FOUNDATION AND FUNDAMENTALS

Department of chemistry
Trinity international college
[email protected]

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Chemistry
Chemistry is the branch of science which deals with the
study of compositions, structures, properties,
transformation and application of matter.
Father of modern chemistry: Antoine lavoisier
Father of organic chemistry: Friedrich Wohler
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 Applied
branches of

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Benefit of learning chemistry and its future Scope
Scope/ Examples
fields
Medicine Antibiotic, Antacids,Analgesics etc
Metallurgy Iron ,Steel, Zinc, Copper etc
Automobiles Hydrocarbon fuel, Lubricants etc
Dietetics Study of calorific values
Agriculture Pesticides, Insecticides, Fertilizers etc
Textiles Silk, Wool, Rayon etc
Detergents/so Sodium salt of carboxylic acids
aps
Cosmetics Glycerol, eyeliner etc
Construction Cement, mortar etc
Environment Pollution control
Geology Studying various ore and their composition
Expolsives TNT, Cordite, Nitroglycerine etc 5
To find 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
valency

Valency of an element, present in the column is equal

to the number present above their respective column
Finding atomic weight using even and odd
rule

Even = × 2
Odd = ×2 +1
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 The names and formulae of some common compounds are given below.
General Chemical Formula General Chemical name Formula
name name name
1.Common salt Sodium NaCl 12.Blue Copper sulphate CuSO4.5H2O
chloride vitriol pentahydrate
2.Table sugar Sucrose C12H22O11 13.Alumina Aluminium oxide Al2O3
3.Marble Calcium CaCO3 14.Dry ice Solid carbon dioxide CO2
/Limestone/ carbonate
Chalk
4.Lime Calcium oxide CaO 15.Calomel Mercurous chloride Hg2Cl2
5.Sand Silicon dioxide SiO2 16.Hydrolith Calcium hydride CaH2
6.Washing Sodium Na2CO3.10 17.Plaster of Calcium sulphate CaSO4.1/2H2
soda carbonate H2O paris semihydrate O
7.Baking Sodium NaHCO3 18.Gypsum Calcium sulphate Caso4.2H2O
powder bicarbonate dihydrate
8.Caustic soda Sodium NaOH 19.Epsom Magnesium sulphate MgSo4.7H2O
hydroxide salt heptahydrate
9.Caustic Potassium KOH 20.Quick mercury Hg
potash hydroxide silver
10.Vinegar Acetic acid CH3COOH 21.sylvine Potassium chloride Kcl
11.Aqua fortis Nitric acid HNO3 22.Laughing Nitrous Oxide N2O
gas 8
 Basic terminologies
1.Atoms: An atom is the smallest unit of an element which
possess the properties of that element. Eg; ‘H’ represents
one atom of the element Hydrogen(H2), and all the ‘H’
present in that hydrogen should have similar character.
In Greek atom means(a= absence , toms = cut)
2.Molecules:The smallest particle of a substance
(element or compound) which has its independent existence is
called molecule. Molecule of an element contains only one
type of atoms and molecule of a compound contains more than
one type of atoms.
Eg. H2, P4, S8,O2, N2etc. – Homonuclear
H2O, NH3, CO2 etc.- Heteronuclear

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3.Ions: Atom or group of atom having charge are called ions.
The ions having positive charge are called cations. Eg: Na+, K+,
Pb2+, Fe+++, NH4+ etc.
The ions having negative charge are called anions. Eg: Cl-, Br-, CN-,
CO3--, SCN- etc
 How the ions are formed? Q. Is there any
They are formed by losing or gaining of electrons. difference between
the mass of Na and
Eg: Na+?
1. Na -1e- Na+ Atomic Mass is the sum
11p 11p of proton and neutron.
11e 10e The mass of electron is
negligible in comparison
Thus sodium ion has single positive charge. to proton and neutron.
Thus there is no
2. Cl + 1e- Cl- remarkable difference in
17p 17p mass of Na and Na+.
17e 18e Thus the mass will not
differ by forming ions.
Thus, cl possess single negative charge.
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4.Radicals: All ionic compound like acid, base and salt
consist of two oppositely charged parts. A Radical is defined as
“An atom or group of atom having positive and negative
charge which behaves as a single unit in a given chemical
reaction.”
Eg: a.CuSO4 contains Cu++ and SO4-- as radicals.
b. potassium ferrocyanide K4[Fe(CN)6] contains K+ and [Fe(CN)6]---- as
radical.
Depending upon the nature of charge present on them and from which the
compound they are produced, radical are of two types:
(i) Basic radicals: The radicals having positive charge which are derived
from base (except H+ )are called basic radicals.eg: Na+, Fe+++, K+ etc
(ii) Acid radicals: The radicals having Negative charge which are derived
from acid (except OH- )are called acid radicals. Eg: NO3-, CO3--, SO4--
NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
Na+ Cl-
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5. Valency:The number of electron lost, gained or shared with one
atom of an element in order to acquire the stable electronic
configuration of the noble gas element.

