St.

Paul University Philippines

Tuguegarao City, Cagayan 3500

BASIC EDUCATION UNIT

SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL
LEARNING PLAN 4: PLANT AND ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
INTODUCTION:
The process of reproduction ensures that a plant or animal species does not disappear
from Earth. This process is very important in maintaining stability in the ecosystem and for the
continuation of life on earth. In this lesson plan you are going to learn about how plants and
animals reproduce.
There are two methods by which living things reproduce-asexual and sexual. Asexual
reproduction allows for a living thing to reproduce without another member of its species, while
sexual reproduction requires genetic material from two different members of the species,
usually but not always, a male and a female. New individuals are formed from the combination
of haploid gametes to form a genetically unique offspring.
OBJECTIVES:
This learning plan is designed for you to:
1. describe the structures and functions of the flower, seed, and fruit in the angiosperm
life cycle
2. describe the life cycle of angiosperms, gymnosperms, non-seed vascular plans, and
nonvascular plants.
3. explain the process of animal reproduction
4. describe the structure and functions of human reproductive system
5. explain asexual and sexual reproduction
LESSON PROPER/DISCUSSION:
PLANT REPRODUCTION
Sexual reproduction takes place with slight variations in different groups of plants. Plants
have two distinct stages in their lifecycle: the gametophyte stage and the sporophyte stage. The
haploid gametophyte produces the male and female gametes by mitosis in distinct multicellular
structures. Fusion of the male and female gametes forms the diploid zygote, which develops into
the sporophyte. After reaching maturity, the diploid sporophyte produces spores by meiosis,
which in turn divide by mitosis to produce the haploid gametophyte. The new gametophyte
produces gametes, and the cycle continues. This is the alternation of generations and is typical of
plant reproduction (figure 1).

Figure 1. The alteration of generations in

angiosperms is depicted in this diagram.
 The life cycle of higher plants is dominated by the sporophyte stage, with the
gametophyte borne on the sporophyte. In ferns, the gametophyte is free-living and very distinct
in structure from the diploid sporophyte. In bryophytes, such as mosses, the haploid gametophyte
is more developed than the sporophyte.

During the vegetative phase of growth, plants increase in size and produce a shoot system
and a root system. As they enter the reproductive phase, some of the branches start to bear
flowers. Many flowers are borne singly, whereas some are borne in clusters. The flower is borne
on a stalk known as a receptacle. Flower shape, color, and size are unique to each species, and
are often used by taxonomists to classify plants.

Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

The lifecycle of angiosperms follows the alternation of generations explained previously. The
haploid gametophyte alternates with the diploid sporophyte during the sexual reproduction
process of angiosperms. Flowers contain the plant’s reproductive structures.
Flower Structure
A typical flower has four main parts—or
whorls—known as the calyx, corolla,
androecium, and gynoecium (Figure 2). The
outermost whorl of the flower has green, leafy
structures known as sepals. The sepals,
collectively called the calyx, help to protect the
unopened bud. The second whorl is comprised
of petals—usually, brightly colored—
collectively called the corolla. The number of
sepals and petals varies depending on whether
the plant is a monocot or dicot. In monocots,
petals usually number three or multiples of
three; in dicots, the number of petals is four or
five, or multiples of four and five. Together, the
calyx and corolla are known as the perianth.
The third whorl contains the male reproductive
structures and is known as the androecium.
The androecium has stamens with anthers that
contain the microsporangia. The innermost
group of structures in the flower is
the gynoecium, or the female reproductive Figure 2. The four main parts of the flower are the
component(s). The carpel is the individual unit calyx, corolla and androecium and gynoecium. The
of the gynoecium and has a stigma, style, and androecium is the sum of all the male reproductive
ovary. A flower may have one or multiple organs, the gynoecium is the sum of the female
carpels. reproductive organs. And the gynoecium is the sum of
the female reproductive organs.

If all four whorls (the calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium) are present, the flower
is described as complete. If any of the four parts is missing, the flower is known as incomplete.
Flowers that contain both an androecium and a gynoecium are called perfect, androgynous or
hermaphrodites. There are two types of incomplete flowers: staminate flowers contain only an
androecium, and carpellate flowers have only a gynoecium (figure 3).
 Figure 3. The corn plant has both staminate (male)
and carpellate (female) flowers. Staminate flowers,
which are clustered in the tassel at the tip of the
stem, produce pollen grains. Carpellate flower are
clustered in the immature ears. Each strand or silk
is a stigma. The corn kernel are seeds that develop
on the ear after fertilization. Also shown is the
lower stem and root.

