𝐷 = 0 ↶ + 𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 × 3 + 520 × 1.5 − 390 × 2.5 = 0
𝑅𝑅𝐸𝐸 = 65 kN
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Figure 13
Using the free-body diagram in Fig. 13(c),
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐴𝐴 = 0 ↷ + 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 × 0.75 + 325 × 1 − 520 × 0.75 = 0
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = +86.7kN
𝐴𝐴𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 ⁄𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 86.7 × 103 ⁄140 = 620 mm2
(use 12.5 × 50-mm bar)
Using the free-body diagram in Fig. 13(d),
∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0 − 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑦𝑦 + 325 = 0 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑦𝑦 = 325 kN
𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 = 13 𝐹𝐹𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶 𝑦𝑦 ⁄3 = +391 kN
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

TO DO LIST FROM POPOV

Solve following problems in addition to solved

problems of different text books mentioned:
Problems from Chapter 1 (2nd ed):
9-12, 23, 27-30, 32-36, 38, 39, 44, 47, 50, 52, 53,
55-58.

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Sample Problems

Figure P1 Figure P2 Figure P3

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering

 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Figure P4 Figure P5

Figure P6 Figure P7
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Figure P8
Figure P9

Figure P10 Figure P11

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Review of Statics
• The structure is
designed to support a 30
kN load
d=20mm • The structure consists of
a boom and rod joined
600mm by pins (zero moment
connections) at the
junctions and supports
• Perform a static analysis
to determine the internal
800mm
30 kN
force in each structural
Figure 14 (a)
member and the reaction
forces at the supports
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Structure Free-Body Diagram

• Structure is detached from supports
and the loads and reaction forces are
indicated
• Conditions for static equilibrium:
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐶𝐶 = 0 = 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 0.6𝑚𝑚 − 30𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 0.8𝑚𝑚

0.6m
𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 = 40 kN
∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑥𝑥 = 0 = 𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 + 𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥
𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 = −𝐴𝐴𝑥𝑥 = −40 kN
0.8m ∑ 𝐹𝐹𝑦𝑦 = 0 = 𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 − 30 kN = 0
𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 + 𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 30 kN
Figure 14 (b) • Ay and Cy can not be determined from
these equations
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Component Free-Body Diagram
• In addition to the complete structure,
each component must satisfy the
conditions for static equilibrium
0.6m • Consider a free-body diagram for the
boom:
∑ 𝑀𝑀𝐵𝐵 = 0 = −𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 (0.8𝑚𝑚)
𝐴𝐴𝑦𝑦 = 0
0.8m

Figure 14 (b) substitute into the structure

Ay By equilibrium equation
𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 30 kN
Ax Bz • Results:
𝐴𝐴 = 40 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 → 𝐶𝐶𝑥𝑥 = 40 kN ←
𝐶𝐶𝑦𝑦 = 30 kN ↑
Reaction forces are directed along
Figure 14 (c)
boom and rod.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Method of Joints
• The boom and rod are 2-force members,
i.e., the members are subjected to only two
forces which are applied at member ends
• For equilibrium, the forces must be parallel
to an axis between the force application
points, equal in magnitude, and in opposite
directions
• Joints must satisfy the conditions for static
equilibrium which may be expressed in the
form of a force triangle:
∑ 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵 = 0
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵𝐶𝐶 30 𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘
= =
4 5 3
𝐹𝐹𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 = 40 kN 𝐹𝐹𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 50 kN
Figure 14 (d)
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Stress Analysis
d=20mm Can the structure safely support the 30 kN
load?
600mm
• From a statics analysis
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
800mm • At any section through member BC, the
30 kN
internal force is 50 kN with a force
Figure 15 (a) intensity or stress of :
𝑃𝑃 50×103 N
𝜎𝜎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = = = 159 MPa
𝐴𝐴 314×10−6 m2
• From the material properties for steel, the
allowable stress is:
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 165 Mpa
• Conclusion: the strength of member BC is
Figure 15 (b) adequate
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Design
• Design of new structures requires
d=20mm
selection of appropriate materials and
600mm
component dimensions to meet
performance requirements
• For reasons based on cost, weight,
availability, etc., the choice is made to
800mm
construct the rod from aluminum (𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
30 kN 100 MPa). What is an appropriate
Figure 15 (a) choice for the rod diameter?
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃 50×103 N
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝐴𝐴 = = = 500 × 10−6 m2
𝐴𝐴 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 100×106 Pa
𝑑𝑑 2
𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋
4
4𝐴𝐴 4 500×10−6 m2
𝑑𝑑 = = = 2.52 × 10−2 m2 = 25.2 mm
𝜋𝜋 𝜋𝜋

