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A Systematic Review on Firefly Algorithm: Past, Present, and Future

Preprint · April 2020

DOI: 10.36227/techrxiv.12122748

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 A Systematic Review on Firefly Algorithm: Past,
Present, and Future
Himanshu Verma
Research Scholar
CSE Department
NIT Hamirpur,HP
[email protected]

ABSTRACT
Firefly Algorithm (FA) is one of the popular algorithm of Swarm Intelligence domain that can be used
in most of the areas of optimization. FA and its variants are simple to implement and easily understood.
These can be used to successfully solve the problems of different areas. Modification in original FA or hybrid
FA algorithms are required to solve diverse range of engineering problems. In this paper, a comprehensive
review of firefly algorithm is presented and various characteristics are discussed. The various variant of FA
such as binary, multi-objective and hybrid with other meta-heuristics are discussed. The applications and
performance evolution metric are presented. This paper provides the possible future research direction of
FA.

Keywords— Firefly, Swarm intelligence, Optimization, Nature inspired, Meta-heuristic.

I INTRODUCTION
Soft computing have various techniques for computation (as shown in fig.1) such as Neural system, Fuzzy, evolutionary
computing, chaos theory and many more. Swarm Intelligence (SI) is one of the very promising domain of AI (Artificial
Intelligence) as shown in fig.2, become drastically important and popular in last few years [1]. The study of behaviour
of ants, fireflies, bees, worms, termites, group of birds and fishes inspires the further research done in the field of SI[2],
as shown in fig.3,4. The coordinated behaviour of these groups direct them to achieve their desired goal. The simple
interaction between unsophisticated individuals leads group towards a self organizing behaviour for the whole group with
their collective intelligence. The simple interaction in this multi agent system forms this self organizing and coordinated
behaviour. Termites and worms interacts to other individuals for construction of their nests. Ants and bees forms a
collective behaviour to find out their food [3]. To get shortest way to the place where food has found from their colony,
ants use chemical pheromone trails while interact to each other. The informer scout bees have responsibility to find
new origins of food and these bees use waggle dance to communicate or direct the other bees. During the search of new
source of food, bees trade off the work of collection of new information (exploration) and the information (exploitation)
[3]. The bee colony is pretty much aware about when to use the food and when to search the food, to maximize intake
and minimize foraging effort.

These above mentioned swarm utilize their behaviour for making decisions such as: reproduction, foraging, finding
new home, division of task among each other, etc.[3]. The beauty of this approach is, information collected by interac-
tion of individuals in decentralized manner.

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Xin-She Yang inspired from the behaviour of fireflies and patterns formed by them, and develop a novel meta-heuristic
algorithm named as Firefly Algorithm (FA)[4]. It is stochastic, in nature. It is capable of solving NP-Hard optimization
problems. Some randomization is followed in this scheme after searching the set to available solutions. Fig.5 shows
basic framework of firefly algorithm. This approach finds the solution using trial and error methodology, which defines
Heuristic nature. However, it does not guarantee the optimal solution in some application [4].

Figure 1: Evolution of Firefly Algorithm

Figure 2: Domains of Artificial Intelligence

Exploration and exploitation are two most important balancing factors in FA [5]. Where, Exploration is the pro-
cess of finding diverse range of solution with in search space. Exploitation is searching with in best available coverage,

2
 Figure 3: Different Swarm Intelligence algorithm inspiration

Figure 4: Publications of different Swarm Intelligence Approaches [2]

while targeting or using the discovered information.

Firefly algorithm is a population based algorithm. FA is advantageous in comparison of single point search algorithms
such as
• Crossover process put together building block of different solutions.
• Cross over influence the focused search. I means that off-springs have same value if the parents are similar in
value of variables.
• Distraction in a landscape is minimized or ignored by a low pass filter.

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 Figure 5: General Framework of Firefly Algorithm

• For initializing position or making decision, it hedges to bad luck.

• The algorithm is opportunistic to tune good values of parameter to imbalance exploration and exploitation.

I.1 Characteristics of Fireflies

Fireflies has a flash light as a major characteristic. It can be used to attract possible mates and to warn from potential
threats or enemies. This working of flash light follow the physics’s rule.
• With increase in distance, flash light intensity decrease according to law of physics

Iα1/r2 (1)

where r is distance and I is intensity of light.

• Secondly, the firefly blink their flash light at regular time instances using θ= 2π, which is again a law of physics[6].
• Whenever a firefly comes in neighbourhood, they come together and form a couple. This behaviour inspired from
graph coloring problem[7].

The remaining structure of the paper is organized as follows. Section 2 consist the inspiration, working flow, algorithm
with complexity, controlling parameters, characteristics and application of classical firefly algorithm. However, Clas-
sification and analysis of FA is present in section 3. Furthermore, various significant application of firefly algorithm,
categorically described in section 4. and final conclusion of the paper is elaborated in section 5.

II CLASSICAL FIREFLY ALGORITHM

In 2008, Yang et al.[4] got inspiration from fireflies about their light emitting behaviour. They studied the pattern and
intensity of emitting light. On the basis of that study, they developed the firefly algorithm . They found out some
natural meta-heuristics in that algorithm. To determine the performance, they designed a 2D function having 4 peaks
and the results shows a multi- characteristics of algorithms. This algorithm can simultaneously find more optimal results
in the search space.

A newly developed firefly algorithm specially for multi- optimization problems introduced by yang et al. [8]. They

4
found out that fireflies can subdivide them in to subgroups due to stronger neighbour attraction over long distance
attractiveness. For experimental prove, the test functions of many multi- problems compared with genetic algorithms
and swarm intelligence claiming global optimum result, and observed that FA provide better success rate and efficiency.
Based on these fats some researchers said that FA is a powerful algorithm to solve even some of NP-hard Problems.

Considering a continuous optimization problem, Yang et al.[9] again use classical FA and shows experimented results to
solve non-linear pressure vessel optimized designing . Firstly they used some specific test function to validate algorithm.
the results shows pretty better results than PSO(particle swarm optimization).

Yang also reviewed some natural meta-heuristic algorithms like ACO, Cuckkoo search, genetic algorithm, differen-
tial evolution, harmony search, simulated annealing, PSO,and firefly algorithm [10]. Based on the common properties,
a new algorithm ’GEWA(Generalized Evolutionary Walk Algorithm)’ proposed by yang. This algorithm was a generic
meta-heuristic kind of optimization algorithm.
The GEWA has three major components:
• Global Exploration using randomization
• Use of random walk for intensive local search
• Use of elitism for ’Selection of Best’
This algorithm use problem dependent parameter to imbalance the exploration and exploitation.

A survey on Swarm intelligence inspirations, shows the inspiring factors for researchers to develop new nature in-
spired swarm intelligence algorithm. Parpinelli et al.[11] found out that these inspiring factors are: Bacterial foraging,
life cycle of slime moulds, Bio-luminescence of fireflies, Cockroach infestation, Bats echolocation, Bee’s algorithms based
on Bee’s foraging, Bee’s mating, Host seeking of mosquitoes. They also determined other applications of using meta-
heuristic features.

Zang et al.[12] did a systematic, analyzed reviewing of ACO, algorithms based on Bee’s characteristics, firefly algo-
rithm, genetic algorithm . Discussion on applications and principle behind original algorithms has done mainly. Fig.6
shows the major steps involved in firefly algorithm [4].

