CHAPTER 2

MODELING OF DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

PROBLEMS
Problems for Section 2-1

2-1. Find the equation of the motion of the mass-spring system shown in Fig. 2P-1.
Also calculate the natural frequency of the system.

Figure 2P-1
When the mass is added to spring, then the spring will stretch from position O to
position L.
KL

mg

The total potential energy is:

1
Us = K (L + y)
2

2
where y is a displacement from equilibrium position L.
The gravitational energy is:

1
U g = − mgy

The kinetic energy of the mass-spring system is calculated by:

1 2
T= my
2
As we know that T + U g + U s = constant , then

1 2 1
my − mgy + K ( L + y ) = constant
2

2 2
By differentiating from above equation, we have:
myy − mgy + yK ( L + y ) = 0

myy + Kyy + y ( KL − mg ) = 0

since KL = mg, therefore:

y ( my + Ky ) = 0

As cannot be zero because of vibration, then my + Ky = 0

Alternative using Newton’s Law:

At equilibrium from the Free-body-diagram we have
KL = mg
Measured from equilibrium position using y(t), we have
F = Ma
− Ky ( t ) = My ( t )
or
My ( t ) + Ky ( t ) = 0

2-2. Find its single spring-mass equivalent in the five-spring one-mass system
shown in Fig. 2P-2. Also calculate the natural frequency of the system.

2
Figure 2P-2

KU

K
KL
m

K u = K1 + K 2
K3 K 4
KL = + K5
K3 + K 4
K = Ku + K L
K3 K 4
= K1 + K 2 + K 5 +
K3 + K 4
K1 K 3 + K 2 K 3 + K 5 K 3 + K1 K 4 + K 2 K 4 + K 4 K 5 + K 3 K 4
=
K3 + K 4
K
n =
m

2-3. Find the equation of the motion for a simple model of a vehicle suspension
system hitting a bump. As shown in Fig. 2P-3 the mass of wheel and its mass
moment of inertia are m and J, respectively. Also calculate the natural frequency of
the system.

3
Figure 2P-3

1 2
a) Rotational kinetic energy: Trot = J
2
1 2
Translational kinetic energy: TT = my
2
Relation between translational displacement and rotational displacement:
y = r
y = r
1 J 2
TRot = y
2 r2

Potential energy:

From conservation of energy , then:

By differentiating, we have:

Since cannot be zero, then

Alternatively using Newton’s law, take a moment about point P, assuming motion
is counterclockwise, and as the wheel goes above the bump, y is upwards. Also we
assume the system starts from equilibrium (in the vertical direction) where the
spring force and the weight of the system cancel each other. So mg does not appear

4
 in the equations. As the wheel moves up the spring compresses by y measured from
the equilibrium.
Assuming positive direction is counterclockwise, we have

 Mom P = − Kyr = J + mry

r
P
y
J 2 + my + Ky = 0
r
b)
− Ky

Natural frequency is the coefficient of y divided by the coefficient of y

K K
n = =r
J
m+ 2 mr 2 + J
r
2-4. Write the force equations of the linear translational systems shown in Fig. 2P-
4.

Figure 2P-4

(a) Force equations:

5
 M 1 y1 = − B1 y1 − B3 ( y1 − y2 ) − K ( y1 − y2 ) + f ( t )

M 2 y2 = − B2 y2 + B3 ( y1 − y2 ) + K ( y1 − y2 )

 dy1 − dy2  + K ( y − y )
2
d y1 dy1
f (t ) = M 1 + B1 + B3  
 dt dt 
2 1 2
dt dt
 dy1 dy2 
2
d y2 dy2
B3  −  + K ( y1 − y2 ) + M 2 2 + B2
 dt dt  dt dt

Rearrange the equations as follows:

2
d y1 (B + B3 ) dy1 B3 dy2 K f
2
=− 1
+ − (y 1
− y2 ) +
dt M1 dt M 1 dt M1 M1
2
d y2 B3 dy1 (B + B3 ) dy2 K
2
= − 2
+ (y
1
− y2 )
dt M 2 dt M2 dt M2

(b) Force equations:

6
 2
d y1 (B + B2 ) dy1 B2 dy2 1 dy2 dy1 K
2
=− 1
+ + f = − y2
dt M dt M dt M dt dt B2

(c) Force equations:

7
2-5. Write the force equations of the linear translational system shown in Fig. 2P-5.

