UNIT 2

NUMERICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTINUOUS AND DISCRETE RANDOM

VARIABLES: EXPECTATIONS, VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS.
Hello, you are welcome to the unit 2 of the course. This unit is built on the knowledge
acquired from unit 1. I hope you will find this unit interesting and study hard to understand
the concept involved. The sections to be covered in this unit are:
Section 1: Concept of average
Section 2: Weighted mean
Section 3: Mathematical expectation of discrete random variables
Section 4: Variance of discrete random variables
Section 5: Computing the standard deviations
Section 6: Calculation of expected values

Objective(s)
By the end of this unit you should be able to:
 Explain average and calculate the average and weighted mean of a set of data
 Explain and calculate mathematical expectation of discrete random variable
 Calculate the variance and standard deviation of a discrete random variable.

1
SECTION 1: Concept of Average
Introduction

Objective(s)
By the end of this section, you should be able to:
 Define an average
 Calculate the average of a given set of data

Average is a simple but powerful concept. This section explains some important properties of
average.
Def: Average is defined as
𝑛
1
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = ∑ 𝑥𝑖
𝑛
𝑖=1
1
That is 𝑛 𝑡ℎ of the sum of all numbers (𝑥𝑖 ) a study up to the 𝑛𝑡ℎ numbers.

Example 1.1: Find the mean of

a) 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50.
b) Add 10 to each value in (a) and find the average.
c) Subtract 10 from each value in (a) and find the average.
d) Multiply each value in (a) by 10 and find the average.
Solution
a) Set of data: 10, 20, 30, 40, 50
1
Average= 𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖
𝑛=5
5

∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 10 + 20 + 30 + 40 + 50
𝑖=1
= 150
150
Average= 5
= 30

b) New set of data: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60

1
Average= 𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖

𝑛=5
5

∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 20 + 30 + 40 + 50 + 60
𝑖=1

2
 = 200
200
Average= 5

= 40
c) New set of data: 0, 10, 20, 30, 40
1
Average= 𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖

𝑛=5
5

∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 0 + 10 + 20 + 30 + 40
𝑖=1

= 100
100
Average= 5

= 20
d) New set of data: 100, 200, 300, 400, 500
1
Average= 𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖

𝑛=5
5

∑ 𝑥𝑖 = 100 + 200 + 300 + 400 + 500

𝑖=1

= 1500
1500
Average=
5

= 300
1
Conclusion: If 𝑋 is a set of data with 𝑛 size, and the average of 𝑋 is 𝐴𝑣 = 𝑛 ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑥𝑖 then
when
 We add 𝑤 numbers to each member in 𝑋, the new average will be 𝐴𝑣 + 𝑤
 We subtract 𝑤 numbers from each member in 𝑋, the new average will be 𝐴𝑣 − 𝑤
 We multiply each member in 𝑋 with 𝑤 numbers, the new average will be (𝐴𝑣)𝑤

Distance to the Average

To find the distance to the average, first consider how far each number is from the average.
Suppose we have three numbers 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧, with an average of
𝑥+𝑦+𝑧
3

3
we can find how far each number is from the average.
Each number (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) is simply a point on the number line and the distance to the average is a
simple subtraction. So, the distance from 𝑥 to the average is:
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧
𝑥− =
3 3
Likewise, the distance of 𝑦 and 𝑧 to the average is
2𝑦 − 𝑥 − 𝑧
3
and
2𝑧 − 𝑥 − 𝑦
3
respectively
These numbers, by themselves, aren’t that useful. However, let’s ask a more important
question: what is the total distance of 𝑥, 𝑦 and 𝑧 to the average? We have,
2𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑧 2𝑦 − 𝑥 − 𝑧 2𝑧 − 𝑥 − 𝑦
+ + =0
3 3 3
So, the sum of the distances to the average (from each point) is zero. Note that we are not
talking about the absolute value of distance (such as ‘point 𝑥 is 3 units away from the
average’). We are using positive and negative distances (our conviction was 𝑥𝑖 − average). A
positive distance means a point is greater than the average, and a negative distance indicates
the point is less than the average.