Some element(mainly transition element) shows more than one

valency because of involvement of d-orbital in bonding and due to
existence of variable oxidation no.
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6.Chemical formula:
Symbolic representation of a molecule of a substance is called
chemical formula. For example:
H2O- formula of water
NH3- formula of ammonia
NaCl- formula of sodium chloride
Types of chemical formula
a. Molecular formula: It shows the actual no. of atom of
element present in one molecule of a substance.
CH4- Methane
H2SO4- sulphuric acid
NaOH- sodium hydroxide
Ca(OH)2- Calcium hydroxide

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b. Emperical formula: It shows the simplest whole no. ratio of
no. of atoms present in a molecule.
Eg: Name of compound Molecular Emperical Ratio of atoms
formula formula
water H2O H2O 2:1
Methane CH4 CH4 1:4
Ethane C2H6 CH3 1:3
Hydrogen peroxide H2O2 HO 1:1
Benzene C6H6 CH 1:1
Glucose C6H12O6 CH2O 1:2:1
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 Na2CO3 2:1:3

c. Structural formula: It shows 2D structure of a molecule.

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d. Spatial formula: It shows 3-D structure of a molecule.
H

C
spatial formula of methane(109.28°)
H
H
H
Tetrahedral

N
H
H spatial formula of NH3(107.5°)
H
Pyramidal
F

F F
Br spatial formula of bromine
F F pentaflouride (84.8°)
Square pyramidal
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e. Lewis formula: It shows the valence electron present in
the molecule.

O C O or O C O
H F
or H F
FormatonofofCO
Formation CO2 2
FormatonofofHF
Formation HF

H Cl
or H Cl S H H S H
H or
Formaton
Formation of HCl
of HCl Formatonof
Formation of H
H2SS
2

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 How to calculate the molecular weight?
1. H2 2. HCl
Ans: H × 2 Ans: H + Cl
= 1×2 = 1 + 35.5
= 2 amu = 36.5 amu
3. H2SO4 4. Na2CO3
Ans: H x2 + S + Ox4 Ans: Nax2 + C + Ox3
= 1x2 + 32 + 16x4 = 23x2 + 12 + 16x3
= 98amu = 106amu
5.Fe2(SO4)3 6. K4[Fe(CN)6]
Ans: Fex2 + Sx3 + Ox12 Ans: Kx4 + Fe + Cx6 + Nx6
= 56x2 + 32x3 + 16x12 =39x4 + 56 + 12x6 + 14x6
= 400 amu = 368amu
7. CuSO4.5H2O
Ans: 63.5 + 32 + 16x4 + 5(1x2 + 16) = 249.5 amu
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Chemical equation: A short hand representation of a
chemical reaction in term of symbol and formula is called
chemical equation.
Eg: sodium + dil . Hydrochloric acid sodium chloride + Hydrogen
The above word equation in term of symbol and formula can be written as:
2 Na + 2HCl 2NaCl + H2

ESSENTIALS OF A CHEMICAL REACTION:

A chemical equation must follow the given criteria:
1. The reactants of the chemical reaction should be written on the left hand
side and product should be written on the right hand side of the arrow
(⇌/ )
Zn + HNO3 Zn(NO3)2 + N2O + H2O
Reactants Products
2. Chemical equation should be balanced. Unbalanced chemical equation gives
wrong information about the amount of reactant and product.
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 H2 + O2 H2O (wrong way)
2H2 + O2 2H2O (right)
3. Chemical equation must be written in molecular form.
H + Cl HCl (wrong way)
H2+ Cl2 2HCl (right)