Figure 6: Working of FA

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II.1 Inspiration Behind Firefly
Fireflies get active in summer night as they prefer warm environment.

Bio-luminescence is a biochemical process that causing the flashing of light in fireflies. It is used for signal of courtship for
the mate and also used for warning signal if any potential predators is nearby. Some of the firefly spices use pheromone
like ants. The organ that produces light using bio-luminescent is known as lanterns. Most of the adult firefly can control
bio-luminescence process to emit low or high flash light. This flashing is initialized by the signal originating by central
nerve system of firefly.

Firefly start signaling to attract other firefly in response of this signal the other one flash. The mating couple of
firefly generate a unique pattern of flash, that is a very precisely timed on the basis of information like sex or identity.
The attraction depends upon the behavioural difference of signalling. Mostly the brighter flashing mate attracts the
other one. As the flashing intensity gets weaker with distance. Some of the firefly spices does not discriminate between
dull and bright flash signal.

The flash signal is pretty much visible so it can be used to discourage a variety of potential predator. On the ba-
sis of survival of fittest, the flashing is evolved and used as mechanism for defence. Therefore it can be used for warning
to predator.

Decentralized decision making and self organizing behaviour are two characteristics that are used in firefly algorithm.
To live in a common place interactive communication is a necessity. Individuals living in the group should adapt the
goal of group. They can not behave autonomously. This social life is dedicated to reproduction of fireflies and foraging.
The collective decision of group is closely related to the flashing pattern of fireflies which is most important biological
foundation for developing firefly algorithm.

Three ideal rules are followed by FA [6].

• Fireflies attract each other regardless their preference of Sex, because fireflies are unisex.
• This attraction depend on flash light brightness. Attraction start decreasing when flash brightness decreases,
when the between distance increases. So, the brighter one attracts the less bright firefly. If no bright flash firefly
is near then they move randomly.
• The objective function’s landscape defines the brightness of flash.
The proportionality of attractiveness depends on the intensity of light seen by other firefly. So the attractiveness
variation ’β’ on ’r’ distance expressed as [6]
2
β = β0 e−γr (2)
Here ’r’ equals to 0 and β0 denotes the attractiveness.

Let us assume that there are two firefly xi and xj . Movement of ith firefly towards j th firefly due to more bright-
ness is defined as
2
xi t+1 = xi t + β0 e−γrij (xj t − xi t ) + αt ti (3)
Where,
• Second part of eq.3 explains the attraction.
• 3rd part of eq. 3 is for randomization with αt .
• ti defines the vector of Random numbers generated by either Gaussian distribution or it can be introduced by
uniform distribution with time ’t’.

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Simple random walk is accompanied, when β0 is zero. FA become a reduced mutant version of PSO (Particle Swarm
optimisation) when γ is zero[4]. Levy flights and others, randomization of ti is easily extended some other distributions,
etc. [4].

’Fig.7’ shows the working of firefly algorithm. Let there are N initial solutions and i denotes the number of iter-

Figure 7: Flowchart of FA

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ation, with ’max itr’ maximum iteration number. ’I’ is the intensity or brightness of flash.
Algorithm 1: Steps of FA
Result: Best Solution Available
Let there are N initial solutions and i denotes the number of iteration, with ’max-itr’ maximum iteration
number. ’I’ is the intensity or brightness of flash;
1. Generate initial solution ’N’ randomly.;
2.for i ← 1 to max-itr do
Calculate Brightness I;
sort I such as Ij >= Ij−1 , for each j;
for j ← 1 to N − 1 do
for k ← j + 1 to N do
if Ik > Ij then
Firefly ’j’ move in the direction of Firefly ’k’;
end
end
end
Move firefly ’N’ in random manner;
end
3.Store the best solution

II.2 FA Characteristics:
firefly algorithm have been suffered from two important issue.
• Flash intensity variance
• Evaluation of attractiveness
The researchers must address these issues to solve the problem. In the algorithm, the flash intensity ’I’ determines a
solution ’S’, in proportion to the fitness value ’F’ such as I(S)αF(S). But we know that this intensity of light changes
with distance according to following relation:
2
I(r) = I0 e−γr (4)
where, I0 is Source Light intensity. γ is Fixed light absorption coefficient. r is Distance.
At r=0, i/r2 avoid the singularity due to combination of inverse square law and Gaussian absorption. Eq. 2 defines the
attraction due to emitted lighted. The intensity is the absolute measure of light while attractiveness relatively measure
to emitted light,judged by other fireflies.

Euclidean distance is computed between two fireflies(si , sj ), expressed as:

v
u k=2
uX
rij = ||si − sj|| = t (sik − sjk )2 (5)
k=1

Where, dimensions of the problem are represented by ’n’. The attraction of ith firefly towards more brighter j th firefly
is given as:
2
si = si + β0 e−γrij (si − sj ) + αi (6)
Where,  denotes the randomness extracted from Gaussian distribution [6].

Firefly movement made up of three main component such as:

• ith firefly’s current position.

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 • attraction toward more bright light emitting firefly.
• and Random walk, where α is randomize parameter and random generate number rang from zero to one.
Movement of fireflies depends only on random walk, when β0 =0. γ is a main factor of convergence speed. Accepting
range of γ is [0 to ∞] but depending on the optimization problem it may varies from 0.1 to 10 [6].

Three factors,
• α as randomization parameter
• β as Attractiveness
• γ as absorption coefficient
control Firefly algorithm

Two asymptotic behaviours of firefly algorithm has been observed as per parametric setting of γ, when γ leads from 0
and 1.

At γ → 0, β become β0 ( A special variant of Particle Swarm Optimization with constant Attractiveness at any place of
search space)

At γ → ∞, The second term of Eq.(7) become zero and the movement of firefly follows random walk (and become
parallel simulated annealing).

Any implementing of FA is become either of any these two asymptotic behaviour.

III Classification of Firefly Algorithm:

Various versions of FA have been proposed by different researchers. Multi-Objective optimization version of firefly
algorithm is also available. Chaos can be incorporated in FA for performance improvement. Hybrid variants of firefly
also are developed for performance enhancement. The general classification of firefly algorithm can be done in two most
effective manner such as parameter tuning and parameter control.

Parameter tuning is finding out the good values of used parameters before executing algorithm and fixing them during
course of iterations[13]. Parameter control is altering the value of parameter during the execution process[14].

The behaviour of firefly algorithm depends not only to the proper parameter value but also to the features of the
components involved in the algorithm. Therefore, the classification aspects of FA should considered the following
points:
• What is altered or Modified?
• How these changes are done?
• What is the scope of alteration?
The first aspect is based on the following factors:
• Firefly representation(Either Binary of real Value)
• Scheme of Population (Swarm or Multi-Swarm)
• Fitness function Growth
• Best Solution calculation (Elitism or non-Elitism)

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 • Movement of Fireflies can be Uniform, Levy Flights, Gaussian, chaos distribution)
The Second classification aspect is parametric control of FA such as Deterministic, Adaptive, Semi-Adaptive. The third
aspect affects FA as:
• Element of firefly
• Firefly as whole
• and, the population of Fireflies
In the start, FA seems like global optimization problem. It is not able to find optimized solution for some of the op-
timization problems. To get rid off the above mentioned problem, FA has been hybridized with other meta-heuristics
technique. Machine learning, heuristic nature, hybridization and many other techniques were incorporated in firefly
algorithm to solve many optimization problem. The main components of FA like initializing process, evaluation of
fitness function and movement calculation were modified to propose many hybrid FA.