This result means that the average of a set of numbers is ‘midway’ between the numbers.
Imagine you are sitting at the average, with the smaller numbers to your left and the larger
numbers to your right (recall that the smaller numbers have negative distance, and the larger
ones have positive distance).
The facts is:
 Distance from average to smaller numbers is negative
 Distance to larger numbers is positive
 Total distance (from average to larger and smaller numbers) is 0
The sum of distances from the smaller numbers is equal to the sum of distance to larger
numbers. If they were unequal, the total distance would not be zero. Since the total distance is
zero, then they must be equal. Another way of putting it is “if you have a bunch of good and
bad effects, and the net result is zero, then the sum of the good effects is equal to the sum of
bad effects.” If that isn’t satisfying, here is a math explanation. Moreover, sum of distance
above average = sum of distance below average.
Applications
Here are a few ways we can use this fact:

4
 Changing numbers but keeping the average the same. If we keep the total distance to
the average the same, the average stays the same (if we reduce the smallest number by
some amount, and increase the largest number by the same amount, the average stays the
same). For instance the average of (9, 10, 11) = average of (7, 10, 13). We pull the lowest
number down by 2 and bring the highest one up by 2 to compensate.
Also, it shows how you can ‘redistribute’ a change in distance. Suppose we have 4 points,
and the greatest one goes up by 10. How can we maintain the old average? Well, we can
reduce a smaller element by 10, or reduce two smaller elements by a total of 10. Again, as
long as the total distance stays the same (contribution from all points), we are ok.
Example: average of (4, 6, 8, 10) = average of (4 − 2, 6 − 1, 8, 10 + 3). The +3 cancels the
−2 and −1.

 Centre of gravity! Suppose we have numerous 1-pound at different positions along a

board, and we want to balance the board. At what point can we balance it? In physics
terms, each weight applying a torque to the board, equal to 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 × 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒. Torque
is the rotational equivalence of force. So, a net torque will cause an object to rotate with
an angular acceleration. Since the weights are the same (1-pound), the torque is simply
equal to distance. We want the location where all the torques, positive and negative,
cancel out, so the board does not spin. The answer is the average. Remember, the average
is the point where the sum of distances (torques) above the average = sum of distances
(torques) below the average.
So, the board will balance at the centre of gravity.

5
SECTION 2: Weighted Mean
Introduction

Objective(s)
By the end of this section, you should be able to calculate the weighted mean of a set of data.

A weighted mean is a kind of average in which some data points contribute more “weight”
than others instead of each data point contributing equally to the final mean. The weighted
means are commonly used in studying populations.
In some cases, you might want a number to have more weight. In that case, you will want to
find the weighted mean. To find the weighted mean:
 Multiple the numbers in your data set by the weights
 Add the results up.
 Divide by the sum of the weights

Example 2.1: You take points exams in your statistics class and score 70, 70 and 80. The last
exam is much easier than the first two, so your lecturer has given it less weight. The weights
for the three exams are:
 Test 1: 40% of your grade.
 Test 2: 40% of your grade.
 Quiz : 20% of your grade
What is your final weighted average for the class?
Solution
 Multiply the numbers in your data set by the weights:
40% of 70 = 0.4 × 70
= 28

40% of 70 = 0.4 × 70
= 28

20% of 80 = 0.2 × 70
= 16
 Add the numbers up:
28 + 28 + 16 = 72
The percentage weight given to each exam is called the weight factor.

Let each element 𝑥𝑖 has a corresponding weight 𝑤𝑖 . Then

6
 1
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 = × ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑤𝑖
∑ 𝑤𝑖
This ‘weight’ is essentially how important the particular number is. A number with no
importance has a weight of 0.
∑ 𝑤𝑖 = the sum of all the weights
𝑥𝑖 𝑤𝑖 = the product of a data and it weight
∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑤𝑖 = the sum of the product of a data and it weight
To use the formula:
 Multiply the numbers in your data set by the weights
 Add the numbers in step 1 up. Set this number aside for a moment.
 Add up all of the weights
 Divide the numbers you found in step 2 by the number you found in step 3.

For example, in the example 2.1

 ∑ 𝑥𝑖 𝑤𝑖 = 72.
 ∑ 𝑤𝑖 = 0.4 + 0.4 + 0.2
=1
72
 Weighted means = 1
= 72
Example 2.2: Assuming you had an A in Algebra 1 (3 credits), C in Geometry 1 (3 credits),
B in ICT 1 (3 credits), C in Statistics and Probability (3 credits) and D in Curriculum (2
credits) with the grade points A = 4, B = 3, C = 2, D = 1 and E = 0, what will be your grade
point average?
Solution
Course Credits (𝑤) Grade (𝑋)
Algebra 1 3 A
Geometry 1 3 C
ICT 1 3 B
Statistics and Probability 3 C
Curriculum 2 D

(3 × 4) + (3 × 2) + (3 × 3) + (3 × 2) + (2 × 1)
𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 =
3+3+3+3+2
35
= 14

= 2.5
Hence, the grade point average is 2.5.

