ROJAS ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER

2nd Floor, Yap Building, 35 M. Velez St , Barangay Guadalupe, Cebu City

STRUCTURE OF AN ATOM I = current flow, in amperes (A)

Q = total charge moving, in coulombs (C)
Matter – anything that occupies space and has weight t = time of occurrence, in seconds (s)

Element – a substance that cannot be decomposed any further by EXAMPLE 1: The electron flow in a wire is known to have an intensity
chemical action of 4 amps. How many electrons passed a given point in the wire in 1
minute?
Compound – a combination of two or more elements
Q = It = (4)(60) = 240 C
Molecule – smallest particle that a compound can be reduced to 1e
before it breaks down into its elements. n = 240 C x = 1.5 x 1021 electrons
1.6 x 10-19 C
Atom - smallest part that an element can be reduced to and still
keeping the properties of the element. EXAMPLE 2: For t > 0, q  0.0004 (1  e 250 t ) coulombs, obtain the
Electron current at t = 3 ms.
Proton -
+ Neutron dq
Note: i  . Use calculator to differentiate:
orbit dt

The center of the atom is called nucleus. Protons (positively charged ENCODE:
d
dx

0.0004(1  e 250x )  RESULT: 0.047
particle) and neutrons (no charge particle) are found in the nucleus of x 0.003
an atom. Electrons (negatively charged particle) are revolving around
the nucleus in a specified path called orbital shells. The number of DRIFT VELOCITY OF CONDUCTION ELECTRONS
shells is dependent upon the total number of electrons of the atom.
The drift velocity of the free electrons is very small since the number
K-shell - first orbit (innermost) K-shell of free electrons in a conductor is very large.
L-shell – second orbit
L-shell
M-shell – third orbit v
N-shell – fourth orbit A I  neAv
O-shell – fifth orbit + M-shell I

I = current flowing, in amperes (A)

N = 2n 2 n = electron density, in electrons/m3
e = charge per electron (1.6 x 10-19 C)
N = maximum number of electrons on a given shell or orbit A = cross-sectional area of the conductor (m2)
n = nth shell of the atom v = drift velocity of the electrons (m/s)

Atomic Number – represents the number of protons of an atom. EXAMPLE 3: The cross-sectional area of copper wire is 3 mm2. It
Atomic Mass – represents the sum of protons and neutrons of an atom. carries a current of 4.2 A. Calculate the drift velocity of the electrons in
Valence electrons – electrons found in the outermost orbit of an atom. the wire. Assume the electron density of the wire is 8.4 x 1028 e/m3.

CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS ACCORDING TO ITS NUMBER

OF VALENCE ELECTRONS I  neAv
I 4.2
v 


Conductor – has 3 or less valence electrons
Semi-conductor – has exactly 4 valence electrons
neA

8.4 x 10 28

(1.6 x 10-19 ) 3 x 10 6 
 Insulator – has 5 or more valence electrons 1 m
v x 1000 mm  0.104 mm/s
9600 s 1m
ELEMENT No. of No. of Valence Material
Electrons Electrons Classification ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE (EMF OR VOLTAGE)
Copper 29 1 Conductor
Aluminum 13 3 Conductor It is the energy provided by a cell or battery or a generator per
Germanium 32 4 Semi-conductor coulomb of charge passing through it. The SI unit of emf is joule per
Phosphorus 15 5 Insulator coulomb or commonly called volt.

ELECTRIC CHARGE
Negatively - - Positively
charged plate
- charged plate
Electric charge is carried by the electrons and protons within an atom.
Electrons are said to carry negative charge, while protons are said to - --
carry positive charge. The SI unit of electric charge is coulomb.
Current
1 electron or 1 proton = 1.6 x 10-19 coulomb
W joule
E  volt 
Note: Copper is used as a universal reference conductor. One cubic Q coulomb
centimeter (1 cm3) of a copper material is known to contain 8.5 x
1022 free electrons. E = emf or voltage, in volts (V)
W = energy, in joules (J)
FOOD FOR THE BRAINS: In some old books, 1 cubic inch of copper Q = charge, in coulombs (C)
contains 1.64 x 1024 free electrons
EXAMPLE 4: A car battery supplies 48 J of energy at 12 V over a
ELECTRIC CURRENT certain period of time. Determine the charge moved during this period.