If both male and female flowers are borne on the same plant, the species is called
monoecious (meaning “one home”): examples are corn and pea. Species with male and female
flowers borne on separate plants are termed dioecious, or “two homes,” examples of which
are C. papaya and Cannabis. The ovary, which may contain one or multiple ovules, may be
placed above other flower parts, which is referred to as superior; or, it may be placed below the
other flower parts, referred to as inferior (figure 4).
 Figure 4. The (a) lily is a superior flower, which has the ovary above the
other flower parts. (b) Fuchsia is an inferior flower, which has the ovary
beneath other flower parts.

Male Gametophyte (The Pollen Grain)

The male gametophyte develops and reaches maturity in an immature anther. In a plant’s
male reproductive organs, development of pollen takes place in a structure known as
the microsporangium (figure 5). The microsporangia, which are usually bi-lobed, are pollen
sacs in which the microspores develop into pollen grains. These are found in the anther, which is
at the end of the stamen—the long filament that supports the anther.

Figure 5. Shown is (a) a cross section of an anther at two developmental stages. The
immature anther (top) contains four microsporangia, or pollen sacs. Each microsporangium
contains hundreds of microspore mother cells that will each give rise to four pollen grains.
The tapetum supports the development and maturation of the pollen grains. Upon maturation
of the pollen (bottom), the pollen sac walls split open and the pollen grains (male
gametophytes) are released. (b) In these scanning electron micrographs, pollen sacs are
ready to burst, releasing their grains.

Within the microsporangium, the microspore mother cell divides by meiosis to give rise
to four microspores, each of which will ultimately form a pollen grain (figure 6). An inner layer
of cells, known as the tapetum, provides nutrition to the developing microspores and contributes
key components to the pollen wall. Mature pollen grains contain two cells: a generative cell and
a pollen tube cell. The generative cell is contained within the larger pollen tube cell. Upon
germination, the tube cell forms the pollen tube through which the generative cell migrates to
enter the ovary. During its transit inside the pollen tube, the generative cell divides to form two
male gametes (sperm cells). Upon maturity, the microsporangia burst, releasing the pollen grains
from the anther.
Each pollen grain has two coverings: the exine (thicker, outer layer) and the intine. The
exine contains sporopollenin, a complex waterproofing substance supplied by the tapetal cells.
Sporopollenin allows the pollen to survive under unfavorable conditions and to be carried by
wind, water, or biological agents without undergoing damage.
Female Gametophyte (The Embryo Sac)

While the details may vary

between species, the overall
development of the female
gametophyte has two distinct phases.
First, in the process
of megasporogenesis, a single cell in
the diploid megasporangium—an
area of tissue in the ovules—
undergoes meiosis to produce four
megaspores, only one of which
survives. During the second
phase, mega gametogenesis, the
surviving haploid megaspore
undergoes mitosis to produce an
eight-nucleate, seven-cell female
gametophyte, also known as the
megagametophyte or embryo sac.
Two of the nuclei—the polar nuclei
—move to the equator and fuse,
forming a single, diploid central cell.
This central cell later fuses with a
sperm to form the triploid endosperm.
Figure 7. As shown in this diagram of the embryo
sac in angiosperms, the ovule is covered by
integuments and has an opening called micropyle.
Inside the embryo sac are three antipodal cells,
two synergids, a central cell and the egg cell.
Three nuclei position themselves on the end of the embryo sac opposite the micropyle and
develop into the antipodal cells, which later degenerate. The nucleus closest to the micropyle
becomes the female gamete, or egg cell, and the two adjacent nuclei develop into synergid cells
(figure 7). The synergids help guide the pollen tube for successful fertilization, after which they
disintegrate. Once fertilization is complete, the resulting diploid zygote develops into the
embryo, and the fertilized ovule forms the other tissues of the seed.

A double-layered integument protects the megasporangium and, later, the embryo sac.
The integument will develop into the seed coat after fertilization and protect the entire seed. The
ovule wall will become part of the fruit. The integuments, while protecting the megasporangium,
do not enclose it completely, but leave an opening called the micropyle. The micropyle allows
the pollen tube to enter the female gametophyte for fertilization.

Sexual Reproduction in Gymnosperms

The lifecycle of a gymnosperm is also characterized by alternation of generations. In conifers

such as pines, the green leafy part of the plant is the sporophyte, and the cones contain the male
and female gametophytes (figure 8). The female cones are larger than the male cones and are
positioned towards the top of the tree; the small, male cones are located in the lower region of
the tree. Because the pollen is shed and blown by the wind, this arrangement makes it difficult
for a gymnosperm to self-pollinate.