7
SECTION 3: Mathematical Expectation of Discrete Random Variables
Introduction

Objective(s)
By the end of this section, you should be able to
 Describe mathematical expectation
 Compute mathematical expectation of discrete random variables.

Consider the following game of chance. You pay GH₵ 2 and roll a fair die. Then you receive
a payment according to the following schedule:
 If the event A = {1, 2, 3} occurs, you will receive GH₵ 1.
 If the event B = {4, 5} occurs, you receive GH₵ 2.
 If the event C = {6} occurs, then you will receive GH₵ 6.
What is the average profit you can make if you participate this game?
 If A occurs, then a profit will be 1 − 2 = −1 Ghana cedi, i.e., you will lose 1 Ghana
cedi.
 If B occurs, a profit will be 2 − 2 = 0 Ghana cedi.
 If C occurs, a profit will be 6 − 2 = 4 Ghana cedis.
Therefore, we may compute the average profit as follows:
1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = ( + + ) × (−1) + ( + ) × 0 + ( ) × 4
6 6 6 6 6 6
1
= ( ) × (−3 + 0 + 4)
6
1
=
6
That is, you can expect to make GH₵ 0.16 on the average every time you play this game.
This is the mathematical expectation of the payment.
Random variable (r.v), is a function 𝑋: 𝑆 → ℝ, that assigns a real value to each outcome in a
sample space S.
Expectation of a random variable 𝑋: 𝑆 → ℝ, denoted by 𝐸(𝑋) is defined by:

𝐸(𝑋) = ∑ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥)
𝑥∈𝑆

Expected value 𝐸(𝑋) is often referred to as the mean and sometimes denoted 𝜇𝑥 for short. 𝑋
does not have expected value if the above sum does not converge absolutely. In mathematics,
an infinite series of numbers is said to converge absolutely (or to be absolutely convergent) if
the sum of the absolute values of the summands( a quantity to be added to another) is finite.

8
We can define a random variable 𝑋 which represents a profit, where 𝑋 takes a value of −1,
1 1 1 1
0, and 4 with probabilities 2 , 3, and 6, respectively. Namely, 𝑃(𝑋 = −1) = 2 , 𝑃(𝑋 = 0) =
1 1
, and 𝑃(𝑋 = 4) = 6. Then this mathematical expectation is written as
3

𝐸(𝑋) = ∑ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥)
𝑥∈{−1,0,4}

1 1 1
= (−1 × ) + (0 × ) + (4 × )
2 3 6
1
=
6

Example 3.1: Roll a die twice. Let 𝑋 be the number of times 4 comes up. 𝑋 takes three
possible values 0, 1, or 2.
 𝑋 = 0 when the event {1, 2, 3, 5, 6} occurs for both cases so that
5 5 25
𝑃(𝑋 = 0) = ( ) × ( ) =
6 6 36
 𝑋 = 1 either when the event {1, 2, 3, 5, 6} occurs for the first die and the event {4}
occurs for the second die or when the event {4} occurs for the first die and the event
{1, 2, 3, 5, 6} occurs for the second die so that
5 1 1 5 10
𝑃(𝑋 = 1) = ( ) × ( ) + ( ) × ( ) =
6 6 6 6 36

 Finally, 𝑋 = 2 when the event {4} occurs for both dies so that
1 1 1
𝑃(𝑋 = 2) = ( ) × ( ) =
6 6 36
Note that
𝑃(𝑋 = 0) + 𝑃(𝑋 = 1) + 𝑃(𝑋 = 2) = 1
Therefore, the mathematical expectation of 𝑋 is
25 10 1 1
𝐸(𝑋) = ∑ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥) = 0 × ( ) + 1 × ( ) + 2 × ( ) =
36 36 36 3
𝑥∈{0,1,2}