Electric current is the rate of electron movement or electron flow in a joules W

given material. The SI unit of current is coulomb per second or ampere volt  V
coulomb Q
Q dQ coulomb W 48
I i  ampere  Q   4 coulombs
t dt sec ond
V 12
I Q = It  Q =  idt

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 ROJAS ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER
2nd Floor, Yap Building, 35 M. Velez St , Barangay Guadalupe, Cebu City

ELECTRIC ENERGY AND POWER ELECTRIC RESISTANCE

Electric energy is a form of energy used to run or operate various Resistance is the property of a material to oppose or resist the electron
electrical devices. Standard unit of electrical energy is joule or kilojoule. flow. The SI unit is ohm.
The other common units are kilowatt-hour and megawatt-hour.
Current Resistance
Other common units of energy:
A
1 calorie 4.186 joules L
1 Btu (British thermal unit) 252 calories L
R
1 kilowatt-hour 3,600 kilojoules A
3413 Btu
860 kilocalories R = resistance of the given conductor, in ohms ()
 = resistivity of the given conductor, (-m)
Electric power is the rate of consuming the electric energy. Standard L = length of the given conductor, in meter (m)
unit of electrical power is watt (bigger units are kilowatt & megawatt) A = cross-sectional area of the conductor, (m2)

P  EI Resistance Resistivity Length Area

W  Pt ohm ohm-m m m2
ohm ohm-CM/ft ft CM
W = electric energy, in joules (J)
P = electric power, in watts (W) Specific resistance or resistivity of a material is the resistance offered
I = current, in amperes (A) by 1 m length of the material having a cross sectional area of 1 m 2.
E = emf or voltage, in volts (V)
t = time, in seconds (s) Material Resistivity at 20C
Annealed copper 10.37 -CM/ft 1.724 -cm
EXAMPLE 5: What is the power (in kilowatt) required to transfer Hard drawn copper 10.65 -CM/ft 1.77 -cm
97,000 coulombs of charge through potential rise of 50 volts in one Aluminum 17 -CM/ft 2.826 -cm
hour?
EXAMPLE 7: Calculate the resistance of an annealed copper bus of
Note: Ampere is coulomb per second length 10 ft and cross section 1/2 inch by 6 inch.

Q 97000
I= = = 26.944 A A  (0.5)(6)  3 in2 6”
t 3600
 
2 2
= 3 in x 1000 mils x 1 cmil
P = VI = 50(29.944) = 1347.2 W  1.35 kW 1 in 0.5”
/4 mils2
6
CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF A WIRE A  3.82 x 10 cmils CROSS-SECTION

Circular mil (CM) – it is an old unit in specifying the cross-section area L  10 

of a wire. It is equal to the area of a circle having a diameter of 1 mil. R =ρ =10.37 
  = 27.15 Ω
A  3.82 x 106 

1mil Area = 1 circular mil ALTERNATE SOLUTION: Using   1.724 -cm

A  d2
 1 inch 
2
A  (0.5  6) in2 x 2.54 cm  19.35 cm2

A = cross section area of the wire, in cmils (CM) L  10 ft x 12 in x 2.54 cm  304.8 cm

1 ft 1 in
d = diameter of the wire, in mils

Note: 1 inch = 1000 mils L  304.8 

R =ρ =1.724 
  = 27.16 Ω
A  19.35 
EXAMPLE 6: Solve the diameter of a wire whose cross-sectional area
is 2500 cmil.
EXAMPLE 8: A length of wire has a resistance of 4.5 ohms. Find the
resistance of another wire of the same material three times as long and
d  A  d  mils; A = cmil twice the cross sectional area.
d= 2500  50 mils x 1 inch  0.05 inch
1000 mils
ρL
R=  formula
A
RELATION BETWEEN A CIRCULAR MIL AND A SQUARE MIL
R2 L A
 2x 1
R1 L1 A 2
1 mil 1 mil
R 2  3L1   A1 
A=1 sq.mil   
A=1 circular mil 4.5  L1   2A1 
1 mil
R 2  6.75 ohms

1 circular mil = sq. mils
4 WIRES UNDERGOING DRAWING PROCESSES

Assuming no materials were wasted during the drawing process, the

resistance of the wire varies directly as the square of the length or it
varies inversely as the fourth power of its diameter.
L1 L2
d1 d2
Before After