Figure 8. This image shows the life cycle of a conifer. Pollen from male
cones blows up into upper branches, where it fertilizes female cones.
Examples are shown of female and male cones.

Male Gametophyte
A male cone has a central axis on which bracts, a type of modified leaf, are attached. The bracts
are known as microsporophyll (figure 9) and are the sites where microspores will develop. The
microspores develop inside the microsporangium. Within the microsporangium, cells known as
microsporocytes divide by meiosis to produce four haploid microspores. Further mitosis of the
microspore produces two nuclei: the generative nucleus, and the tube nucleus. Upon maturity,
the male gametophyte (pollen) is released from the male cones and is carried by the wind to land
on the female cone.
Female Gametophyte
The female cone also has a central axis on which bracts known as megasporophylls (figure 9)
are present. In the female cone, megaspore mother cells are present in the megasporangium. The
megaspore mother cell divides by meiosis to produce four haploid megaspores. One of the
megaspores divides to form the multicellular female gametophyte, while the others divide to
form the rest of the structure. The female gametophyte is contained within a structure called the
archegonium.

Figure 9. These series of micrographs show male and female gymnosperm gametophytes. (a) This male
cone, shown in cross section, has approximately 20 microsporophyll, each of which produces hundreds of
male gametophytes (pollen grains). (b) Pollen grains are visible in this single microsporophyll. (c) This
micrograph shows an individual pollen grain. (d) This cross section of a female cone shows portions of
about 15 megasporophylls. (e) The ovule can be seen in this single megasporophyll. (f) Within this single
ovule are the megaspore mother cell (MMC), micropyle, and a pollen grain.

Reproductive Process
Upon landing on the female cone, the tube cell of the pollen forms the pollen tube,
through which the generative cell migrates towards the female gametophyte through the
micropyle. It takes approximately one year for the pollen tube to grow and migrate towards the
female gametophyte. The male gametophyte containing the generative cell splits into two sperm
nuclei, one of which fuses with the egg, while the other degenerates. After fertilization of the
egg, the diploid zygote is formed, which divides by mitosis to form the embryo. The scales of the
cones are closed during development of the seed. The seed is covered by a seed coat, which is
derived from the female sporophyte. Seed development takes another one to two years. Once the
seed is ready to be dispersed, the bracts of the female cones open to allow the dispersal of seed;
no fruit formation takes place because gymnosperm seeds have no covering.

Angiosperms vs Gymnosperms
 Gymnosperm reproduction differs from that of angiosperms in several ways (figure 10).
In angiosperms, the female gametophyte exists in an enclosed structure—the ovule—which is
within the ovary; in gymnosperms, the female gametophyte is present on exposed bracts of the
female cone. Double fertilization is a key event in the lifecycle of angiosperms but is completely
absent in gymnosperms. The male and female gametophyte structures are present on separate
male and female cones in gymnosperms, whereas in angiosperms, they are a part of the flower.
Lastly, wind plays an important role in pollination in gymnosperms because pollen is blown by
the wind to land on the female cones. Although many angiosperms are also wind-pollinated,
animal pollination is more common.

Figure 10. (a) Angiosperms are flowering plants, and include grasses,
herbs, shrubs, and most deciduous trees, while (b) gymnosperms are
conifers. Both produce seeds but have different reproductive strategies.

Asexual Reproduction in Plants

 Vegetative Propagation
o Is an asexual method of plant reproduction that occurs in its leaves, roots, and
stem. This can occur through regeneration of specific vegetative arts of a parent
plant. For example, garlic and onions reproduce through bulbs, potato plants
reproduce through tubers, and strawberry plants using stolon.
 Fragmentation
o Involves new plants growing from small parts of the parent plant that fall to the
ground. For example, animals or the wind and break or leaves off plants. This is
one of the ways that plants like liverworts and mosses reproduce.