Example 3.2: Toss a coin 3 times. Let 𝑋 be the number of heads. There are 8 possible
outcomes:
{𝑇𝑇𝑇, 𝑇𝑇𝐻, 𝑇𝐻𝑇, 𝑇𝐻𝐻, 𝐻𝑇𝑇, 𝐻𝑇𝐻, 𝐻𝐻𝑇, 𝐻𝐻𝐻}
where 𝐻 indicates “Head” and 𝑇 indicates “Tail”. 𝑋 takes four possible values 0, 1, 2, and 3
with probabilities
1
𝑃(𝑋 = 0) = ,
8

9
 3
𝑃(𝑋 = 1) = ,
8
3
𝑃(𝑋 = 2) = 𝑎𝑛𝑑
8
1
𝑃(𝑋 = 3) =
8
Therefore, the mathematical expectation of 𝑋 is

𝐸(𝑋) = ∑ 𝑥 𝑃(𝑋 = 𝑥)
𝑥∈{0,1,2}

1 3 3 1
= 0×( )+1×( )+2×( )+3×( )
8 8 8 8
0+3+6+3
=
8
12
=
8
3
=
2

Example 3.3: One thousand tickets are sold at GH₵ 1 each for four prizes of GH₵ 100, GH₵
50, GH₵ 25, and GH₵ 10. After each prize drawing, the winning ticket is then returned to the
pool of tickets. What is the expected value if you purchase two tickets?
Solution
Let 𝑋 be each gain. Then the probability distribution is:
Gain 𝑋 GH₵98 GH₵48 GH₵23 GH₵8 – GH₵2
Probability 𝑃(𝑋) 2 2 2 2 992
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000

2 2 2 2 992
𝐸(𝑋) = (98 × ) + (48 × ) + (23 × ) + (8 × ) + (−2 × )
1000 1000 1000 1000 1000
= −GH₵1.63
OR
2 2 2 2
𝐸(𝑋) = (100 × ) + (50 × ) + (25 × ) + (10 × )−2
1000 1000 1000 1000
= −GH₵1.63
What this expectation means is that the average of the losses is GH₵1.63 for each of the 1000 ticket
holders. Here is another way of looking at this situation: If you purchased two tickets each over a long
time, the average loss would be GH₵1.63 per ticket.

10
Properties of Mathematical Expectation
Let 𝑋 be a random variable and suppose that the mathematical expectation of 𝑋, 𝐸(𝑋) exists:
 If 𝑥 is a constant, then
o 𝐸(𝑥) = 𝑥
o 𝐸(𝑥𝑋) = 𝑥𝐸(𝑋)
 If 𝑥 and 𝑦 are constants, then 𝐸(𝑥 + 𝑦𝑋) = 𝑥 + 𝑦𝐸(𝑋)

11
SECTION 4: Variance of discrete Random Variables
Introduction

Objective(s)
By the end of this section, you should be able to calculate the variance of discrete random
variable.

The usefulness of the expected value as a prediction for the outcome of an experiment is
increased when the outcome is not likely to deviate too much from the expected value. In this
section we shall introduce a measure of this deviation, called the variance.
If you have a discrete random variable 𝑋 with the following probability distribution:
Value of 𝑋 𝑥1 𝑥2 𝑥3 … 𝑥𝑛
Probability 𝑝1 𝑝2 𝑝3 … 𝑝𝑛

with mean 𝜇𝑥 , then the variance of 𝑋 is

𝜎𝑥2 = (𝑥1 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 𝑝1 + (𝑥2 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 𝑝2 + (𝑥3 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 𝑝3 + ⋯ + (𝑥𝑛 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 𝑝𝑛
𝑛

= ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1

Or
𝜎𝑥2 = 𝐸(𝑋 2 ) − 𝜇𝑥 2

Properties of Variance
The variance has properties very different from those of the expectation. If 𝑐 is any constant,
𝐸(𝑐𝑋) = 𝑐𝐸(𝑋) and 𝐸(𝑋 + 𝑐) = 𝐸(𝑋) + 𝑐. These two statements imply that the expectation
is a linear function. However, the variance is not linear, as seen in the next theorem.
Theorem 1. If 𝑋 is any random variable and 𝑐 is any constant, then
𝜎𝑥2 (𝑐𝑋) = 𝑐 2 𝜎𝑥2 (𝑋)
and
𝜎𝑥2 (𝑋 + 𝑐) = 𝜎𝑥2 (𝑋)

Theorem 2. Let 𝑋 and 𝑌 be two independent random variable. Then

𝜎 2 (𝑋 + 𝑌) = 𝜎𝑥2 (𝑋) + 𝜎𝑦2 (𝑌)

12
Example 4.1: Let 𝑋 be a discrete random variable with the following probability distribution:
𝑥 0 1 2 3
𝑝(𝑥) 0.51 0.38 0.10 0.01

Find the variance of the distribution.