 
R  kL2 ; R  k  14 
d 

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 ROJAS ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER
2nd Floor, Yap Building, 35 M. Velez St , Barangay Guadalupe, Cebu City

EXAMPLE 9: A copper wire of diameter 1 cm had a resistance of 0.15 1 R

ohm. It was drawn under pressure so that its diameter was reduced to Let:   , then 2  1  (t 2  t1 )
T  t1 R1
0.5 cm. What is the new resistance of the wire?
 = temperature coefficient of resistance at t 1
Note: In a drawing process, the resistance of the material varies
inversely as the fourth power of its diameter.
Material Inferred absolute zero temperature
Annealed copper -234.5C
1
R =k Hard drawn copper -242C
d4 d1 Aluminum -236C
4
R 2  d1 
=  d2 EXAMPLE 11: If a coil of wire has a resistance of 3.15 ohms at 30C
R 1  d2 
and 3.75 ohms at 90C, what will be the resistance of the coil at 0C?
4
R2  d1 
   R 2 = 2.4 ohms R2 T + t2
0.15  0.5 d1  =  formula
  R1 T + t1
3.75 T  90
CONDUCTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY 
3.15 T  30
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. The SI unit of conductance T  285oC
is siemens. The old unit is called mho
R3 T  t3
1 
G R1 T  t1
R R3 285  0
  R 3  2.85 
3.15 285  30
G = conductance, in siemens (S)
R = resistance, in ohms ()
EXAMPLE 12: A tungsten lamp has a resistance of 150  at 2850C.
What is its resistance at room temperature of 20C? Temperature co-
Conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity. The unit is siemens per
efficient of tungsten is 0.0049/C at 0C.
meter.
1 1
1 L L T= = = 204 °C
 = R   0 0.0049
 A A
R2 T + t2
=
 = conductivity, siemens/meter (S/m) R1 T + t1
 = resistivity, ohm-meter (-m)
R2 204 + 20
=
PERCENT CONDUCTIVITY 150 204 + 2850
R 2 = 11 ohms
As a standard, the reference conductor is the annealed copper whose
resistivity is 10.37 -CM per foot. Thus, 100% conductivity refers to
INSULATION RESISTANCE OF CABLES
annealed copper.

Resistivity of annealed copper wire r2 ρ r 

2
% Conductivity = x 100% r1 R ln  
Resistivity of the given wire 2 L  r1 


conductor
EXAMPLE 10: A certain batch of copper wire was found to have a
L
conductivity of 95.5% at 20C. What is its resistivity in ohm-circular
mils per foot? R = insulation resistance of cable, in ohm ()
 = resistivity of insulating material, in ohm-meter (-m)
10.37 L = length of cable, in meter (m)
Conductivity of x = r1 = inner radius (radius of conductor)
Resistivity of x r2 = outer radius
10.37 10.37
Re sistivity of x = =  10.858 ohm-cmil/ft EXAMPLE 13: Determine the insulation resistance of a single-core
Conductivity of x 0.955 cable of length 3 km and having conductor radius 12.5 mm, insulation
thickness 10 mm and specific resistance of insulation of 5 x 10 12 -m.
EFFECT OF CHANGE IN TEMPERATURE TO THE RESISTANCE
OF A CONDUCTOR r 
ρ 2
Formula: R  ln  
The resistance of all conductors will increase as the temperature of the 
2 L  r1 

conductor increases.

R Note: r1 = radius of conductor = 12.5 mm

r2 = radius of insulator = 12.5 + 10 = 22.5 mm
R2  = 5 x 1012 ohm-m
R1 R 2 T  t2
t  L = 3000 m
R1 T  t1

T t1 ρ r  5 x 1012  22.5 
2
R ln   ln   = 155.915 MΩ
t2
2 L  r1  2  (3000)  12.5 

R1 = resistance at temperature t1
R2 = resistance at temperature t2
T = inferred absolute zero temperature

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 ROJAS ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER
2nd Floor, Yap Building, 35 M. Velez St , Barangay Guadalupe, Cebu City