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 Types of Chemical reaction
1. Combination/ Addition reaction: A reaction in which one molecule
combines with another to form a larger molecule with no other
products.
H2 + Cl2 2HCl

2. Decomposition reaction: In these reaction a single substance is

decomposed into two or more simpler substance.
2HgO 2Hg + O2
3. Rearrangement reaction: In these reaction, atom or group of atom
rearrange themselves giving new substance.
NH4CNO Heat/water CO(NH2)2
Ammonium cyanate Urea
4. Single displacement reaction: In this reaction an element replaces the
other one from a compound.
Zn + CuSO4 ZnSO4 + Cu
5. Double displacement reaction(metathesis): In these reaction there is
mutual exchange of two radicals of two different compound.
(acid-base rxn)
H2SO4 + 2NaOH Na2SO4 + 2H2O
H2SO4 + BaCl2 BaSO4 + 2HCl 20
(precipitation)
 Calculation of percentage of constituents
present in the given molecular formula
% element= Mass of element
Mass of compound × 100
Q1. Calculate the percentage composition of Al2O3.
Ans: Molecular mass of Al2O3 is = 2x27 + 3x16 = 54 + 48 = 102g
⸫ Percent of Al = Mass of element (Al) × 100
Total Mass of compound
= x 100% = 52.94%
Also,
percent of Oxygen = Mass of element (O2)
× 100
Total Mass of compound
= x 100
= 47.06 %

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Q2. Calculate the percentage of water of crystallization in gypsum
salt(CaSO4.2H2O)
Ans: Molecular mass of CaSO4.2H2O = 40 + 32 + 4x16 + 2x18
= 172g
⸫ Percentage of Water of crystallization = Mass of water x100%
Molecular mass of Gypsum
= x 100

= 20.93%

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Q3. Calculate the percentage composition of H2SO4.
Ans: Molecular weight of H2SO4 is = 1x2 + 32 + 16x4 = 98g
⸫ percent of Hydrogen = x 100%
= 2.04%
again,
percent of Sulphur = x 100%
= 32.65%
Also,
percent of Oxygen = x 100%
= 65.30%
Hence the percentage of hydrogen, sulphur and oxygen in
sulphuric acid is 2.04%, 32.65% and 65.30% resp.

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Atomic weight of an element:
It is defined as a number which shows by how
many times one atom of an element is heavier than one atom of hydrogen.
Eg: Atomic weight of Ca is 40 means one atom of Ca is 40 times heavier than
one atom of hydrogen.
Q. Atomic weight of Oxygen is 16 amu. what does it mean?

Relative atomic mass(Ar):

The ratio of the average mass of one atom of an element to
one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Relative atomic mass = wt. of one atom of an element
x wt of one atom of carbon-12

Q. Find the relative atomic mass of chlorine

= 35.5
x 12

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= 35.5
Relative molecular mass(Mr):
The relative molecular mass of a molecule is the average mass of one molecule of
that element or compound compared to 1/12 of the mass of one carbon-12
atom.
Relative formula mass:
The relative formula mass of a substance is the sum of the relative atomic masses
of the elements present in a formula unit. If the substance is made of simple
molecules, this mass may also be called the relative molecular mass.
Overall, Formula mass is the sum of the masses of the atoms
present in the empirical formula.

Q . What is the relative formula mass of water? (Relative atomic masses: H =

1, O = 16)
Solution:
The formula for water is H2O. H2O contains 2 hydrogen atoms and 1 oxygen atom.
The relative mass formula of water is
Mr(H2O) = 2 × Ar(H) + Ar(O) = 2 × 1 + 16 = 18 = 18
1/12 x12
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Q. What is the relative mass formula of sodium chloride? (Relative atomic
masses: Na = 23, Cl = 35.5)
Solution:
Sodium Chloride is an ionic solid with the formula Na+ & Cl-.
The relative mass formula of sodium chloride is
Mr(NaCl) = Ar(Na) + Ar(Cl) = 23 + 35.5 = 58.5
Q. Differentiating example between formula mass and molecular mass.
Example : Calculate the formula mass for MgCl2.
The empirical formula for MgCl2 is the same as the molecular formula. Therefore,
the formula mass can be calculated as follows.
The mass of Mg atom = 24 amu
The mass of a Cl atom = 35.5 amu
Therefore the formula mass = (24 amu) + (2 x 35.5 amu)
= 95 amu
Example : calculate the formula mass of C4H10
The empirical formula for C4H10 is C2H5. Therefore, the formula mass can be
calculated as follows.
The mass of C atom = 12amu
The mass of an H atom = 1 amu
Therefore the formula mass = (2 x 12amu) + (5 x 1 amu)
= 29 amu
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Q. Write the molecular mass and formula mass of 2NaCl.
Ans: Molecular mass = 2x (23 + 35.5) = 117amu
formula mass = 58.5 amu