• An aluminum rod 26 mm or more in diameter is adequate

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Axial Loading: Normal Stress

• The resultant of the internal forces for an axially
loaded member is normal to a section cut
perpendicular to the member axis.
• The force intensity on that section is defined as
the normal stress.
∆𝐹𝐹 𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 = lim 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
∆𝐴𝐴→0 ∆𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
• The normal stress at a particular point may not
be equal to the average stress but the resultant
of the stress distribution must satisfy :
𝑃𝑃 = 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴 = ∫ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∫𝐴𝐴 𝜎𝜎 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
• The detailed distribution of stress is statically
indeterminate, i.e., can not be found from
Figure 16
statics alone.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Centric & Eccentric Loading

• A uniform distribution of stress in a section
infers that the line of action for the resultant of
the internal forces passes through the centroid
of the section.
• A uniform distribution of stress is only possible
if the concentrated loads on the end sections of
two-force members are applied at the section
centroids. This is referred to as centric loading.
• If a two-force member is eccentrically loaded,
then the resultant of the stress distribution in a
section must yield an axial force and a moment.
• The stress distributions in eccentrically loaded
Figure 17 members cannot be uniform or symmetric.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Shearing Stress
• Forces P and P’ are applied transversely to the
member AB.
• Corresponding internal forces act in the plane of
section C and are called shearing forces.
• The resultant of the internal shear force
distribution is defined as the shear of the section
and is equal to the load P.
• The corresponding average shear stress is :
𝑃𝑃
𝜏𝜏𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 =
𝐴𝐴
• Shear stress distribution varies from zero at the
member surfaces to maximum values that may
be much larger than the average value.
• The shear stress distribution cannot be assumed
Figure 18 to be uniform.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Shearing Stress Example
Single Shear Double Shear

𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹 𝑃𝑃 𝐹𝐹
𝜏𝜏𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = 𝜏𝜏𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = =
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴 2𝐴𝐴
Figure 19 Figure 20
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Bearing Stress in Connections

• Bolts, rivets, and pins create
stresses on the points of
contact or bearing surfaces of
the members they connect.
• The resultant of the force
distribution on the surface is
equal and opposite to the
force exerted on the pin.
• Corresponding average force
intensity is called the bearing
stress,
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
Figure 21
𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = =
𝐴𝐴 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Stress Analysis & Design Example
• Would like to determine
the stresses in the
members and connections
of the structure shown.
• From a statics analysis:
FAB = 40 kN (compression)
FBC = 50 kN (tension)
• Must consider maximum
normal stresses in AB and
BC, and the shearing stress
and bearing stress at each
pinned connection
Figure 22
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Rod & Boom Normal Stresses

• The rod is in tension with an axial force of 50 kN.
• At the rod center, the average normal stress in the
circular cross-section 𝐴𝐴 = 314 × 10−6 m2 is
𝜎𝜎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = +159 MPa.
• At the flattened rod ends, the smallest cross-
sectional area occurs at the pin centerline,
𝐴𝐴 = 20 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 40𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 − 25𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 300 × 10−6 m2
Figure 22 𝑃𝑃 50×103 𝑁𝑁
𝜎𝜎𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵,𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 = = = 167 Mpa
𝐴𝐴 300×10−6 m2

• The boom is in compression with an axial force of 40 kN and average normal

stress of –26.7 MPa.
• The minimum area sections at the boom ends are unstressed since the
boom is in compression.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Pin Shearing Stresses

• The cross-sectional area for pins at A, B, and C,
2
2
25 mm
𝐴𝐴 = 𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟 = 𝜋𝜋 = 491 × 10−6 m2
2
• The force on the pin at C is equal to the force
exerted by the rod BC,
𝑃𝑃 50 × 103 𝑁𝑁
𝜏𝜏𝐶𝐶,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = −6 2
= 102 M𝑃𝑃a
𝐴𝐴 491 × 10 m
• The pin at A is in double shear with a total
force equal to the force exerted by the boom
AB,
𝑃𝑃 20 kN
𝜏𝜏𝐴𝐴,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = −6 2
= 40.7 MPa
Figure 22 𝐴𝐴 491 × 10 m
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

• Divide the pin at B into sections to

determine the section with the largest
shear force,

PE = 15 kN

PG = 25 kN (largest)

• Evaluate the corresponding average

shearing stress,

𝑃𝑃𝐺𝐺 25 kN
𝜏𝜏𝐵𝐵,𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = =
𝐴𝐴 491 × 10−6 m2
= 50.9 M𝑃𝑃a
Figure 22
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Pin Bearing Stresses

• To determine the bearing stress at A in
the boom AB, we have t = 30 mm and d =
25 mm,

𝑃𝑃 40 kN
𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = = = 53.3 MPa
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (30mm)(25mm)

• To determine the bearing stress at A in

the bracket, we have t = 2(25 mm) = 50
mm and d = 25 mm,

𝑃𝑃 40 kN
𝜎𝜎𝑏𝑏 = = = 32.0 MPa
𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 (50mm)(25mm)
Figure 22
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Stress in Two Force Members

• Axial forces on a two force member
result in only normal stresses on a plane
cut perpendicular to the member axis.