COLOR CODE FOR CARBON COMPOSITION RESISTORS It = total current in the circuit
Et = total voltage or source applied to the circuit
Since carbon resistor is physically quite small, it is more convenient to Rt = total resistance of the circuit
use a color code indicating the resistance value than to imprint the
numerical value on the casing. CURRENT  It  I1  I2  I3  ...
VOLTAGE  E t  E1  E2  E3  ...
PROCEDURE: The color is read from left to right.
RESISTANCE  R t  R1  R 2  R 3  ...
First color – first digit
Second color – second digit VOLTAGE DIVISION IN TWO SERIES RESISTORS
Third color – multiplier
Fourth color – tolerance E1 E2
R1 R2  R1 
Tolerance – the amount in percent by which the actual resistance can E1  E t  
be different from the color coded value.  R1  R 2 
Et  R2 
COLOR DIGIT MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE E2  E t  
 R1  R 2 
Black 0 1
Brown 1 101
E1 = voltage across resistor 1
Red 2 102
E2 = voltage across resistor 2
Orange 3 103 R1 = resistance of resistor 1
Yellow 4 104 R2 = resistance of resistor 2
Green 5 105
Blue 6 106 EXAMPLE 15: A search light takes 100 A at 80 V. It is operated from a
Violet 7 107 220 V supply. Find the value of the resistor to be connected in series.
Gray 8 108
White 9 109 VR =140V
V 140
Gold -1
10 or 0.1 5% R R 
It 100
Silver 10-2- or 0.01 10%
R  1.4 ohms R
No color 20%
Et
RL VL=80V
220V
EXAMPLE 14: Suppose a carbon composition resistor has the It=100A
following colored bands on it: red, red, red, gold. Its resistance is ___.

COLOR DIGIT VALUE

ALTERNATE SOLUTION: Using the concept of voltage division
First color Red 2
Second color Red 2
80
Multiplier Red 102 RL   0.8 ohm
100 R
Tolerance Gold 5%

 RL 
Ohmic value  22 x 102 = 2200   2.2k  5% VL  E t   Et
RL=0.8 VL=80V
 R  RL  220V
OHM’S LAW  0.8 
80  220  
 R  0.8 
Ohm’s law states that the current drawn by an electric load is directly
R  1.4 ohms
proportional to the voltage across the load and inversely proportional
to the electrical resistance of the load.
MAXIMUM POWER DRAWN BY A LOAD

Maximum power is transferred to the load when the load resistance RL

E
E R I is equal to the series resistance r of the circuit.
I R
r

POWER CALCULATIONS (OHM’S LAW RELATIONS) Et2

PL =  RL = r
Et RL=r
4R L
E2
P = EI = I2 R 
R
PL = maximum power drawn by resistance RL
I = current, in amperes (A)
E = voltage, in volts (V)
R = resistance, in ohms ()
P = power, in watts (W)

SERIES DC CIRCUIT

It is a circuit connection, in which the resistances are connected end

to end so that there is only one path for the current to flow.

E1 E2 E3
R1 R2 R3

I1 I2 I3
Et
It

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 ROJAS ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER
2nd Floor, Yap Building, 35 M. Velez St , Barangay Guadalupe, Cebu City

EXAMPLE 16: If the greatest output that can be obtained from an 8.4 COMBINATION OF SEREIS AND PARALLEL CIRCUITS
V storage battery is 50 W, what will be its output when a resistance of
4  is connected across its terminals?
R1 R2
Note: At maximum power theorem, internal resistance r is equal to load Et R2 R3 Et R1 R3
resistance R. Terminal voltage VR is half the source voltage E.

r Series-parallel Circuits Parallel-series Circuits

VR 2
PR 
RL 1 1
R t  R1  Rt 
2 E=8.4V R=r VR=4.2V 1  1 1  1
4.2 R2 R3 R1 R 2 R 3
50  I
RL
EXAMPLE 18: A resistor of 10 ohms is connected in series with the
R L  0.3528 ohm
combination of 12 ohms and 24 ohms in parallel. If the whole set-up is
connected across a 144-V supply, how much is the voltage across the
When a 4-ohm resistance is connected across the load, 10-ohm resistor?