Fig. 8 shows the classification of FA. Continuous optimization problems use the classical firefly algorithm. Inclu-

Figure 8: Classification of FA

sion of hybridization and several types of changes done in classical FA that make this algorithm possible to provide
optimal results. After such modification, FA is influenced to develop Elitist, Binary, Gaussian, Levi Flight, Chaos,
parallel algorithms. Fig.9 represent the graph of such categorical studies of firefly algorithm.

III.1 Modified FA:

The two significant factors for improvement of FA are : Light variation and Attraction. These two factors mainly lead
researchers to develop the other algorithms.

Surafel et al. [15] changed the random movement of brightest firefly and find out that brightness of light gets de-
creased if the current best position stop improving further. They tried to enhance the position of brightest firefly which
follows m-uniform random walk and move in best position direction.

A binary FA is proposed by Palit et al[16]. for crypt-analysis deciphering using Merkle-hellman knapsack cipher
algorithm . Almost all the components needs to modify for new binary firefly algorithm. Another researcher Falcon
et al.[17] did binary encoding on candidate solution with adaptive light absorption coefficient to improve search and
problem specific facts to deal with infeasible solutions.

10
 Figure 9: Classification of Firefly Algorithm

when System level fault detection combinatorial optimization problem is empirically analyzed, the results outperforms
AIS (artificial immune system) and PSO algorithms on the basis of memory requirements and convergence speed [18]
[19]. K. chandrasekaran [20] developed a binary version of FA to solve reliability constrained unit commitment problem.

Farahani [21] proposed a new variant of FA. He used Gaussian distribution to increase convergence speed for getting
global optimum move of all fireflies in every iteration. He used five different standard functions to test the algorithm
but the concluded experimental results are very promising and accurate than classical FA.

X.S. yang [22], overviewed inefficiency and convergence study of Meta-heuristics and provide a framework to ana-
lyze these. He also analyzed the impact of Gaussian random walk, levy flight on meta-heuristic results. He concluded
on the basis of results that to deal newly developed meta-heuristics, global and local exploitation imbalance trade-off
must be considered.

Inspired by Levy flight strategy for movement, a new meta-heuristic firefly algorithm was developed [23] that represent
better success rate and efficiency in comparison of GA and PSO. Efficiency and convergence associated Meta-heuristic
such as cuckoo search, FA, Swarm intelligence, levy flight and random walk are considered for analysis in this paper
[24]. In this analysis author tries to formulate some mathematical for meta-heuristic behaviour. He found out that
mathematical modeling was still a mystery even though the new natural meta-heuristic algorithms work well.

Dos et al. [25] used chaotic maps with a combination of Firefly algorithm to get better convergence of classic FA.
Chaos sequence helped to escape local optima effectively. Light absorption coefficient and randomize parameter of
equation (7) were tuned using chaos sequence. The power of chaotic map FA is defined by a benchmark of reliability-
redundancy optimization. Another researcher used chaos in FA to enhance global search mobility [26]. The tuning of
absorption coefficient and attractiveness was done using chaotic maps.

Subutic et al. [27] proposed parallelized firefly algorithm for unconstrained optimization problem and tested it on
standard benchmark function. A pretty fast and less time consuming algorithm has been obtained. But it is limited
only to the scenario when more than one population generation has been considered.

Husselmann et al.[28], firefly algorithm is used on GPU (parallel graphical processing unit) and compared with classical

11
FA on standard benchmark function basis. The proposed algorithm provide fast and much accurate result than original
FA. It is observed that original FA is suitable for uni-model optimization problem because less number of fireflies are
required which reduced the computation time drastically.

III.2 Hybrid FA:

Yang [29] introduce the first hybrid FA, which use eagle strategy as a meta-heuristic of search method. This eagle
strategy combines levy flight in FA, which shows the foraging behaviour of eagle. It is similar to levy flight because like
this eagle also randomly fly in their vicinity. Eagle catch the pray most efficiently.
Eagle Search algorithmic characteristic, the eagle strategy has two components such as
• Intensive Local search
• Random search by levy flight
Luthra et al.[30] used hybrid FA for mono alphabetic substitution cipher crypt-analysis. They use crossover and muta-
tion operation inspiring from genetic algorithm. They used dominant gene crossover operator and permutation mutation.

HEFA (Hybrid Evolutionary Firefly Algorithm) combined the classic FA with differential evolution to improve the
accuracy of search and information sharing between fireflies [31]. after calculating the fitness value this algorithm
divide the total population in two sub groups. the first group of fireflies is applied with classical FA while second
group adopt the differential evolution. the estimation of biological is done in this proposal. the result of HEKA are
more accurate and performing speed was excellent as compared to GA, PSO classical FA and Evolutionary programming.

A well known optimization problem, ’Graph three-coloring’ use hybrid classical FA with local search heuristic [32].
when a graph of 500 vertices generated by culberson graph generator, is applied with this proposed MFA (memetic
FA), HEA (Hybrid evolutionary algorithm), tabucol,EA-SAW algorithms for graph coloring. the FA outperforms rest
of algorithms. it state that FA could successfully solve various combinatorial optimization problems.

In a paper, published by Hassanzadeh et al. [33], A proposal of using FA for speech recognition by training SEFNN
(structure equivalent fuzzy neural network) parameter. the generalization ability of fuzzy neural network is improved
by firefly algorithm. the result shows that Speech recognition done by hybrid algorithm has higher recognition rate than
classical fuzzy neural network trained by PSO.

Nandy et al. [34] use Meta-heuristic FA with back propagation to train FFNN (feed forward neural network). back
propagation involved in FA to get faster and better convergence rate while training a feed forward neural network. The
developed algorithm take few iterations to converge local optima, while it is tested on some standard datasets. Less
convergence time and better convergence rate is provided by proposed algorithm as compared to GA applied on same
problem.

Another use of hybrid FA is for cellular learning automata. the meta heuristic ’Cellular leaning automata’ is used
to find diverse solution of firefly algorithm. local search is improved by FA. Results were tested on five benchmark
function and better exploration rate of standard FA and global optima has been found out [35].

A proposal of categorizing classical FA into three classes based on improved performance is published by farahani
et al. [36]. Adaptive randomization parameters and absorption coefficient was achieved using learning autometa in first
class. while in second class, balanced exploitation and exploration properties of meta heuristic was achieved using firefly
algorithm with hybrid genetic algorithm. Gaussian distribution inspired random walk was used for movement of fireflies
over search space done in thirst class. result displayed that a very competitive algorithm is proposed while comparing
to PSO and classical FA, after testing it on five standard benchmark functions.

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ACO was used to predict cancer by developing a FNT(flexible neural tree) for micro-array data [37]. FA tunes neural
tree parameter. model achieved optimal solution with faster convergence and low error rate. the comparative study of
FA and EPSO(extensive PSO) found superior success rate and efficiency with FA than EPSO.
Table 1 list performance and implementation details of different variants of firefly algorithm.