Solution
𝑛

𝜎𝑥2 = ∑(𝑥𝑖 − 𝜇𝑥 )2 𝑝𝑖
𝑖=1
4

𝜇𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
𝑖=1

= (0 × 0.51) + (1 × 0.38) + (2 × 0.10) + (3 × 0.01)

= 0.61

𝜎𝑥2 = (0 − 0.61)2 (0.51) + (1 − 0.61)2 (0.38) + (2 − 0.61)2 (0.10) + (3 − 0.61)2 (0.01)

= 0.4979

Using mathematical expectation method we have,

4

𝐸(𝑋 2 ) = ∑ 𝑥 2 𝑃(𝑥)
𝑖=1

= (02 × 0.51) + (12 × 0.38) + (22 × 0.10) + (32 × 0.01)

= 0.87

𝜇𝑥 = 0.61
𝜎𝑥2 = 𝐸(𝑋 2 ) − 𝜇𝑥 2
= 0.87 − 0.612
= 0.4979

Example 4.2: The distribution for X where X is the number of rooms in an owned house in
San Jose, CA has mean 𝜇𝑥 = 6.284 and is as follows:
Rooms 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
probability 0.003 0.002 0.023 0.104 0.210 0.224 0.197 0.149 0.053 0.035

13
Find the variance 𝜎𝑥2 .

Example 3: Consider one roll of a die. Let 𝑋 be the number that turns up. Find the variance
𝜎𝑥2

14
SECTION 5: Computing the Standard Deviation
Introduction

Objective(s)
By the end of this section, you should be able to find the standard deviation of discrete
random variables.

The standard deviation of 𝑋, denoted 𝜎(𝑋), is defined by

𝜎(𝑋) = √𝜎𝑥2
NB: Variance and standard deviation cannot be negative.
Example 5.1: Find the standard deviation of spots that appear when a die is tossed.
Solution
Let 𝑋 be the number on each spot. The probability distribution is:
Outcome 1 2 3 4 5 6
𝑋
Probability 1 1 1 1 1 1
𝑃(𝑋) 6 6 6 6 6 6

Standard deviation, 𝜎(𝑋) = √𝜎𝑥2

Variance, 𝜎𝑥2 = 𝐸(𝑋 2 ) − 𝜇𝑥 2

6

𝐸(𝑋 2 ) = ∑ 𝑥 2 𝑃(𝑥)
𝑖=1

1 1 1 1 1 1
= (12 × ) + (22 × ) + (32 × ) + (42 × ) + (52 × ) + (62 × )
6 6 6 6 6 6
1
= 15
6

𝜇𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
𝑖=1

1 1 1 1 1 1
= (1 × ) + (2 × ) + (3 × ) + (4 × ) + (5 × ) + (6 × )
6 6 6 6 6 6
= 3.5

15
 1
𝜎𝑥2 = 15 − 3.52
6
= 2.9

Standard deviation, 𝜎(𝑋) = √2.9

= 1.7
Example 5.2: A box contains 5 balls. Two are numbered 3, one is numbered 4, and two are
numbered 5. The balls are mixed and one is selected at random. After a ball is selected, its
number is recorded. Then it is replaced. If the experiment is repeated many times, find the
variance and standard deviation of the numbers on the balls.
Solution
Let 𝑋 be the number of each ball. The probability distribution is:
Outcome 3 4 5
𝑋
Probability 2 1 2
𝑃(𝑋) 5 5 5

𝐸(𝑋 2 ) = ∑ 𝑥 2 𝑃(𝑥)
𝑖=1

2 1 2
= (32 × ) + (42 × ) + (52 × )
5 5 5
= 16.8

𝜇𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
𝑖=1

2 1 2
= (3 × ) + (4 × ) + (5 × )
5 5 5
=4

Variance, 𝜎𝑥2 = 𝐸(𝑋 2 ) − 𝜇𝑥 2

= 16.8 − 16
= 0.8

Standard deviation, 𝜎(𝑋) = √0.8

16
 = 0.894

Example 5.3: The local animal shelter adopts out cats and dogs each week with the following
probabilities.