Figure 2P-5
(a) Force equations:

2
1 d y2 B dy2 K1 + K2 K2
y1 = ( f + Mg ) + y 2 2
=− − y2 + y1
K2 dt M dt M M

(b) Force equations:

My2 = K1 ( y1 − y2 ) + B1 ( y1 − y2 ) − B2 y2
f ( t ) + Mg = K1 ( y1 − y2 ) + B1 ( y1 − y2 )

My2 + B2 y2 = f ( t ) + Mg
 dy1 − dy2  + K1 ( y − y ) − B2 ( y − y ) − B2 dy2
2
dy1 1 dy2 K1 d y2 B1
=  f (t ) + Mg  + − (y − y2 ) =  
M  dt dt  M
1 2 1 2 1 2
dt B1 dt B1 dt M M dt

2-6. Consider a train consisting of an engine and a car, as shown in Fig. 2P-6.

Figure 2P-6
A controller is applied to the train so that it has a smooth start and stop, along with a
constant-speed ride. The mass of the engine and the car are M and m, respectively.
The two are held together by a spring with the stiffness coefficient of K. F
represents the force applied by the engine, and  represents the coefficient of
rolling friction. If the train only travels in one direction:
(a) Draw the free-body diagram.
(b) Find the equations of motion.
a)

8
 y2 y1
K ( y1 − y 2 )
m K ( y1 − y 2 ) M F

mgy 2 Mgy1

b) From Newton’s Law:

My1 = F − K ( y1 − y2 ) −  Mgy1
y2 = K ( y1 − y2 ) −  mgy2

2-7 A vehicle towing a trailer through a spring-damper coupling hitch is shown in

Fig. 2P-7. The following parameters and variables are defined: M is the mass of the
trailer; Kh, the spring constant of the hitch; Bh, the viscous-damping coefficient of
the hitch; Bt, the viscous-friction coefficient of the trailer; y1(t), the displacement of
the towing vehicle; y2(t), the displacement of the trailer; and f(t), the force of the
towing vehicle.

Figure 2P-7
Write the differential equation of the system.
Force equations:

 dy1 − dy2   dy1 − dy2  = M d y2 + B dy2

2

f (t ) = K h ( y1 − y2 ) + Bh   K h ( y1 − y2 ) + Bh  
 dt dt   dt dt  2 t
dt dt

2-8. Assume that the displacement angle of the pendulums shown in Fig. 2P-8 are
small enough that the spring always remains horizontal. If the rods with the length
of L are massless and the spring is attached to the rods 7/8 from the top, find the
state equation of the system.

9
 Figure 2P-8

For the left pendulum, assuming motion in counter-clockwise direction, the FBD is:

T (tension)
K(x2-x1) (spring force)
Mg (gravity)

Note: T = mg cos1
7l
x1 = sin 1
8
Also:
7l
x2 = sin  2
8
Taking a moment about the left fixed point we get:
2
 7l 
m1 + mgl sin 1 − K   ( sin  2 − sin 1 ) cos  2 = 0
8
Where ( 7 / 8 ) l cos  2 is the moment arm for the spring force.

2
 7l 
 m1 + mgl sin 1 + K   ( sin 1 − sin  2 ) cos  2 = 0
8

10
For the right pendulum, we can also write:
2
 7l 
 m 2 + mgl sin  2 + K   ( sin  2 − sin 1 ) cos 1 = 0
8
since the angles are small:
sin 1 1 ;sin  2 2 ;
cos 1 1;cos  2 1
Hence,
2
 7l 
1 + gl1 + K   (1 −  2 ) = 0
8
2
 7l 
 2 + gl 2 + K   ( 2 − 1 ) = 0
8

2-9. Fig. 2P-9 shows an inverted pendulum on a cart.

Figure 2P-9
If the mass of the cart is represented by M and the force f is applied to hold the bar
at the desired position, then
(a) Draw the free-body diagram.
(b) Determine the dynamic equation of the motion.