ANIMAL REPRODUCTION
The reproductive structures of many animals are very similar, even across different
lineages, in a process that begins with two gametes–eggs and sperm–and ends with a zygote,
which is a fertilized egg. In animals ranging from insects to humans, males
produce sperm in testes, and sperm are stored in the epididymis until ejaculation. Sperm are
small, mobile, low-cost cells that occur in high numbers. Females produce
an ovum or egg that matures in the ovary. Eggs are large cells that require a substantial
investment of time and energy to form, are non-mobile, and are rare relative to sperm numbers.
When the eggs are released from the ovary, they travel to the uterine tubes for fertilization (in
animals that reproduce via internal fertilization) or are released in the aqueous environment (in
animals that reproduce via external fertilization).
All sexual reproducers have females with ovaries that produce large eggs, which
subsequently travel down a uterine tube, and males with testes that produce small, plenteous
sperm, stored in an epididymis. Of course, beyond this general anatomy, there are some
interesting differences in different types of animals:
 In some invertebrate species, including many insects and some mollusks and
worms, the female has a spermatheca: a specialized sac which stores sperm for
later use, sometimes up to a year. Fertilization can be timed with environmental or
food conditions that are optimal for offspring survival.
 Non-mammal vertebrates, such as most birds and reptiles, have a cloaca: a
single body opening which functions in the digestive, excretory, and reproductive
systems. Mating between birds usually involves positioning the cloaca openings
opposite each other for transfer of sperm from male to female. Ducks are a rare
exception, where the males have a penis.
 Mammals have separate openings for the systems in the female, and placental
mammals have a uterus for support of developing offspring. The uterus has two
chambers in species that produce large numbers of offspring at a time, while
species that produce one offspring, such as primates, have a single chamber.

Mammalian (Human) Reproductive Anatomy

Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, takes place through the process of
meiosis. Meiosis produces haploid cells with half the number of chromosomes normally found in
diploid cells. Hormones are dynamic, so this process can be trickier to understand than basic
anatomy or gametogenesis.
Hormonal changes are the center of the fascinating biology of reproduction. The human
male and female reproductive cycles are both controlled by the interaction of hormones from the
hypothalamus and anterior pituitary with hormones from reproductive tissues and organs: the
hypothalamus sends a gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) to the anterior pituitary,
and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) are release from the
anterior pituitary into the blood as a result. Although FSH and LH are named after their functions
in female reproduction, they are produced and play important roles in controlling reproduction in
both sexes.

Female Reproductive Anatomy

A number of reproductive structures are exterior to the female’s body. These include the
breasts and the vulva. Internal female reproductive structures include ovaries, oviducts,
the uterus, and the vagina (figure 11).
 Figure 11. Diagram of major female reproductive
organs.

Females become capable of reproduction at sexual maturity, which follows puberty.

During puberty, the hypothalamus in the brain signals the pituitary gland to produce two
hormones, follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). In females,
FSH and LH stimulate the ovaries to produce the female sex
hormones, estrogen, and progesterone. This results in the development of secondary sex
characteristics (such as breasts) and causes the ovaries to begin producing mature eggs.
The table below summarizes the major organs, locations, and functions of female reproductive
anatomy:
Organ Function
Ovaries Produce and develops eggs.
Fallopian tubes (Oviducts) Transports egg to uterus, acts as site of
fertilization.
Uterus Supports a developing embryo.
Cervix Allows passage between the uterus and the
vagina.
Vagina Receives penis during intercourse, acts as
birth canal, passes menstrual flow.
Breasts Produce and deliver milk.

Ovaries are the site of egg development. Egg

development occurs in structures called follicles,
which are lined with specialized cells
called follicular cells that surround the egg and
promote egg development. During the menstrual
cycle, a batch of follicular cells develops and
prepares the eggs for release. At ovulation, one
follicle ruptures and one egg are released, as
illustrated below. The ruptured follicle, which
remains in the ovary, is then called the corpus
luteum, which secretes hormones that prevent

Figure 12. Oocyte maturation within a follicle

followed by ovulation (follicle rupture). The
follicle become a corpus luteum after
menstruation until the egg has had time to be fertilized. If fertilization and implantation in the
uterine wall occurs, then the corpus luteum continues to prevent menstruation; if fertilization
does not occur, then the corpus luteum degenerates and menstruation occurs.
The oviducts, or fallopian tubes, extend from the uterus to the ovaries, but they are not
in direct physical contact with the ovaries. The ends of the oviducts flare out into a trumpet-like
structure and have a fringe of finger-like projections called fimbriae. When an egg is released at
ovulation, the fimbriae help the egg enter the tube and passage to the uterus. Fertilization (the
union of sperm and egg) usually takes place within the oviducts and the developing embryo is
moved toward the uterus for development. It usually takes the egg or embryo a week to travel
through the oviduct.

