Chapter 1

Background and a
Classification of Robots

Prepare by: 1Ms Noraziah

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Robot Accessories
A Robot is a system, consists of the following
elements, which are integrated to form a whole:
 Manipulator / Rover : This is the main body of the
Robot and consists of links, joints and structural
elements of the Robot.

 End Effector : This is the part that generally

handles objects, makes connection to other
machines, or performs the required tasks.
It can vary in size and complexity from a end
effector on the space shuttle to a small gripper
Accessories
 Acutators : Actuators are the muscles of the manipulators.
Common types of actuators are servomotors, stepper
motors, pneumatic cylinders etc.

 Sensors : Sensors are used to collect information about the

internal state of the robot or to communicate with the
outside environment. Robots are often equipped with
external sensory devices such as a vision system, touch and
tactile sensors etc which help to communicate with the
environment

 Controller : The controller receives data from the

computer, controls the motions of the actuator and
coordinates these motions with the sensory feedback
information.
Robot Configurations
Some of the commonly used configurations in Robotics are

 Cartesian/Rectangular Gantry(3P) : These Robots are made of 3

Linear joints that orient the end effector, which are usually
followed by additional revolute joints.
Cartesian Robot - Work Envelope
Robot Configurations (cont’d)
 Cylindrical (R2P): Cylindrical coordinate Robots have 2 prismatic
joints and one revolute joint.
Cylindrical Robot - Work Envelope
Robot Configurations (cont’d)
 Spherical joint (2RP): They follow a spherical coordinate system,
which has one
Spherical Robot - Work Envelope
Robot Configurations (cont’d)
 Articulated/anthropomorphic(3R) :An articulated robot’s joints are
all revolute, similar to a human’s arm.
Robot Configurations (cont’d)
 Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA) (2R1P): They have
two revolute joints that are parallel and allow the Robot to move in a
horizontal plane, plus an additional prismatic joint that moves vertically
Robot Configurations
Reference Frames
 World Reference Frame which is a universal coordinate frame, as
defined by the x-y-z axes. In this case the joints of the robot move
simultaneously so as to create motions along the three major axes.

 Joint Reference Frame which is used to specify movements of each

individual joint of the Robot. In this case each joint may be accessed
individually and thus only one joint moves at a time.

 Tool Reference Frame which specifies the movements of the Robots

hand relative to the frame attached to the hand. The x’,y’and z’ axes
attached to the hand define the motions of the hand relative to this
local frame. All joints of the Robot move simultaneously to create
coordinated motions about the Tool frame.
Robot Reference Frames
Work Envelope concept
 Depending on the configuration and size of the
links and wrist joints, robots can reach a
collection of points called a Workspace.

 Alternately Workspace may be found empirically,

by moving each joint through its range of motions
and combining all space it can reach and
subtracting what space it cannot reach
Pure Spherical Jointed Arm - Work envelope
2) Parallelogram Jointed
WRIST
 typically has 3 degrees of freedom
 Roll involves rotating the wrist about the arm axis
 Pitch up-down rotation of the wrist
 Yaw left-right rotation of the wrist
 End effector is mounted on the wrist
WRIST MOTIONS
CONTROL METHODS

 Non Servo Control

 implemented by setting limits or mechanical stops for each joint
and sequencing the actuation of each joint to accomplish the cycle
 end point robot, limited sequence robot, bang-bang robot
 No control over the motion at the intermediate points, only end
points are known