11
a)

Fy
mg
Fx P F
y
l
x
f Mg
Fx
N
Fy

b) If we consider the coordinate of centre of gravity of mass m as (xg, yg),

Then xg = x + l sin  and y g = l cos 

From force balance, we have:

 F − f − Fx = Mx

 N − Mg − Fy = 0
 Fx = mxg

 Fy − mg = myg
Combining the equations we have:
Mx + mxg = F − f
N − ( M + m ) g = my g

Assuming viscous damping for friction (rough assumption) f = Bx :

Mx + mxg + Bx = F

Note: xg = x − l 2 sin  + l cos  and yg = −l 2 cos  − l sin 

Hence,

(
Mx + mx + Bx + ml  cos  −  2 sin  = F) (1)

For the pendulum, if we take a moment about the point mass mg, we have:
ml 2 = − Fx l cos  + Fy l sin 

Where using:

(
Fx = mxg = m x − l 2 sin + l cos  )
(
Fy − mg = myg = −m l 2 cos  + l sin  )

12
We get:

( ) (
ml 2 = −m x − l 2 sin + l cos  l cos  − m l 2 cos  + l sin  ) y
l sin  (2)

Simplifying equations (1) and (2) we arrive at the two equations of the system:
( M + m ) x + Bx = F + ml ( 2 sin  −  cos  )

ml 2 = mgl sin  − mlx cos 
For small angles, linearized model of the system becomes
( M + m ) x + ml + Bx = F
l + x = g

2-10. A two-stage inverted pendulum on a cart is shown in Fig. 2P-10.

Figure 2P-10
If the mass of the cart is represented by M and the force f is applied to hold the bar
at the desired position, then
(a) Draw the free-body diagram of mass M.
(b) Determine the dynamic equation of the motion.

The easiest way to find the equations for this challenge problem is using
Lagranges’s approach which is outside the scope of this text.

a) for simplicity friction is ignored.

13
 x(t)

M
f

y
y
Fy1 Fy 2

Fx1 Fx 2

m1 g
m2 g

1 2

x x

b) Kinetic energy
(i) For lower pendulum:

For upper pendulum:

For the cart:

(ii) Potential energy:

For lower pendulum:

For upper pendulum:

For the cart:

(iii) Total kinetic energy:

14
 Total potential energy: The Lagrange’s
equation of motion is:

Substituting T and U into the Lagrange’s equation of motion gives:

 ¨ ˙ 2 ˙ 2
 1( m + m2 + M ) x + m l 
11 1 cos 1 + m l 
2 2 2 cos  2 = m l 
11 1 sin 1 + m l 
2 2 2 sin  2 + f
 ˙ 2

1 1 1 sin 1 + ( J1 + m1l1 )1 = m1l1 g sin 1

¨ ¨
 m l
11 x cos  1 + m l  2

 ˙ 2
 m2l2 x cos  2 + m1l1 1 sin 1 + ( J 2 + m2l22 ) 2 = m2l2 g sin  2
¨ ¨



Upon linearization about small angles we get

 ¨ ˙ 2 ˙ 2
( m1 + m2 + M ) x + m1l1 1 + m2l2  2 = m1l1 1 1 + m2l2  2  2 + f
 ˙ 2
( 1 1 1 ) 1 = m1l1g1
¨ ¨
 m l
11 x + m l 
11 1 1 + J + m l 2

 ˙ 2
 m2l2 x + m1l1 1 1 + ( J 2 + m2l22 ) 2 = m2l2 g 2
¨ ¨



2-11. Fig. 2P-11 shows a well-known “ball and beam” system in control systems. A
ball is located on a beam to roll along the length of the beam. A lever arm is
attached to the one end of the beam and a servo gear is attached to the other end of
the lever arm. As the servo gear turns by an angle  , the lever arm goes up and
down, and then the angle of the beam is changed by  . The change in angle causes
the ball to roll along the beam. A controller is desired to manipulate the ball's
position.