III.3 Reason of Efficiency:

As observed from above literature review, almost all of the proposal shows better and improved results. one must
can think about why Firefly algorithm is efficient in mostly cases. after analysing classical or standard FA few main
characteristics has been found out for its success and efficiency.such as:
• Firefly algorithm is aware about local attraction is superior than attraction at long distance. This is why FA divide
its population into different smaller subgroups. which makes efficient and it suitable for multi-model, non-linear
problems of optimization.
• Like PSO, Firefly algorithm does not have drawback of premature convergence because it does not make decisions
using explicit global best and historic individual best. Ignoring velocity does not degrade performance the FA.
• FA control scaling parameter to make it self adaptable to the problem landscape. FA can control it’s modality.
Firefly algorithm is a generalised form of SA (simulated annealing), PSO, Differential evolution. The changes in eq.6
describes these different versions.
• When β0 =0 it a type of parallel simulated annealing where α control the annealing schedule.
• Similarly, at γ =0 and β0 = Unif(0,1). It become a type of DE (differential evolution) without mutation where
β0 controls crossover rate.
• It become a PSO variant at γ =0 and current global best is used in place of sj .
This means, firefly algorithm have advantages of SA, PSO, DE which supports the efficient performance of FA.

IV Controlling Parameters:
As we know that αt controlling the randomness and the solution diversity (till some extent). So αt can be used to
change ’t’ used for counting the iteration. ’αt ’ expressed as,

αt = α0 δ t , Zero < δ < 1. (7)

Where,
• ’α0 ’ is a scale factor of Initial randomness
• ’δ’ used for Necessary cooling factor.
mostly ’δ’ is in between 0.95 to 0.97 [4].
Firefly algorithm gives promising and efficient results when ’α0 ’ is used with scaling of designing values of variables.

α0 can be initialized as 0.01L where L express problem average scale. Factor of 0.01 is used because random walk
need few steps for target with balanced local exploitation, and without covering large distance with few steps[8][38].
• Attractiveness is controlled by β. β equals to one is suggested for most application.
√
• Parameter ’γ’ is related to problem scaling L. Generally, γ = 1/ L. γ is O(1) if for insufficient variation is there.
• Best population range is 25 to 40 but range of 15 to 100 population size is used mostly[4, 8].
Complexity of firefly algorithm is explained in following steps:

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 Table 1: Performance and Implementation Study of Various Variants of Firefly Algorithm

Ref. Implemented on Performance

[15] Simulated on Uni and multi model, Continuous and dis- Outperform Standard FA.
continuous, Stochastic benchmark problems
[16] Merkle-Hellman algorithm Perform better than GA
[17] Programmed in java, processor:Intel Core2 Duo E4500 Improved convergence, less memory
2.2GHz, 2GB RAM, OS:Windows Vista, Validated on consumption, better than AIS and
t-diagnosable systems PSO(worst)
[18] Programmed in C++, processor: Pentium IV 2.4GHz, Correct identification of faulty proces-
Validated on t-diagnosable systems sors, take small amount of time to di-
agnose faulty situation with few gener-
ations.
[19] JDK1.6, processor:Intel Core2 Duo E4500 2.2GHz, 2GB Outperform AIS
RAM, Validated on t-diagnosable systems
[20] MATLAB 7.01, processor: Pentium IV 3.2 Ghz, 1GB Outperformed GA and standard PSO
RAM, validated on 10,26 unit system and IEEE RTS24
bus system
[21] Validated by simulation using Uni-model func- Better than Standard FA and PSO
tion (Rosenbrock and Sphere), Multi-model(Rastrigin,
Griewank, Ackley)
[23] MATLAB, Validated on Ackley function Performed better than GA and PSO
[25] MATLAB, processor: Pentium IV 3.2 Ghz, OS: Improved Performance than standard
Windows XP, Validated on benchmark reliability- FA
redundancy problem of optimization
[26] 12 chaotic maps for parameter tuning, used Sphere func- Better than Standard FA
tion, Griewank’s function
[27] Used java on Lukasik and Zak software of Matlab, pro- Improved performance than origional
cessor: Intel I7- 2600k, RAM: 8GB, OS: Windows7 x64, FA
IDE: NetBeans 7.0.1, tested on unconstrained bench-
mark functions (Rastrigin, Griewank, Ackley, Sphere)
[28] processor: Intel Core i7 3.4Ghz, GPU: 2 NVidia GTX Better than Ackley’s Path function
590, validated on Rosenbrock function (unimodal),
Schwefel function (multi-model)
[29] Simulated on MATLAB, Validated on Ackley function Improved success rate and better effi-
ciency than PSO and GA
[30] Programmed in C++, processor: Intel Core 2 Duo Works better for large cipher input, for
2.0GHz, RAM: 3GB smaller cipher large number of genera-
tions are required.
[31] Used general kinetic model of maillard reaction More accurate and faster than PSO,
GA, EP

1. FA has two loops of population ’n’ inside a loop of iteration ’t’. which deduce its time complexity as O(n2 t).

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 [32] Used DSatur traditional heuristic, tested on test suite Outperformed SAW-EA, Tabucol, and
HEA
[33] Used SEFNN Better than FNN with PSO,
[34] Programmed in python, used matplotlib tool, CPU: Outperformed GABPNN (back propa-
Pentium-IV core2duo 1.66Ghz, RAM: 512MB , vali- gation neural network using genetic al-
dated on iris, wine and liver data set gorithm )
[35] Tested on 5 standard function (sphere, ackly, rastrigin, outperform standard FA
step, and XS yang)
[36] Validated on sphere, ackly, rosenbrock, rastrigin, and competitive with standard FA and
griewank functions PSO.
[37] MATLAB used Wisconsin Prognostic breast cancer Better efficiency and successrate than
(WPBC) data set, tested using mean absolute percent- EPSO
age error (MAPE)

2. for Relatively larger population(n), one inner loop of sorted attractiveness rank or brightness of fireflies is recom-
mended.if this is the case then time complexity of FA become O(ntlog(n)).
3. Computation cost is small with small population and large iteration and gives some sort of linear time complexity.
objective function evaluation increases the computational cost for external black box objectives.this consideration
has effect on most of the meta-heuristic algorithm.that is why objective function of all optimization problem is
computationally extensive.
Similar to other meta-heuristic algorithm, the parameters of eq.3 are user dependent and affect the performance of
algorithm by controlling exploitation and exploration. This parametric adjustment and adaptation are the reason
behind some modified Firefly Algorithms by changing α, γ,and ’r’. Modification in α affect random movement, and
degree of attraction is modified by changing γ of ’r’. Brightness adjustment is done by modifying β0 .

IV.1 Random Movement Parameter Modification:

Shafaati et al.[39] modified FA for IIR (infinite impulse response) and non-linear system parameter identification. The
modified random movement was shown in eq.8, where α0 was initial step length and α∞ was final step length.

α = α∞ + (α0 − α∞ )e−Itr (8)

An additional step i.e. α(xi − xb ) was added for updating process, where xb represents the most brightest firefly.
This added term provide resemblance and behave like PSO. The user provide initial and final step length. Randomized
parameter exponentially decrease and became null within few iteration. The added term took xi far away from xb with
α step length, while in current best solution both are same. They used two parameters (i.e. α0 and α∞ ) in place of α.

FA with adaptive randomized movement parameter(α) was presented [40]. It was modified according to eq.9.

α(Itr) : α(Itr−1) (1/(2ItrM ax ))1/(ItrM ax ) (9)

Based on randomly selected 3 solutions, other 2 new solutions were generated. Solution with improved brightness sup-
plied to the next iteration after updating xi . This modification was also used in optimal capacitor placement problem
[41], and in [42] with crossover and mutation.