𝑋 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝑃(𝑋) 0.15 0.3 0.25 0.18 0.10 0.02

Find the mean, variance, and standard deviation for the number of animals adopted each
week.
Solution
𝑋 3 4 5 6 7 8
𝑃(𝑋) 0.15 0.3 0.25 0.18 0.10 0.02

Mean,
6

𝜇𝑥 = ∑ 𝑥𝑃(𝑥)
𝑖=1

= (3 × 0.15) + (4 × 0.3) + (5 × 0.25) + (6 × 0.18) + (7 × 0.10) + (8 × 0.02)

= 4.48

Variance,
Variance, 𝜎𝑥2 = 𝐸(𝑋 2 ) − 𝜇𝑥 2
6
2)
𝐸(𝑋 = ∑ 𝑥 2 𝑃(𝑥)
𝑖=1

= (32 × 0.15) + (42 × 0.3) + (52 × 0.25) + (62 × 0.18) + (72 × 0.10) + (82 × 0.02)
= 25.06
Variance, 𝜎𝑥2 = 25.06 − 4.482
= 4.99

Standard deviation, 𝜎(𝑋) = √4.99

= 2.23

17
SECTION 6: Calculation of Expected Values
Introduction

Objective(s)
By the end of this section, you should be able to calculate expected value of discrete random
variables.

When a large collection of numbers is assembled, as in a census, we are usually interested not
in the individual numbers, but rather in certain descriptive quantities such as the average or
the median. In general, the same is true for the probability distribution of a numerically-
valued random variable. In this and in the next section, we shall discuss two such descriptive
quantities: the expected value and the variance. Both of these quantities apply only to
numerically-valued random variables, and so we assume, in these sections, that all random
variables have numerical values.
Expected value is the same as mathematical expectation.
Example 6.1: Let an experiment consist of tossing a fair coin three times. Let 𝑋 denote the
number of heads which appear. Then the possible values of 𝑋 are 0, 1, 2 and 3. The
1 3 3 1
corresponding probabilities are , , , and . Calculate the expected value of 𝑋.
8 8 8 8

Solution
The expected value of 𝑋 is calculated by,
1 3 3 1
𝐸(𝑋) = 0 ( ) + 1 ( ) + 2 ( ) + 3 ( )
8 8 8 8
3
=2

= 1.5

Example 6.2: The probability distribution function for a discrete random variable X is

2𝑘, 𝑥=1
3𝑘, 𝑥=3
𝑓(𝑥) =
4𝑘, 𝑥=5
0, otherwise

18
where k is some constant. Find
(a) k.
(b) P( X  2)
(c) E (X ) and Var (X )

Solution
(a)

∑ 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) + 𝑓(3) + 𝑓(5)

𝑥

= 2𝑘 + 3𝑘 + 4𝑘
= 9𝑘 = 1

1
 k 
9.
(b)
P( X  2)  P( X  3 or X  5)  P( X  3)  P( X  5)
1 7
 f (3)  f (5)  3k  4k  7k  7  
9 9 .
(c)

𝜇 = 𝐸(𝑋) = ∑ 𝑥𝑓(𝑥)
𝑥

= 1 ∙ 𝑓(1) + 3 ∙ 𝑓(3) + 5 ∙ 𝑓(5)

2 3 4
=1∙ +3∙ +5∙
9 9 9
31
=
9

and

Var ( X )    x  u  f ( x)
2

x
2 2 2
 31   31   31 
 1    f (1)   3    f (3)   5    f (5)
 9   9   9 


 222  2  16  3  14 2  4  200
81 9 81 9 81 9 81

19
Example 6.3: The probability density function for a continuous random variable X is
2
𝑓(𝑥) = {𝑎 + 𝑏𝑥 , 0≤𝑥≤1
0 otherwise

where 𝑎, 𝑏 are some constants. Find

3
(a) 𝑎, 𝑏 if 𝐸(𝑋) = 5
(b) Var (X ) .