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 Programming accomplished by
 setting desired sequence of moves
 adjusting end stops for each axis accordingly
 the sequence of moves is controlled by a
“squencer”, which uses feedback received from
the end stops to index to next step in the
program
 Low cost and easy to maintain, reliable
 relatively high speed
 repeatability of up to 0.01 inch
 limited flexibility
 typically hydraulic, pneumatic drives
 Servo Control
 Point to point Control
 Continuous Path Control
 Closed Loop control used to monitor position, velocity (other
variables) of each joint
Point-to-Point Control
 Only the end points are programmed, the path used to connect the
end points are computed by the controller
 user can control velocity, and may permit linear or piece wise linear
motion
 Feedback control is used during motion to ascertain that individual
joints have achieved desired location
 Often used hydraulic drives, recent trend towards servomotors
 loads up to 500lb and large reach
 Applications
 pick and place type operations
 palletizing
 machine loading
Path Controlled
 in addition to the control over the endpoints, the path taken by the
end effector can be controlled
 Path is controlled by manipulating the joints throughout the entire
motion, via closed loop control
 Applications:
 spray painting, polishing, grinding, arc welding
ROBOT PROGRAMMING
 Typically performed using one of the following
 On line
 teach pendant
 lead through programming
 Off line
 robot programming languages
 task level programming
Use of Teach Pendant
 hand held device with switches used to control the robot motions
 End points are recorded in controller memory
 sequentially played back to execute robot actions
 trajectory determined by robot controller
 suited for point to point control applications
 Easy to use, no special programming skills required
 Useful when programming robots for wide range of repetitive tasks for
long production runs
 RAPID
Lead Through Programming
 lead the robot physically through the required sequence of motions
 trajectory and endpoints are recorded, using a sampling routine which
records points at 60-80 times a second
 when played back results in a smooth continuous motion
 large memory requirements
Programming Languages
 Motivation
 need to interface robot control system to external sensors, to
provide “real time” changes based on sensory equipment
 computing based on geometry of environment
 ability to interface with CAD/CAM systems
 meaningful task descriptions
 off-line programming capability

 Large number of robot languages available

 AML, VAL, AL, RAIL, RobotStudio, etc. (200+)
 Each robot manufacturer has their own robot programming language
 No standards exist
 Portability of programs virtually non-existent
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The types of robots possible are unlimited,
though the more popular are:

•Land wheeled, tracked, and legged robots

•Aerial planes, helicopters, and blimp

•Aquatic boats, submarines, and swimming robots

•Misc. and mixed robots

•Stationary robot arms, and manipulators

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Land

Land-based robots, especially the wheeled ones, are the most popular
mobile robots among beginners as they usually require the least
investment while providing significant exposure to robotics. On the other
hand, the most complex type of robots is the humanoid (akin to a human),
as it requires many degrees of freedom and synchronizing the motion of
many motors, and uses many sensors.

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 Wheeled Robots
Wheels are by far the most popular method of providing mobility to a robot and are
used to propel many different sized robots and robotic platforms. Wheels can be just
about any size, from a few centimetres up to 30 cm and more . Tabletop robots tend to
have the smallest wheels, usually less than 5 cm in diameter. Robots can have just
about any number of wheels, although 3 and 4 are the most common. Normally a three-
wheele robot uses two wheels and a caster at one end. More complex two wheeled
robots may use gyroscopic stabilization. It is rare that a wheeled robot use anything but
skid steering (like that of a tank). Rack and pinion steering such as that found on a car
requires too many parts and its complexity and cost outweigh most of its advantages.
Four and six wheeled robots have the advantage of using multiple drive motors (one
connected to each wheel) which reduces slip. Also, omni-directiona wheels or mecanum
wheels, used properly, can give the robot significant mobility advantages. A common
misconception about building a wheeled robot is that large, low-cost DC motors can
propel a medium sized robot. As we will see later in this series, there is a lot more
involved than just a motor.

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 Wheeled Robots
Advantages
• Usually low-cost compared to other methods
• Simple design and construction
• Abundance of choice
• Six wheels or more rival a track system
• Excellent choice for beginners

Disadvantages
• May lose traction (slip)
• Small contact area (only a small rectangle or line underneath each
wheel is in contact with the ground)

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 Tracked Robots

Tracks (or treads) are what tanks use. Although tracks do not
provide added "force" (torque), they do reduce slip and more
evenly distribute the weight of the robot, making them useful
for loose surfaces such as sand and gravel. Also, a track
system with some flexibility can better conform to a bumpy
surface. Finally, most people tend to agree that tank tracks
add an "aggressive" look to the robot as well.