Yu et al.[43] evaluated randomized parameter using number of iteration. 0.4/(1 + e0.005(Itr−ItrM ax ) ) was used for
this calculation. Historical information along with current situation was used to update step length. Eq.10 used for

15
 (Itr−1) (Itr−2)
calculating α, Where eq.11 was for fbItr = f (xb ), fiItr = f (xi ) after Itr iterations. fibest and fibest gives best
performing solutions till Itr-1 and Itr-2 iterations. Different simulated tests shows the improved performance of this
modified FA. Controlling random parameter based on previous and current performance of solution benefits in a way
such that whenever solution reach near to the brightest firefly, it’s step length decreased.

(Itr+1) 1
αi =1− r  2  2 (10)
(Itr) (Itr) (Itr)
fb − fi + fi +1

1
hItr
i = r 2 (11)
(Itr−1) (Itr−2)
fibest − fibest +1

Adaptive random movement parameter was used for multi-objective optimization [44]. It was modified as α = α0 0.9Itr ,
to decrease step length faster than linear.

Solution’s historic performance was used to modify random movement parameter[45]. Best position and global best
solution till current iteration were evaluated using below equation.

Itr|xgbest − xibest |
 
− αmin e−
(Itr+1) (Itr) (Itr)
αi = αi − αi (12)
M axGen

IV.2 Attraction Parameter Modification:

Lin et al.[46] introduce concept of virtual distance to overcome the drastic change in attraction while there was a small
decrease in distance between two fireflies. Virtual distance ’r’ (between 0 to 1) was defined as
r − rmin
r0 = (13)
rmax − rmin
qP
d
where rmin = 0 and rmax = i=1
(xmax (i) − xmin (i))2 and β = β0 γ (1 − r0 )
Then swarm start converge to optimal solution. When virtual distance ’r’, rmax also decrease with it. However, faster
decrease rate of ’r’ than rmax slightly increase β. To handle dominating attraction, they proposed an updating equation
14 for later iteration. This updation contradict random attraction and firefly only move towards brighter firefly with
βα step length.
xi = xi + β (xj − xi ) αε (14)
Tilahan et al.[15] proposed a light intensity function as β0 = eI0,j −I0,i for attraction. They suggested, Firefly’s random
movement might degrade the brightness, so selecting a direction for improved brightness from ’m’ random direction
could be beneficial. But introducing new parameter ’m’ affect complexity.

Gandomi et al.[26] used chaos function to modify β, γ. They suggested that chaos’s non-repetition and ergodicity
could carry searches at higher rate. Later, this proposal is used by many researcher. This approach was used for MRI
brain tissue segmentation using chebyshev chaos mapping [47], Gaussian’s mapping used for heart disease prediction
[48], reliability redundancy optimization [25], and solving definite integral problems [49]

Khalil et al.[50] used chaotic mapping for updating β, γ. Based on solution’s intensity, they decreased α using be-
low equation.
Imax − Imean
α = αmax − (αmax − αmin ) (15)
Imax − Imin
2
β was calculated using β = (βmax − βmin ) e−γr + βmin [51, 52], where βmin and βmax were user driven parameters.

16
IV.3 Random Movement along with Attraction Parameter Modification:
Yan et al.[53] modified FA to deal with increased√problem dimension and feasible region. They modified generalised
ω
brightness i.e. β = β0 e−γr by changing rω to rK n(Range) , where k= constant, n= problem dimension and, Range=
maximum dimension Range. α was decremented linearly from α0 to αend . The fireflies were attracted by brightness
and winking. Probability pw = 0.5 + 0.1counti decided the winking, where counti was winking counter of ith firefly.
Large counter value (range between 0 to 5) involve greater probability of state shift.

Sulaiman et al.[54] presented a modified FA to address economic dispatch problem. They used minimum variation
distance in-place of Cartesian distance, to increase exploration. They also mutate α.

Wang et al.[55] modified FA’s light intensity to tackle premature convergence. For iteration ’t’, they calculated light
(t)
∆Iij
intensity difference using ξ = max{I}−min{I}
formula. Then they modified α, β, γ based on ξ, as α = α0 (0.02rmax ) where
 
ξ, ξ > η2 ξ, ξ > η1
α0 = with new parameter η2 , β0 = with another new parameter η1 , and γ = r2γ0
η2 , ξ ≤ η2 η1 , ξ ≤ η1 max

where rmax = max {d (xi , xj ) |∀i, j}. This amendment showed that, brighter firefly had small attraction, and less brighter
had randomness in step length.

Othman et al.[56] proposed modification in firefly algorithm to optimized size and siting of voltage-controlled dis-
tribution generator in power distribution network. They selected optimal location and produced power to minimized
power loss for distributed generation. They modified α, γ in each iteration accordance to location and maximum power
per location, and considered β = 1.

max −αmin )
Subramanian et al.[57] modified α as α = αmax − Itr(α M axGen
. Dependence of distance function had been shifted
from location in feasible region to brightness or functional value calculated using f (xb ) − f (xi ). They considered that,
if two fireflies had similar performance, they must be nearby.

α, γ parameters of FA were modified, and used in path planning of autonomous underwater vehicles [58]. α was
Itr Itr
calculated using α = αb + M axGen (αe − αb ) where αe < αb . γ was modified as γ = γb + M axGen (γe − γb ) where
γe > γb . Furthermore, Updation was done using below equation.

xi = xi + β(xi − xj ) + αrε (16)

It showed that, α decrease and γ increase, linearly, with increase in iterations. The random movement and attraction
decrements as a function of iteration. The Random movement was multiplied with distance, as it was shown in updating
equation16.

Fister et al.[59] also modified α, β, γ parameter and proposed a self adaptive firefly algorithm. They used updation
0
equation as ,ψ := ψ + σψ N (0, 1) for σψ := σψ eτ N (0,1)+τ N (0,1) , where τ, τ0 were learning parameters and ψ = {α, β, γ}.

Itr

2
Fu et al.[60] modified γ using γmax − (γmax − γmin ) M axGen formula, where limits of γmax was between 2 to 4,
and for γmin was between 0.5 to 1. They added a new parameter λ for calculation of α using equation
λ
Itr − 1

α = αmax − (αmax − αmin ) (17)
G0 − 1
Where α = αmin at G0 iteration. As resulted, α reduced faster than linear when λ was in between 0 and 1, reduced
linearly at λ = 1, and it reduced slower than linear at λ > 1. They used Gaussian distribution to prevent trapping in
local optima, that move toward global best solution i.e. xb = xb + xb N (µ, σ). This was used when solution variance was
less than η(precision parameter) before M predetermined iterations. They suggested to use cubic mapping for better

17
distribution of initial solution.

Coelho et al.[61] used Gaussian or normal distribution (G1 , G2 ) for µ=0, and σ 2 =1, and computed α as α = 0.03 |G2 |,
γ as γ = 0.03 |G1 |. They also used it for multi-variable PID controller tuning [62]. Tinkerbell mapping was used for
itr
tuning of γ using γ = |G|x̄ M axGen , where x̄ were normalized values ranged between 0 and 1. α was decremented linearly
using equation18.
Itr
α = (αf inal − αinitial ) + αinitial (18)
M axGen
The comparative studies of work done is presented as a graph in fig.10

Figure 10: Studies on Controlling Parameters

V Applications of FA:
Many type of classification, Optimization and engineering optimization problems were addressed by firefly algorithm
and its various version, as shown graphically in fig.11. Applications of FA in different problem domains shows in fig.12.