Solution
(a)

 f ( x)dx  1   a  bx dx  1  ax  3 x
1 1
b
2
| 1
3 1
0
0 0

b
 a  1
3
and

 
1 1
a b a b 3
E ( X )   xf ( x)dx   x a  bx 2 dx  x 2  x 4 |10   
0 0
2 4 2 4 5
Solve for the two equations, we have

3 6
a , b
5 5.
(b)
3 6 2
𝑓(𝑥) = {5 + 5 𝑥 , 0≤𝑥≤1
0, otherwise

Thus,
2
3
Var ( X )  EX  E ( X )  E ( X )  E ( X )  E ( X )   
2 2 2 2

5
3 6 
1 1
9 9
  x f ( x)dx 
2
  x 2   x 2 dx 
0
25 0  5 5  25

20
 1 3 6 51 9
= 𝑥 + 𝑥 | −
5 25 0 25
1 6 9
= + −
5 25 25
2
=
25

Example 6.4: The probability density function for a continuous random variable X is

x  2
 ,2 x  4
f ( x)   18

 0, otherwise

P X  1  
(b) P X  9 (c) E  X  and Var  X 
2
Find (a)

Solution
(a)
1
x2  x2 x 
1
 1 1  1 1 2
P X  1  P 1  X  1   dx             
1
18  36 9  1  36 9   36 9  9
2 3
x2 x2  x2 x 
 
3 3
P X  9  P 3  X  3  
25
2
dx   0dx   dx     
(b) 3
18 3 2
18  36 9  2 36

 x  2
4
4 4
 x2 x   x3 x2 
EX      x dx    dx    18
   2
2
18 2
9   54 18  2
(c) .
Since

 x  2
4
 x3 x2   x4 x3 
   x
4 4
 dx     18
 dx    6
2 2
EX 
2
18 2
9   72 27  2
,

 
Var  X   E X     E X 2   2  6  2 2  2 .
2

Example 6.5: The probability distribution functions (discrete random variable) or probability
density functions (continuous random variable) for a random variable X are
(a)

21
 𝑐𝑒 −6𝑥 , 𝑥>0
𝑓(𝑥) = { −𝑐𝑥, 𝑥≤0
0 otherwise
(b)
3
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑐𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 , 𝑥 > 0

(c)
x
1
f x   c  , x  0, 1, 2, 
 3
Find 𝑐.

Solution
(a)
0 ∞
∫ −𝑐𝑥 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ 𝑐𝑒 −6𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
−1 0
0 ∞
𝑐𝑥 2 𝑐𝑒 −6𝑥
[− ] + [− ] =1
2 −1 6 0
𝑐 𝑐
+ =1
2 6
3𝑐 + 𝑐
=1
6
3
𝑐=
2

(b)
∞
3
∫ −𝑐𝑥 2 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑑𝑥 = 1
0

3 ∞
𝑐 𝑒−𝑥
[− ] =1
3
0
𝑐
=1
3
𝑐=3

22
(c)

 x
 1  1 2   1 
1
 c   1  c 1        1  c   1  3c  1
x 0  3   3  3    1  1  2
 3
2
c 
3

Activity set 2
1. Consider the following 12 coordinate pairs and weights:

X coordinate Y coordinate Weight

60 80 4
45 45 5
70 60 6
55 60 7
65 75 4
70 45 3
80 60 2
45 75 2
30 70 2
55 50 1
70 65 1
0 40 1

Calculate
a) the mean centre.
b) the weighted mean centre

2. The following are 5 purchases of a raw material over the past 3 months.
Purchase Cost per Pound Number of
($) Pounds
1 3.00 1200
2 3.40 500
3 2.80 2750
4 2.90 1000
5 3.25 800
Find the mean cost per pound.

3. A box contain 5 balls. 2 are numbered 3, one is numbered 4 and two are numbered 5. The
ball are mixed and one is selected at random. After a ball is selected, it number is

23
 recorded and then it is replaced. If the experiment is repeated many times, find the
variance and standard deviation of the numbers on the ball.

4. 1000 tickets are sold at GH₵1.00 each for four prices GH₵100.00, GH₵50.00,
GH₵25.00 and GH₵10.00. After each price is drawn, the remaining ticket is then
returned to the pool of tickets. What is the expected value if you purchase 2 tickets?

Suggested answers

1. (a) The mean centre of the point distribution is given by the coordinates ( X , Y ) , or
(53.75, 60.42)
(b) The weighted mean centre is given by the coordinates ( X w , Yw ) , or (57.24, 61.18)

2. Mean cost per pound = 2.96

3. 𝜎 2 = 0.8, 𝜎 = 0.894
4. 𝐸(𝑋) = −𝐺𝐻₵1.63

24