• Transverse forces on bolts and pins result

in only shear stresses on the plane
perpendicular to bolt or pin axis.

•Will show that either axial or

transverse forces may produce
both normal and shear stresses
with respect to a plane other
than one cut perpendicular to
the member axis.
Figure 23
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Stress on an Oblique Plane

• Pass a section through the member forming
an angle θ with the normal plane.
• From equilibrium conditions, the
distributed forces (stresses) on the plane
must be equivalent to the force P.
• Resolve P into components normal and
tangential to the oblique section,
𝐹𝐹 = 𝑃𝑃 cos 𝜃𝜃 V = 𝑃𝑃 sin 𝜃𝜃
• The average normal and shear stresses on
the oblique plane are :
𝐹𝐹 𝑃𝑃 cos 𝜃𝜃 𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 = = 𝐴𝐴0 = cos 2 𝜃𝜃
𝐴𝐴𝜃𝜃 �cos 𝜃𝜃 𝐴𝐴0
𝑉𝑉 𝑃𝑃 sin 𝜃𝜃 𝑃𝑃
τ= = 𝐴𝐴0 = sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
Figure 24 𝐴𝐴𝜃𝜃 �cos 𝜃𝜃 𝐴𝐴0
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Maximum Stresses
• Normal and shearing stresses on an
oblique plane
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎 = cos 2 𝜃𝜃 τ= sin 𝜃𝜃 cos 𝜃𝜃
𝐴𝐴0 𝐴𝐴0

• The maximum normal stress occurs when

the reference plane is perpendicular to
the member axis,
𝑃𝑃
𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚 = 𝜏𝜏 ′ = 0
𝐴𝐴0

• The maximum shear stress occurs for a

plane at ±45° with respect to the axis,
𝑃𝑃 𝑃𝑃
𝜏𝜏𝑚𝑚 = sin 45 cos 45 = = 𝜎𝜎 ′
𝐴𝐴0 2𝐴𝐴0
Figure 25
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Factor of Safety
Structural members or Factor of safety considerations:
machines must be designed • Uncertainty in material
such that the working stresses properties
are less than the ultimate • Uncertainty of loadings
strength of the material. • Uncertainty of analyses
• Number of loading cycles
• Types of failure
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = Factor of Safety
• Maintenance requirements and
𝜎𝜎𝑢𝑢 𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈𝑈 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 deterioration effects
𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = =
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 • Importance of member to
structures integrity
• Risk to life and property
• Influence on machine function
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Stress Concentration: Hole

Discontinuities of cross
section may result in high 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
localized or concentrated 𝑘𝑘 = Figure 26(a) : Flat Bars with Holes
stresses. 𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I

Stress Concentration: Fillet

Figure 26(b) : Flat Bars with Fillets

Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
Example 5:
Determine the largest axial load P that can be safely supported by a flat
steel bar consisting of two portions, both 10 mm thick, and respectively
40 and 60 mm wide, connected by fillets of radius r = 8 mm. Assume an
allowable normal stress of 165 MPa.

Figure 27

Solution:
• Determine the geometric ratios and find the stress concentration
factor from Fig. 26(b).
• Find the allowable average normal stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress concentration factor.
• Apply the definition of normal stress to find the allowable load.
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering
 CE 211
Mechanics of Solids I
• Determine the geometric ratios and
find the stress concentration factor
from Fig. 26(b).
𝐷𝐷 60 𝑟𝑟 8
= = 1.5 = = 0.2
𝑑𝑑 40 𝑑𝑑 40
𝐾𝐾 = 1.82
• Find the allowable average normal
stress using the material allowable
normal stress and the stress
concentration factor.
Figure 26(b) 𝜎𝜎𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 165 𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀
𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = = = 90.7 Mpa
𝐾𝐾 1.82
• Apply the definition of normal stress to find the allowable load.
𝑃𝑃 = 𝐴𝐴𝜎𝜎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 40𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 10𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 90.7𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀𝑀 = 36.3 × 103 N
𝑃𝑃 = 36.3 kN
Prof. Dr. Bashir Ahmed Department of Civil Engineering