Figure 11: Application domains of FA

18
 Table 2: Modified Variants of Firefly Algorithm

Ref. Modified Parame- Modification done

ters
[39] Random Movement α = α∞ + (α0 − α∞ )e−Itr , added α(xi − xb )
[40–42] Random Movement α(Itr) : α(Itr−1) (1/(2ItrM ax ))1/(ItrM ax )
(Itr+1) 1
[43] Random Movement αi =1− q
2

2
(Itr) (Itr) (Itr)
fb − fi + fi +1
1
Where hItr
i =q
2
(Itr−1) (Itr−2)
fi −fi +1
best best

for fbItr = f (xb ), fiItr = f (xi ) after Itr iterations

[44] Random Movement α = α0 0.9Itr  

(Itr+1) (Itr) (Itr) Itr|xgbest −xibest |
[45] Random Movement αi = αi − αi − αmin e− M axGen

r−rmin
[46] Attraction Virtual Distance r0 = rmax −rmin , Where rmin = 0
qP
d 2
and rmax = i=1 (xmax (i) − xmin (i))
and β = β0 γ (1 − r0 )
and updating equation xi = xi + β (xj − xi ) αε
[15] Attraction β0 = eI0,j −I0,i
[26] Attraction Chaos function to modify β, γ
[47] Attraction Chebyshev chaos mapping
[25, 48, 49] Attraction Gaussian’s mapping
−Imean
[50] Attraction Chaotic mapping, α = αmax −(αmax − αmin ) IImax
max −Imin
2
[51, 52] Attraction β = (βmax − βmin ) e−γr + βmin

ω
√
[53] Both Attraction and β = β0 e−γr by changing rω to rK n(Range) , and
Random Movement Winking probability pw = 0.5 + 0.1counti
[54] Both Attraction and Minimum variation distance in-place of Cartesian dis-
Random Movement tance
(t)
∆Iij
[55] Both Attraction and ξ= max{I}−min{I} , α = α0 (0.02rmax ),
Random Movement (
ξ, ξ > η2
where α0 = with new parameter η2 ,
η2 , ξ ≤ η2
(
ξ, ξ > η1
β0 = with another new parameter η1 ,
η1 , ξ ≤ η1
γ0
and γ = 2
rmax where rmax = max {d (xi , xj ) |∀i, j}
[56] Both Attraction and α, γ in every iteration according to location and maxi-
Random Movement mum power per location, and β = 1
max −αmin )
[57] Both Attraction and α = αmax − Itr(α M axGen , Brightness as f (xb ) − f (xi )
Random Movement

19
 Itr
[58] Both Attraction and α = αb + M axGen (αe − αb ) where αe < αb , γ = γb +
Itr
Random Movement M axGen (γ e − γ b ) where γe > γb
Updating Equation as xi = xi + β(xi − xj ) + αrε
[59] Both Attraction and Updating equation as, ψ = ψ + σψ N (0, 1) for σψ :=
0
Random Movement σψ eτ N (0,1)+τ N (0,1) , where τ, τ0 were learning parame-
ters and ψ = {α, β, γ}
Itr

2
[60] Both Attraction and γ = γmax − (γmax − γmin ) M axGen , Where γmax =
Random Movement (2 to 4) and γmin = (0.5 to 1), added α = αmax −
 λ
(αmax − αmin ) Itr−1 G0 −1 , where α = αmin at G0 . Global
best solution xb = xb + xb N (µ, σ)
[61] Both Attraction and Gaussian or normal distribution (G1 , G2 ) for µ=0, and
Random Movement σ 2 =1, Calculated α = α = 0.03 |G2 |, and γ = γ =
0.03 |G1 |
itr
[62] Both Attraction and Tinkerbell mapping for tuning γ = |G|x̄ M axGen . Cal-
Itr
Random Movement culated α = (αf inal − αinitial ) M axGen + αinitial

Figure 12: Various Applications of FA

V.1 Optimization Application of Firefly Algorithm:

Fig.13 shows graphical representation of different optimization applications of firefly algorithm. Lukasik et al.[63] was
the first author who used FA in constrain optimization . They applied proposed method on 14 benchmark constrained
problem and compare the results with PSO. Observed results of FA found is superior than PSO.

FA was used for mixed (both continuous and discrete) Structural optimization problems [64] . They considered their
work for pressure vessel designing, stepped cantilever beam design, designing of welded beam, helical compression spring
design, car side impact designing and designing of reinforced concrete beam. The results of FA is far better than re-
sults collected from PSO, DE and SA. but oscillatory behaviour of FA is observed for searching optimum design. The
behaviour is improved by reduction of randomization parameter with optimization progress.

20
 Figure 13: Different Optimization application of FA

FA is used for shape and size based structural mass optimization problem by Gomes [65]. They took dynamic constrained
for consideration. The proposed work shows a extreme non linear behaviour with regards of frequency constraint for
shape optimization. Due to eigen values sensitivity for shape modification, they used constraints as penalty functions
which affect the fitness.

V.1.1 Scheduling Problems:

Quadratic assignment problem was solved by using FA [66]. In this permutation of integer shows the solution. An
adaptive discrete function was mapped using attractiveness, movement, and distance.

Sayadi et al.[67] developed a discrete firefly meta-heuristic that minimize makespan of permutation flow shop scheduling
problem.

A job scheduling mechanism for cloud computing using FA was proposed by Yousif et al.[68]. They used FA for
minimizing the execution time take by different jobs. parameters such as length of job, resource speed, and other
identifier considered for this problem.

Honig et al [69] used firefly algorithm ’Task Graph Scheduling’. The proposed algorithm was tested on Task graph
having 36,000 task to be schedule. The algorithm takes less computational time than the other meta-heuristics.

Symmetric TSP (Travelling Salesmen Problem) was addressed by FA [70]. The proposed EDFA (Evolutionary dis-
crete firefly algorithm) use permutation representation where city is represented by element array and index denotes
tour order. Each inversion mutation of firefly use ’m’ generated moves. The results were simulated on some standard
TSP library problem where proposed EDFA out perform memetic algorithm.

JSSP (Job Shop scheduling problem) using FA is proposed by Khadwilard et al.[71]. Some JSSP examples were taken
from OR library and five popular benchmark functions were used to test the algorithm for finding least makespan.
Algorithm mostly got trapped in local optimum but it can provide best solution in some cases.

Auther Liu et al.[72] developed adaptive FA for path planning. Adaptive absorption and random parameter of classical
FA provide better solutions and higher convergence rate.

21
Path planning problem of UCAV (uninhabited combat air vehicle), a modified FA is proposed by Wang [73]. He
modified the process of information sharing between top fireflies while updating their light intensity. It increases the
global convergence rate while maintaining robustness.

Kwiecien et al. [74] proposed optimize queuing system using firefly algorithm. Queuing theory helps to analyze complex
services of communication, transportation, computer system, and manufacturing.

V.1.2 Dynamic and Noisy Optimization:

Abshouri et al. [75] used learning automata to tune randomization, absorption coefficient, and attractiveness firefly
parameters. In this proposal, splitting of fireflies into different set of information exchanging swarm was done. This
sets quickly react to environment changing. Different variants of multi- dynamically moving peaks benchmark functions
were used to test its performance.