E 8.4 1
I   1.93 A R= =8Ω
R r 4  0.3528 1 /12 + 1/24
E1 _
PR  I R 2 R  (1.93) 2 ( 4 )  14.9 W +
By VDT: 10
PARALLEL DC CIRCUIT
144(10) Et 12 24
E1 = 144V
It is a circuit connection, in which the resistances are connected across 10 + 8
E1 = 80 V 8
each other so that there are as many paths for current to flow as to
the number of resistance.
DELTA AND WYE CIRCUIT CONNECTIONS
It
E1 R1 DELTA converted to an equivalent WYE connection:
Et E2 R2 E3 R3
I1 I2 I3
a x
c
CURRNT  It  I1  I2  I3  ... z
b
VOLTAGE  Et  E1  E2  E3  ... y

1 1 1 1
RESISTANCE      ... ac ab bc
R t R1 R 2 R 3 x ; y ; z
abc abc abc

CURRENT DIVISION IN TWO PARALLEL RESISTORS WYE converted to an equivalent DELTA connection:

It  R2 
I1  It   x
Et R1 R2  R1  R 2  a c
 R1  z
I1 I2 b
I2  It   y
 R1  R 2 
I1 = current drawn by resistor 1
I2 = current drawn by resistor 2 xy  yz  zx xy  yz  zx xy  yz  zx
a ; b ; c
z x y
EXAMPLE 17: A 50-ohm resistor is in parallel with a 100-ohm resistor.
The current in the 50-ohm resistor is 7.2 A. What is the value of the Note: If resistances are equal, then R   3  R Y .
third resistance to be added in parallel to make the line current 12.1 A?

CUBICAL-CONNECTED IDENTICAL RESISTORS

12.1A
R1 R2 R3 Note: There are 12 equal resistances connected forming the 12 edges
E
50 100 of a cube. R
I1=7.2A
R
A
R
E  I1R1  7.2(50)  360 V R
R R
E 360 R
Rt    29.752 ohms
It 12.1
R R D
R
B R
1 1 1 1
    for parallel circuits R
R t R1 R 2 R 3 C
1

1

1

1 R AB  7 R  across successive corners
12
29.752 50 100 R 3
R AC  3 R  across opposite corners of one face
R 3  276.917 ohms 4
R AD  5 R  across main diagonal of the cube
6

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 ROJAS ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING REVIEW CENTER
2nd Floor, Yap Building, 35 M. Velez St , Barangay Guadalupe, Cebu City

KIRCHHOFF’S LAW EXAMPLE 20: Solve problem #19 using Millman’s theorem

Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) - The algebraic sum of the currents 0.45
entering and leaving a node is zero.

I1 node 0.15 0.32 0.4

I1  I2  I3  0 VL
I2 IB
+ 90V 90V
I3 125V -

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) - The algebraic sum of all voltages in a

Note: Since in parallel, one of the best method applicable is the
closed path of an electric circuit is zero.
Millman’s theorem
Algebraic Sign Conventions used in KVL:
  RE  125
0.6
 90  90
0.32 0.4
Loop enters on - terminal and + VOLTAGE SOURCE VL    98 volts
leaves + terminal of the battery  1
R  1
0.6
 1
0.32
 1
0.4
Loop enters on + terminal and - VOLTAGE SOURCE
leaves - terminal of the battery Solving for the charging current IB:
Loop has the same direction as - VOLTAGE DROP
the current on the resistor
VL  EB 98  90
Loop has opposite direction as + VOLTAGE DROP IB    20 A
the current on the resistor RB 0.4

EXAMPLE 19: A 125-V dc generator whose internal resistance is 0.15

 is connected through a 0.45  line resistor two charge two 90-V <end>
storage batteries A and B in parallel. If the internal resistances of A and
B are 0.32  and 0.4  respectively, find the charging current on
battery B.
0.45

I
0.15 0.32 0.4

IA IB
+ 90V 90V
125V -

Apply KCL:

I  I A  IB  eq.1

Apply KVL on loop from generator to battery A:

125  0.6I  0.32IA  90  0  eq.2

Apply KVL on loop from generator to battery B:

125  0.6I  0.4IB  90  0  eq.3

Use calculator, MODE 5 1:

a b c d
1 1 10
ENTER:
 0.6 0.320 35
 0.60 0.4  35
RESULTS: I = 45 A; IA = 25 A; IB = 20 A

MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Millman’s theorem is a modification of the source transformation

method. This method is applicable only to parallel connected sources.

I1 I2 I3
r1 r2 r3
R L VL
E1 E2 E3 IL

E1 E 2 E 3
   ...
r1 r2 r3
VL 
1 1 1 1
   ... 
r1 r2 r3 RL

E  VL E  VL V
I1  1 ; I2  2 ; IL  L
r1 r2 RL

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