15
 Figure 2P-11
Assuming:
m = mass of the ball
r = radius of the ball
d = lever arm offset
g = gravitational acceleration
L = length of the beam
J = ball's moment of inertia
p = ball position coordinate
 = beam angle coordinate
 = servo gear angle
Determine the dynamic equation of the motion.
Solution:

Considering the FBD of the ball:

mg β angular acceleration

F x
C
N angle α

a) For a given α, the acceleration at point C will have two components due to
aCx = − p 2
rotation of the beam; that is the centripetal and tangential
aCy = p
accelerations created by rotation of the bar. Also, we assume a case of rolling
without slipping. Acceleration of the center of mass of the ball relative to the

16
 ax = p − p 2
rotating axis x,y,z is where p = −r  (rolling without slipping and
a y = p + 2 p
β is the angular acceleration of the ball – the minus sign accounts for the assumed
directions).
Note, in the case α is fixed, then ax = p = −r  , which is in line with the rolling
without slipping assumption in a fixed incline case.

From the equation of motion in x direction and by taking a moment about the
center of mass of the ball (see a second year dynamics of rigid bodies text in case
you need to verify the following formula), we get:
 Fx = max = m ( p − p 2 ) = F − mg sin 
Jp
M c . m. = J = −
r
= rF

Combining the above we have

J 
 2 + m  p + mg sin  − mp = 0
2

r 
We can further linearize these equations to arrive at:
d
= 
L
Then

J   d  d 2
 2 + m  p + mg sin   − mp  = 0
r   L  L
If we linearize the equation about beam angle α = 0, then sinα ≈ α and sinθ ≈ θ
Then:
J  d
 2 + m  p = −mg 
r  L

2-12. The motion equations of an aircraft are a set of six nonlinear coupled
differential equations. Under certain assumptions, they can be decoupled and
linearized into the longitudinal and lateral equations. Fig. 2P-12 shows a simple
model of airplane during its flight. Pitch control is a longitudinal problem, and an
autopilot is designed to control the pitch of the airplane.

17
Figure 2P-12
Consider that the airplane is in steady-cruise at constant altitude and velocity, which
means the thrust and drag cancel out and the lift and weight balance out each other.
To simplify the problem, assume that change in pitch angle does not affect the
speed of an aircraft under any circumstance.
Determine the longitudinal equations of motion of the aircraft.
Solution: If the aircraft is at a constant altitude and velocity, and also the change in
pitch angle does not change the speed, then from longitudinal equation, the motion
in vertical plane can be written as:

Where u is axial velocity, ω is vertical velocity, q is pitch rate, and θ is pitch

angle.
Converting the Cartesian components with polar inertial components and
replace x, y, z by T, D, and L. Then we have:

Where α = θ – γ is an attack angle, V is velocity, and γ is flight path angle.

It should be mentioned that T, D, L and M are function of variables α and V.

18
 Refer to the aircraft dynamics textbooks, the state equations can be written as:

2-13. Write the torque equations of the rotational systems shown in Fig. 2P-13.

Figure 2P-13
(a) Torque equation:
d  B d
2
1
2
=− + T (t )
dt J dt J
(b) Torque equations:
d 1 d 2
2
K 1
2
=− ( 1
−2 ) + T K (1 −  2 ) = B
dt J J dt

(c) Torque equations:

d 1 d 2
2 2

T (t ) = J 1 2
+ K (1 −  2 ) K (1 −  2 ) = J 2 2
dt dt
(d) Torque equations:

d m d 1 d 2
2 2 2

T (t ) = J m 2
+ K1 ( m − 1 ) + K 2 ( m −  2 ) K1 ( m −  1 ) = J 1 2
K 2 ( m −  2 ) = J 2 2
dt dt dt

19
(e) Torque equations:

d 2 m K1 K2 1 d 1
2
B1 d 1 d 2
2
K2 B2 d 2
( m − 1 ) − ( m −  2 ) +
K1
2
=− T 2
= ( m
− 1 ) − 2
= ( m
− 1 ) −
dt Jm Jm Jm dt J1 J 1 dt dt J2 J 2 dt

2-14. Write the torque equations of the gear-train system shown in Fig. 2P-14. The
moments of inertia of gears are lumped as J1, J2, and J3. Tm(t) is the applied torque;
N1, N2, N3, and N4 are the number of gear teeth. Assume rigid shafts
(a) Assume that J1, J2, and J3 are negligible. Write the torque equations of the
system. Find the total inertia the motor sees.
(b) Repeat part (a) with the moments of inertia J1, J2, and J3.