Chai et al. [76] used FA and Bees meta-heuristics algorithms, to solve various noisy continuous mathematical functions
and determine their optimal solutions using two variables.

Farahani [77] proposed a multi-swarm variant of FA for dynamic environment. Provision of splitting firefly popula-
tion into different groups of communicating fireflies was proposed. Exclusion parameter was used for local interaction
and for global interaction.

Stabilizing efforts of firefly movement was also done by Farahani et al.[21]. They presented a mechanishm to di-
rect the movement of firefly toward global best. They considered this behaviour when no nearby solutions were better.
Gaussian distribution were used to increase the convergence rate.

Nasiri et al. [78] developed a dynamic environment suitable firefly algorithm. They used
• Preserving of Best Solution
• Adaptive Randomization Parameter.
In power distributing network , Optimal size and location of distributed generation obtained by a variant of FA [79].
The proposed algorithm showed effective working over many different bus distribution test system.

V.1.3 Multi-Objective Firefly Algorithm:

For multi-objective optimizing problem, Yang et al. [80] proposed multi objective FA that directly produce Pareto
optimal front. A group of multi objective discontinuous Pareto front, convex and non convex function was used to test
the proposal by optimizing industrial engineering benchmark problems.

Abedinia et al.[81] modified FA to solve multi objective Environment/ Economic power dispatching problem (EED).
This problem has multiple objectives for conflicting scenarios of fuel cost, system loss, and emission. IEEE Standard 30
and 118 bus cases were used to test the developed algorithm.

Another case of optimizing multi objective problem was tackled by Niknam [82]. They obtained Pareto optimal solu-
tion (non dominated) using multi-objective FA. Absorption coefficient and randomization parameter were tuned using
chaotic maps. This tuning also use self adaptive probabilistic mutation to improve performance.
Table 3 list down different optimization applications.

22
 Table 3: Optimization Variants of Firefly Algorithm

Ref. Used for Category

[63] Continuous constrained optimization Constrained Optimization
[64] Mixed variable structural optimization Constrained Optimization
[65] Structural size and shape optimisation Constrained Optimization
[66] QAP problem of sage framework Scheduling Problems
[67] Makespan minimization Scheduling Problems
[68] Job scheduling Scheduling Problems
[69] Scheduling task graphs Scheduling Problems
[70] Travelling salesman problem Scheduling Problems
[71] Job shop scheduling Scheduling Problems
[72] Path planning Scheduling Problems
[73] UCAV path planning Scheduling Problems
[74] Optimization of queuing systems Scheduling Problems
[75] Learning automata in dynamic environments Dynamic Optimization
[76] Noisy non-linear optimisation problems Dynamic and Noisy Optimization
[77] Dynamic environments Dynamic Optimization
[21] Gaussian FA Dynamic and Noisy Optimization
[78] Optimization in dynamic environments Dynamic and Noisy Optimization
[79] Optimal allocation and sizing distribution system Dynamic and Noisy Optimization
[80] Continuous optimization Multi-objective Optimization
[81] Multi-objective environmental/economic dispatch Multi-objective Optimization
[82] Economic emission dispatch Multi-objective Optimization

V.2 Applications in Engineering Domain:

Many engineering problems from different engineering domains can be solved by firefly algorithm. Mostly it is applicable
for finding solutions of various engineering optimization. Antenna designing, image processing, civil engineering, and
business optimization. Graph in fig.14 shows different proposals of FA in engineering domain.

V.2.1 Image Processing:

Zhang et al. [83] modified firefly algorithm to optimize the image registration. One rotational parameter with two
translation parameter was done. They used NCC (Normalized Cross correlation) for evaluating fitness value.

Horng et al.[84] generate vector quantization codebook by using firefly algorithm . Linde-Buzo-Gray (LBG) method
was used to initialize FA by which vector quantization algorithm was designed. The proposed LBG-FA is comare with
LGB, HBMO-LBG (Honey Bess Mating Optimization-LBG) and PSO-LBG (Particle Swarm Optimization-LBG) and
concluded as the fastest one among others [85]. A improved image is reconstructed using LBG-FA which was almost
similar to image reconstructed using HBMO-LGB algorithm.

Influencing by firefly algorithm, An Adaptive local enhancement algorithm was proposed by Hassanzadeh et al. [86].
They used FA to find best optimal image enhancing parameter.Entropy with edge number and edge intensity define the
evolutionary criteria. The proposed algorithm found better performing as compared to HE(Histogram Equalization),
GAIE(image enhancement using GA), PSOIE(image enhancement using PSO) and LCS(Linear contrast starching).

23
 Figure 14: Various Engineering application of Firefly Algorithm

Hassanzadeh [87], accuracy of Segmentation and optimization run time was improved using FA. He used FA to get
the optimized solution of otsu’s method. The developed FA was know as Maximum variances Intra- cluster FA.

Noor et al. [88] presented a FA to generate multilevel thresholding using otsu’s method. Band segmentation from
the background of gel electrophoresis(GE) image was done using various image processing technique. They applied
some image pre-processing methods to remove noise of the image. The proposed algorithm effectively separates DNA
bands from background in a better way.

FA was used to newly design multilevel MET algorithm. Horng et al.[89] proposed maximum entropy based firefly
threshold method.

M.Horng [90] proposed a FA based MCET algorithm (minimum cross entry threshold). The generated results were
compared with PSO, Quantum PSO, exhaustive search, and HBMO (honey bee mating optimization). It was observed
that proposal was outperforming in terms of efficiency to find optimally closed multiple thresholds with five thresh-
olds, which are similar to results obtained by HBMO results. The execution time was comparatively less than other
algorithms.

V.2.2 Antenna Designing:

Basu et al.[91] used FA and ABC(artificial bee colony) for linear array isotropic antenna design optimization. They
considered 3-3 instances of broad side array and steerable linear array having many array pattern direction with many
array elements. They evaluated radiation pattern having minimum SLL(Side Lobe Level) for specific FNBW(First Null
Beam Width) and HPBW(Half Power Beam Width). The proposed algorithm find out non-uniform excitation of each
element. Six different antenna configuration cases were used for testing the effectiveness of proposal.

Basu et al. [92] applied FA meta-heuristics to optimize Side lobe level with FNBW for thinned 2-ring UCCA (Uniform
Concentric Circular Array) antenna.Prefix and without prefix thinning was optimized. Firefly algorithm optimized 2

24
successive concentric ring having thirty five and seventy element of UCCA.

FA and PSO was used to determine the optimum distance between elements of radiating antenna, which were re-
sponsible for creation of predefined arbitrary pattern of radiation [93]. FA was compared with PSO for finding global
best solution and convergence rate. FA was applied to optimize amplitude distribution of array elements by Chatterjee
et al.[94].

V.2.3 Robotics:
The concept of coupled biological oscillator having firefly algorithm influence was developed to achieve self organised
synchronizing gait pattern for robot walk [95]. The results showed that it was useful to apply nature inspired firefly
algorithm to achieve the objective. Severin et al. [96] used natural meta heuristics to automate the optimizing process
of blended PTP movement of industrial robots.

V.2.4 Semantic Web Selection:

Pop et al developed a hybrid FA for semantic web service composition to determine its optimal selection of solutions
[97]. Semantic similarities and QoS attributes were used as selection criterion.