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 Tracked Robots
Advantages

• Constant contact with the ground prevents slipping that might occur with
wheels
• Evenly distributed weight helps your robot tackle a variety of surfaces
• Can be used to significantly increase a robot’s ground clearance without
incorporating a larger drive wheel

Disadvantages

• When turning, there is a sideways force that acts on the ground; this can
cause damage to the surface the robot is being used on, and cause the
tracks to wear
• Not many different tracks are available (robot is usually constructed
around the tracks)
• Drive sprocket might significantly limit the number of motors that can be
used.
• Increased mechanical complexity (idler placement and number, # of links)
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and connections
 Legs

An increasing number of robots use legs for mobility. Legs are often
preferred for robots that must navigate on very uneven terrain. Most
amateur robots are designed with six legs, which allow the robot to be
statically balanced (balanced at all times on 3 legs); robots with fewer
legs are harder to balance. The latter require "dynamic stability",
meaning that if the robot stops moving mid-stride, it might fall over.
Researchers have experimented with monopod (one legged "hopping")
designs, though bipeds (two legs), quadrupeds (four legs),
and hexapods (six legs) are the most popular.

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 Legs
Advantages

• Closer to organic or natural motion

• Can potentially overcome large obstacles and navigate very rough
terrain

Disadvantages

• Increased mechanical, electronic and coding complexity (not the

easiest way to get into robotics).
• Lower battery size despite increased power demands
• Higher cost to build

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 Air

A AUAV (Autonomous Unmanned Aerial Vehicle) is very appealing and

is entirely within the capability of many robot enthusiasts. However,
the advantages of building an autonomous unmanned aerial vehicles,
especially if you are a beginner, have yet to outweigh the
risks. When considering an aerial vehicle, most hobbyists still use
existing commercial remote controlled aircraft. On the professional
side, aircraft such as the US military Predator were initially semi-
autonomous though in recent years Predator aircraft have flown
missions autonomously.

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 Air

Advantages

• Remote controlled aircraft have been in existence for decades (so there
is a large community, at least for the mechanics)
• Excellent for surveillance

Disadvantages

• The entire investment can be lost in one crash.

• Limited robotic community to provide help for autonomous control

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 Water

An increasing number of hobbyists, institutions and companies are

developing unmanned underwater vehicles. There are many obstacles yet
to overcome to make underwater robots attractive to the wider robotic
community though in recent years, several companies have
commercialized pool cleaning "robots". Underwater vehicles can use
ballast (compressed air and flooded compartments), thrusters, tail and
fins or even wings to submerge. Other aquatic robots such as pool cleaners
are useful commercial products.

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 Water
Advantages

• Most of our planet is water, so there is a lot to explore and discover

• Design is almost guaranteed to be unique
• Can be used and/or tested in a pool

Disadvantages

• Robot can be lost many ways (sinking, leaking, entangled...)

• Most electronic parts do not like water (also consider water falling on
electronics when accessing the robot after a dive)
• Surpassing depths of 10m or more can require significant research and
investment
• Very limited robotic community to provide help
• Limited wireless communication options
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 Miscellaneous and hybrid combinations

Your idea for a robot may not fall nicely into any of the above categories
or may be comprised of several different functional sections. Note again
that this guide is intended for mobile robots as opposed to stationary or
permanently fixed designs (other than robotic arms and grippers). It is
wise to consider when building a hybrid design, to use a modular design
(each functional part can be taken off and tested separately).
Miscellaneous designs can include hovercraft, snake-like designs, turrets
and more.

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 Miscellaneous and hybrid combinations

Advantages

• Designed and built to meet specific needs

• Multi-tasking and can be comprised of modules
• Can lead to increased functionality and versatility

Disadvantages

• Possible Increased complexity and cost

• Often times, parts must be custom designed and built

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 Arms & Grippers

Although these do not fall under the category of mobile robotics, the
field of robotics essentially started with arms and end-effectors
(devices that attach to the end of an arm such as grippers,
electromagnets etc). Arms and grippers are the best way for a robot
to interact with the environment it is exploring. Simple robot arms
can have just one motion, while more complex arms can have a
dozen or more unique degrees of freedom.

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 Arms & Grippers

Advantages

• Very simple to very complex design possibilities

• Easy to make a 3 or 4 degree of freedom robot arm (two joints and
turning base)

Disadvantages

• Stationary unless mounted on a mobile platform

• Cost to build is proportional to lifting capability

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