Figure 2P-14
(a)
d 1 d 3
2 2
N1 N3 N1
Tm (t ) = J m 2
+ T1 T1 = T2 T3 = T4 T4 = J L 2
T2 = T3 2 = 1
dt N2 N4 dt N2

N1 N 3 N3 N3 d 3
2
d 1
2
  N1 N 3   d 21
N1 N 3
2

3 = 1 T2 = T4 = JL Tm = J m + T4 =  J m +   JL  2
  N 2 N 4   dt
2 2
N2 N4 N4 N4 dt dt N2 N4

20
(b)

d 1 d 2 d 3
2 2 2
N1 N3
Tm = J m 2
+ T1 T2 = J 2 2
+ T3 T4 = ( J 3 + J L ) 2
T1 = T2 T3 = T4
dt dt dt N2 N4
d 2 d 2 d 3
2 2 2
N1 N1 N 3 N3 N3
2 = 1 3 = 1 T2 = J 2 2
+ T4 = J 2 2
+ (J 3
+ JL ) 2
N2 N2 N4 dt N4 dt N4 dt

 d 2 2 N 3 d 3    N1   N1 N 3   d 21
2 2
d 1
2 2
N1
Tm (t ) = J m +  J 2 dt 2 + N ( J 3 + J 4 ) dt 2  =  J m +  N  J 2 +  N N  ( J 3 + J L )  dt 2
N2     2  2 4 
2
dt 4

2-15. Fig. 4P-15 shows a motor-load system coupled through a gear train with gear
ratio n = N1/N2 . The motor torque is Tm(t), and TL(t) represents a load torque.

(a) Find the optimum gear ratio n* such that the load acceleration  L = d  L /dt
2 2

is maximized.
(b) Repeat part (a) when the load torque is zero.

Figure 2P-15
(a)
d m d L
2 2
N1
Tm = J m 2
+ T1 T2 = J L 2
+ TL T1 = T2 = nT2  m N1 =  L N 2
dt dt N2

d m d L  J m + nJ   + nT nTm − n TL
2 2 2

Tm = J m + nJ L + nTL =  L 
Thus,  L =
 n  Jm + n JL
2 2 L L 2
dt dt

 L
n
= 0. (T m ( )
− 2nTL ) J m + n J L − 2nJ L nTm − n J L = 0
2
( 2
)
Set Or,
2 J mTL Jm
n + n− =0
J LTm JL

21
 2 2 2
 J mTL J mTL + 4 J m J LTm
n =− +
2 J LTm 2 J LTm
Optimal gear ratio: where the + sign has
been chosen.

(b) When TL = 0 , the optimal gear ratio is


n = Jm / J L

2-16. Fig. 2P-16 shows the simplified diagram of the printwheel control system of a
word processor. The printwheel is controlled by a dc motor through belts and
pulleys. Assume that the belts are rigid. The following parameters and variables are
 (t )
defined: Tm(t) is the motor torque; m , the motor displacement; y(t), the linear
displacement of the printwheel; Jm, the motor inertia; Bm, the motor viscous-friction
coefficient; r, the pulley radius; M, the mass of the printwheel.
Write the differential equation of the system.

Figure 2P-16

Torque equation about the motor shaft: Relation between linear and
rotational displacements:
d m d m d m
2 2
2
Tm = J m + Mr + Bm
dt
2
dt
2
dt y = r m

2-17. Fig. 2P-17 shows the diagram of a printwheel system with belts and pulleys.
The belts are modeled as linear springs with spring constants K1 and K2.

Write the differential equations of the system using  m and y as the dependent
variables.

22
Figure 2P-17
d m
2

Tm = J m 2
+ r ( T1 − T2 ) T1 = K 2 ( r m − r p ) = K 2 ( r m − y ) T2 = K1 ( y − r m )
dt

d m
2 2
d y
T1 − T2 = M 2
Thus, Tm = J m 2
+ r ( K1 + K 2 )( r m − y )
dt dt
2
d y
M 2
= ( K1 + K 2 )( r m − y )
dt

2-18. Classically, the quarter-car model is used in the study of vehicle suspension
systems and the resulting dynamic response due to various road inputs. Typically,
the inertia, stiffness, and damping characteristics of the system as illustrated in Fig.
2P-18(a) are modeled in a two degree of freedom (2-DOF) system, as shown in (b).
Although a 2-DOF system is a more accurate model, it is sufficient for the
following analysis to assume a 1-DOF model, as shown in (c).
Find the equations of motion for absolute motion x and the relative motion (bounce)
z=x-y.