Male Reproductive Anatomy

In the male reproductive system, the
scrotum houses the testicles or testes which
produce sperm and some reproductive
hormones. Sperm become immobile when
kept at body temperature; therefore, the
scrotum and penis are external to the body
(figure 13), so that a proper temperature is
maintained for motility. In land mammals,
the pair of testes must be suspended outside
the body at about 2° C lower than body
temperature to produce viable sperm.
Infertility can occur in land mammals when
the testes do not descend through the
abdominal cavity during fetal
development. Though sperm must be
produced and stored at temperatures lower
than body temperature in the testes, sperm
Figure 13. Diagram of male reproductive
are warmed to body temperature when
system
deposited in the female reproductive tract. The
immediate warming of sperm causes them to experience a burst of swimming activity, but then
they begin to lose motility after several hours at body temperature.
Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules inside the testes.  The sperm cell
production is mediated by two different types of cells: “nursemaid” cells called Sertoli
cells which protect the germ cells and promote their development, and cells of Leydig which
produce high levels of testosterone once the male reaches adolescence and regulate sperm
development.

When the sperm have developed flagella and are nearly mature, they leave the testicles
and enter the epididymis, where sperm mature. During ejaculation, the sperm leave the
epididymis and enter the vas deferens, which carries the sperm, behind the bladder, and forms
the ejaculatory duct with the duct from the seminal vesicles.
Semen is a mixture of sperm and spermatic duct secretions and fluids from accessory
glands that contribute most of the semen’s volume. The bulk of the semen comes from the
accessory glands associated with the male reproductive system. These are the seminal vesicles,
the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral gland.
 The seminal vesicles are a pair of glands that make thick, yellowish, and alkaline
solution. As sperm are only motile in an alkaline environment, a basic pH is
important to reverse the acidity of the vaginal environment. The solution also
contains mucus, fructose (a source of energy for the sperm cells), a coagulating
enzyme, ascorbic acid (vitamin C), and local-acting hormones called
prostaglandins (may help stimulate smooth muscle contractions in the uterus).
The seminal vesicle glands account for 60 percent of the bulk of semen.
 The prostate gland surrounds the urethra, the connection to the urinary bladder.
It has a series of short ducts that directly connect to the urethra. The gland is a
mixture of smooth muscle and glandular tissue. The muscle provides much of the
force needed for ejaculation to occur. The glandular tissue makes a thin, milky
fluid that contains citrate (stimulates sperm motility), enzymes, and prostate
specific antigen (PSA). PSA is a proteolytic enzyme that helps to liquefy the
 ejaculate several minutes after release from the male. Prostate gland secretions
account for about 30 percent of the bulk of semen.
 The bulbourethral gland releases its secretion prior to the release of the bulk of
the semen. The mucous secretions of this gland help lubricate and neutralize any
acid residue in the urethra left over from urine. This usually accounts for a couple
of drops of fluid in the total ejaculate and may contain a few sperm. Withdrawal
of the penis from the vagina before ejaculation to prevent pregnancy may not
work if sperm are present in the bulbourethral gland secretions.

The table below summarizes the major organs, locations, and functions of male reproductive
anatomy:
Organ Location Function
Scrotum External Carry and supports testes.
Penis External Deliver urine, copulating
organ.
Testes External Produce sperm and male
hormones.
Seminal Vesicles Internal Contribute to semen
production.
Prostate Gland Internal Contribute to semen
production.
Bulbourethral Gland Internal Clean urethra at ejaculation.

Asexual Reproduction in Animals

 Asexual reproduction is generally limited to invertebrates. However, in the absence of
available males, asexual reproduction also has been documented in some species of snake
and some sharks.
 Asexual reproduction in animals occurs through fission, budding, fragmentation, and
parthenogenesis.
 Fission is applied to instances in which an organism appears to split itself into two parts
and, if necessary, regenerate the missing parts of each new organism. For example,
species of turbellarian flatworms commonly called the planarians.
 Budding, is a form of asexual reproduction that results form the outgrowth of a part of
the body leading to a separation of the “bud” from the original organism and the
formation of two individuals, one smaller than the other. Budding occurs commonly in
some invertebrate animals such as hydras and corals.
 Fragmentation is the breaking of an individual into parts followed by regeneration. If
the animal is capable of fragmentation, and the parts are big enough, a separate individual
will regrow from each part. Reproduction through fragmentation is observed in sponges,
some cnidarians, turbellarians, echinoderms, and annelids.
 Parthenogenesis is a form of asexual reproduction in which an egg develops into an
individual without being fertilized. The resulting offspring can be either haploid or
diploid, depending on the process in the species. Parthenogenesis occurs in invertebrates
such as water fleas, rotifers, aphids, stick insects, and ands, wasps, and bees.