V.2.5 Wireless Network:

Breza et al.[98] used nature inspired solution for lightweight WSN decentralization. They used few bio inspired parameter
for efficient management of WSN.

V.2.6 Business Optimization:

Yang et al. [99] used Non linear support vector machine with A-PSO(accelerated PSO) for solving a business optimizing
framework. The proposed work was used for job scheduling, income prediction and optimizing the production.

Giannakouris et al.[100], proposed a nature inspired algorithm for portfolio asset and weight optimization. They com-
bined hybrid intelligent meta-heuristics of FA and ACO for formulating problem of portfolio management.

V.2.7 Chemical Engineering:

FA with SCE (Shuffled Complex Evolution) and CMA-ES(Covariant Matrix Adaptation-Evolution Strategy) were eval-
uated for determination of phase and chemical equilibrium [101]. Performance to determine phase phase stability and
phase equilibrium is compared with other methods.

V.2.8 Civil Engineering:

Talatahari et al. [102], used FA for optimally designing the towers. They proposed an adaptive FA in which constraints
were handled using feasibility methods. The proposed work improve the convergence and inexpensively optimize the
large scale structures. They used 3 different towers to evaluate the performance FA.

Azad et al.[103] used FA for optimizing the design of truss structures. They considered size and geometric param-
eters for this optimization problem. firefly movement were modified to propose this method.

Gholizadeh et al.[104] optimize the shape and size of truss using HS(harmony search), FA and PSO. The converg-
ing behaviour of these nature inspired algorithms was focused.

25
V.2.9 Meteorology Optimization:
Santos et al.[105] used FA to optimize the weight for determination of precipitation area . Multi-model approach was
used to determine precipitation field where weighted average of rainfall parameter were used for calculation. Finding
numerical values for such average was an optimization problem. Firefly algorithm was used for this optimization.

V.2.10 Industrial Optimization:

Apostolopoulos et al.[106] used FA to cut off fuel and emission cost from power generating unit . These two are conflict-
ing objectives of economic emission load dispatch problem. he formulated a mathematical and applied proposed meta
heuristic firefly algorithm.

Economic dispatch(ED) was addressed using firefly algorithm to find the feasible optimized solution [107]. They tried
to optimize the objective having non linear cost and operational constraints. The results showed that proposed FA was
suitable option to solve ED problem by determining most economical load.

Mauder et al.[108] proposed an algorithm to achieve high quality products and high rate of production. FA was
used to set the controlling parameters and improve the quality of produced steel.

Chatteree et al. obtained dual radiation pattern of concentric ring array based isotropic antenna [109]. Different
switch combinations of specific excitation and optimized excitation of array element was determined by firefly algo-
rithm. PSO with same conditions and criteria was used to compare the impact of FA. The considered problem was
effectively optimized by FA over PSO. Firefly algorithm was modified to obtain optimal solution for truss designing
considering geometry and size of structure [103].

Aungkulanon et al.[110] used FA and PSO for process improvement of simulated manufacturing. They compare con-
vergence rate, result quality and processing time taken for this process and used benchmark methods for analysis.

Rampriya et al.[111] used FA for determining the solution of PBUC (Profit based unit commitment) problem. La-
grangian FA was used to determine on/off schedule of units. they used FA for power generation. It was used for
spinning and non-spinning reserve generation. The profit was maximised using the proposed method.

Chandrasekaran tried to solve SCUC(Security Constrained Unit Commitment) problem of Hybrid power systme having
reliablility contraints using a variant of firefly algorithm, i.e., BRCFA(Binary Real Coded FA)[112].

Hu et al. [113] solved Energy efficient mathematical model of trains using firefly algorithm. By using FA, they were
able to optimize the energy consumption for trains. They also optimize the consumption of material used for power
generation. The proposed method were able to optimize the control operation of trains.

Power dispatching optimization was done using FA [114]. They used PSO for comparative analysis . The proposed
work was tested on 2 thermal power plant and an IEEE-14. It was found that FA was most efficient to optimize the
cost that too in just one second.

Roeva used firefly algorithm for tuning PID controller parameter in smith predictor[115]. Roeva et al.[116] adapt
firefly algorithm parameter identification cultivation process of E. coli fed-Batch .

Abedinia et al. [117] proposed a version of FA for Fuzzy PID controller. This proposal address the LFC(Load Frequency
Control) problem for deregulated environment. The results were compared with classical PID and fuzzy PID controller
using FD indices and ITAE.

26
Dutta et al [118]. find out that obtaining isospectral system was a error minimizing optimization problem. he used FA
to do this optimization based on local search and find it efficient.
The list of various engineering application shown in table4

Table 4: Various Engineering Applications of Firefly Algorithm

Ref. Used for Category

[83] Rigid image registration Image Processing
[84] Image vector quantization Image Processing
[85] Vector quantization for image compression Image Processing
[86] Non-linear grayscale image enhancement Image Processing
[87] Image segmentation Image Processing
[88] Multilevel thresholding Image Processing
[89] Multilevel image thresholding selection Image Processing
[90] Cross entropy threshold Image Processing
[91] Linear array antenna Antenna Designing
[92] 2 ring circular array antenna Antenna Designing
[93] Linear antenna designing Antenna Designing
[94] Concentric ring array antenna Antenna Designing
[95] Self-synchronization of robot Robotics
[96] Industrial robots Robotics
[97] Optimal semantic web service composition Semantic Web
[98] Wireless sensor networks Wireless Network
[99] Support vector machine Business Optimization
[100] Financial portfolio optimization Business Optimization
[101] Co-variance matrix adaptation Chemical Engineering
[102] Tower structures Civil Engineering
[103] Optimum design of structures Civil Engineering
[104] Optimum design of trusses Civil Engineering
[105] Precipitation field Meteorology Optimization
[106] Economic emissions load dispatch problem Industry Optimization
[107] Non-convex economic dispatch problems Industry Optimization
[108] Steel slabs Casting Industry Optimization
[109] Ring array antenna Industry Optimization
[110] Simulated manufacturing process Industry Optimization
[111] Unit commitment Industry Optimization
[112] Demand response scheduling Industry Optimization
[113] Train’s energy saving Industry Optimization
[114] Economic Power Dispatching Industry Optimization
[115] PID controller Industry Optimization
[116] E. coli cultivation Industry Optimization
[117] Fuzzy PID Industry Optimization
[118] Exploring isospectral spring-mass systems Industry Optimization

27
V.3 Classification Problems:
Banati et al.[119] proposed a RST(Rough Set Theory) based Hybrid FA for finding feature set. They simulated the
feature selection process.

Horng [120] used FA in the domain of neural network. It was used for training of RBF(Redial Basis Function) type
neural network. RBF is an activation function of neural Network. They tested FA on 5 UCI ML Repository data set
and check the performance of propose algorithm on the basis of complexity, correctness of classification and mean square
error.

Firefly algorithm was used for data object clustering [121]. This makes different groups on the basis of the data
attributes. ABC, PSO and other SI algorithms were used for comparing the effectiveness of FA for clustering. CEP(
Classification Error Percentage) was used as performance measuring criteria. FA obtained as most efficient algorithm.
Use of Firefly algorithm for classification is showed in table5.

Table 5: Firefly Algorithm for Classification Problems

Ref. Used for Category

[119] Feature selection approach Classification
[120] Data classification and disease diagnosis Classification
[121] Clustering Classification

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