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 Methods to balance a chemical
Equation
1.Hit and trial method
2.Partial equation method
3.Oxidation no. method
4.Ion- electron method

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 Balancing the equation by hit and trial method.
1. So2 + O2 SO3

2. CaCO3 + HCl CaCl2 + H2O + CO2

3. Cu + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O + SO2

4. H2 + O2 H 2O
NOTE: Always balance the metals first, nonmetals,
hydrogen and finally the oxygen
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But it is difficult to balance these type of element
by hit and trial method.
1. KMnO4 + H2SO4 + H2S K2SO4 + MnSO4 + H2O + S

2. K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 + (COOH)2 K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O + CO2

3. I2 + HNO3 HIO3+ NO2 + H2O

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 Some logical partial equations:
A
Hydrogen peroxide B
C
Potassium permanganate D
Potassium dichromate E
F
G
H
Zn + 2HNO3 (ZnNO3)2 + 2[H]
I
J
O3 O2 + [O] K
Cl2 + H2O 2HCl + [O] L
2HNO3 (Conc.) H2O + 2NO2 + [O]…..Nitrogen dioxide M
2HNO3 (50% dil./1:1) H2O + 2NO + 3[O]…..Nitric oxide N
2HNO3(20%dil ) H2O + N2O + 4[O]..Nitrous oxide O
HNO3( v. dil./ 1%) H2O + NH4NO3+ [O] ….Ammonium nitrate p

Note: metal + mineral acid salt + gas

Acid + base Salt + water 31
Balancing the equation by partial equation
method
1. Balance the equation:
C + H2SO4 H2O + SO2 + CO2
Ans:

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Electrochemical series

+ M. acid salt + H2
Balance by hydrogen
formation method

Balance by oxide
formation method

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2. Balance the equation:
Zn + HNO3(Conc.) Zn(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O
Ans:

3. Balance the equation:

Zn + HNO3(dil.) Zn(NO3)2 + NO + H2O
Ans:
3

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4. Balance the equation:
Zn + HNO3( 20%dil.) Zn(NO3)2 + N2O + H2O
Ans:

5. Balance the equation:

Zn + HNO3( v.dil.) Zn(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + H2O
Ans:

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6. Balance the equation:
Cu + HNO3(Conc.) Cu(NO3)2 + NO2 + H2O
Ans:

7. Balance the equation:

Cu + HNO3(1:1) Cu(NO3)2 + NO + H2O
Ans:

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8. Balance the equation:
Cu + HNO3(20% dil.) Cu(NO3)2 + N2O + H2O
Ans:
2HNO3 H2O + N2O + 4[O]
Cu + [O] CuO ] x 4
2CuO + 4HNO3 2Cu(NO3)2 + 2H2O ] x 2
4Cu + 10HNO3 4Cu(NO3)2 + N2O + 5H2O
9. Question
Cu + HNO3(v. dil.) Cu(NO3)2 + NH4NO3 + H2O
This equation(9) cannot be balanced by partial equation method, therefore has
to be balanced by oxidation no. method.

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10. Balance the equation:
KMnO4 + H2SO4 + H2S K2SO4 + MnSO4 + H2O + S
Ans:

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11. Balance the equation:
K2Cr2O7 + H2SO4 +H2S K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + H2O + S
Ans:
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 4H2O + 3[O]
H2S + [O] H2O + S ] x 3
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 +3H2S K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O + 3S
Note: metallic oxide = basic
oxide

or,
K2Cr2O7 K2O + Cr2O3 + 3[O]
K2O + H2SO4 K2SO4 + H2O
Cr2O3 + 3H2SO4 Cr2(SO4)3 + 3H2O
H2S + [O] H2O + S ] x 3
K2Cr2O7 + 4H2SO4 +3H2S K2SO4 + Cr2(SO4)3 + 7H2O + 3S
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