Figure 2P-18 Quarter-car model realization. (a) Quarter car. (b) Two degrees of
freedom. (c) One degree of freedom.
Assuming motion is upward, such that x>y, the equation of motion of the system is
defined as follows:

23
 c ( x(t ) − y (t ) ) + k ( x(t ) − y (t ) ) = mx(t )
or
mx(t ) + cx(t ) + kx(t ) = cy (t ) + ky (t )
which can be simplified by substituting the relation z(t) = x(t)-y(t) and non-
dimensionalizing the coefficients to the form
z (t ) + 2 n z (t ) +  n 2 z (t ) = − y (t )

2-19. The schematic diagram of a motor-load system is shown in Fig. 4P-19. The
 (t )
following parameters and variables are defined: Tm(t) is the motor torque; m ,
 (t )  (t )  (t )
the motor velocity; m , the motor displacement; L , the load velocity; L ,
the load displacement; K, the torsional spring constant; Jm, the motor inertia; Bm, the
motor viscous-friction coefficient; and BL, the load viscous-friction coefficient.
Write the torque equations of the system.

Figure 2P-19
Torque equations:
d m d m d L d L
2 2

Tm (t ) = J m 2
+ Bm + K ( m −  L ) K ( m −  L ) = J L 2
+ BL
dt dt dt dt

2-20 This problem deals with the attitude control of a guided missile. When
traveling through the atmosphere, a missile encounters aerodynamic forces that tend
to cause instability in the attitude of the missile. The basic concern from the flight-
control standpoint is the lateral force of the air, which tends to rotate the missile
about its center of gravity. If the missile centerline is not aligned with the direction
in which the center of gravity C is traveling, as shown in Fig. 2P-20, with angle  ,
which is also called the angle of attack, a side force is produced by the drag of the
air through which the missile travels. The total force F may be considered to be
applied at the center of pressure P. As shown in Fig. 4P-20, this side force has a
tendency to cause the missile to tumble end over end, especially if the point P is in
front of the center of gravity C. Let the angular acceleration of the missile about the
point C, due to the side force, be denoted by  F . Normally,  F is directly
proportional to the angle of attack  and is given by

24
 K F d1
F = 
J

Figure 2P-20

where KF is a constant that depends on such parameters as dynamic pressure,

velocity of the missile, air density, and so on, and
J = missile moment of inertia about C
d1 = distance between C and P
The main objective of the flight-control system is to provide the stabilizing action to
counter the effect of the side force. One of the standard control means is to use gas
injection at the tail of the missile to deflect the direction of the rocket engine thrust
Ts, as shown in the figure.
(a) Write a torque differential equation to relate among Ts,  ,  , and the system
 (t )
parameters given. Assume that  is very small, so that sin is approximated by
 (t )
.
(b) Repeat parts (a) with points C and P interchanged. The d1 in the expression of
 F should be changed to d . 2

(a) Torque equation: (About the center of gravity C)

d 
2
J 2
= Ts d 2 sin + Fd d1 Fa d1 = J   1 = K F d1 sin   
dt
d  d 
2 2
J 2
= Ts d 2 + K F d1 J 2
− K F d1 = Ts d 2
Thus, dt dt

(b) With C and P interchanged, the torque equation about C is:

d d
2 2

Ts ( d1 + d 2 )  + F d 2 = J 2
Ts ( d1 + d 2 )  + K F d 2 = J 2
dt dt
2-21. Fig. 2P-21(a) shows a well-known “broom-balancing” system in control
systems. The objective of the control system is to maintain the broom in the upright

25
 position by means of the force u(t) applied to the car as shown. In practical
applications, the system is analogous to a one-dimensional control problem of the
balancing of a unicycle or a missile immediately after launching. The free-body
diagram of the system is shown in Fig. 2P-21(b), where

Figure 2P-21
• fx = force at broom base in horizontal direction
• fy = force at broom base in vertical direction
• Mb = mass of broom
• g = gravitational acceleration
• Mc = mass of car
CG = M b L2 /3
• Jb = moment of inertia of broom about center of gravity
(a) Write the force equations in the x and the y directions at the pivot point of the
broom. Write the torque equation about the center of gravity CG of the broom.
Write the force equation of the car in the horizontal direction.
(b) Compare your results with those in Problem 2-9.

(a) Force and torque equations:

d 2 ( L cos )
Broom: vertical direction: fv − M b g = M b
dt
d 2 x(t ) + L sin  
horizontal direction: fx = Mb
dt 2
d 2
rotation about CG: Jb = f y L sin  − f x L cos
dt 2

26
 d 2 x(t ) M b L2
Car: horizontal direction: u (t ) = f x + M c Jb =
dt 2 3
d 2  x(t ) + L sin   d 2 x(t )
Mb + Mc = u (t )
dt 2 dt 2
d 2 d 2 ( L cos  ) d 2  x(t ) + L sin  
Jb 2 − M b L sin  + M b L cos  = M b g
dt dt dt 2

Then after simplifications we get:

 d  d 2
2
d 2 x(t )
(Mb + Mc ) = u (t ) + M c L sin    − M c L cos 
dt 2  dt  dt 2
2 d 
2
d 2 x(t )
( b c ) dt 2 c
J + M L = M gL sin  − M c L cos 
dt 2
friction = Bx(t ) can be added to the first equation as in problem 2-9.

(b) The two problems are similar except for the added inertia Jb in this case. In
problem 2-9, particle mass and a massless rod were assumed.

2-22. Most machines and devices have rotating parts. Even a small irregularity in
the mass distribution of rotating components can cause vibration, which is called
rotating unbalanced. Fig. 2P-22 represents the schematic of a rotating unbalanced
mass of m. Assume that the frequency of rotation of the machine is  .
Derive the equations of motion of the system.

Figure 2P-22
Define as the angle between mass m and the horizontal axis (positive in c..c.w.
direction). Use Newton’s second law:

27
 m( y + ym ) = − Fm
( M − m) y = Fm − By − Ky
ym = −e 2 sin t

My + By + Ky = me 2 sin t
Where M is the Mass of the overall block system. M-m is the mass of the block
alone.
2-23. Vibration absorbers are used to protect machines that work at the constant
speed from steady-state harmonic disturbance. Fig. 2P-23 shows a simple vibration
absorber.

Figure 2P-23
F ( t ) = Asin (t )
Assuming the harmonic force is the disturbance applied to the
mass M, derive the equations of motion of the system.
summation of vertical forces gives:
My = f ( t ) − Ky − k ( y − x ) − Ky
mx = k ( y − x )

My + ( 2 K + k ) y − kx = f ( t )
mx − ky + kx = 0
Where f ( t ) = Asin (t )

2-24. Fig. 2P-24 represents a vibration absorption system.

F ( t ) = Asin (t )
Assuming the harmonic force is the disturbance applied to the
mass M, derive the equations of motion of the system.

x(t)

28
Figure 2P-24
Assume motion is such that both springs are in tension. Summation of vertical
forces gives:
 My + ( B + b ) y − bx + ( K + k ) y − kx = F

 mx − by + bx − ky − kx = 0

Where F ( t ) = Asin (t )

2-25. An accelerometer is a transducer as shown in Fig. 2P-25.

Find the dynamic equation of motion.

Figure 2P-25
The equation of motion is:
Mx + B ( x − y ) + K ( x − y ) = 0

Considering z = x − y gives:
Mz + Bz + Kz = −My

PROBLEMS FOR SECTION 2-2

29
2-26. Consider the electrical circuits shown in Figs. 4P-26(a) and (b).

Figure 2P-26
(a) For each circuit find the dynamic equations.
According to the circuit:

Measuring Vout requires a load resistor, which means:

L1 L2
r R

i1 i2 RL
Vin VC1 VC 2 C2
C1

Then we have:

30
 When

If RL >>R, then

2-27. In a strain gauge circuit, the electrical resistance in one or more of the
branches of the bridge circuit, shown in Fig. 2P-27, varies with the strain of the
surface to which it is rigidly attached to. The change in resistance results in a
differential voltage that is related to the strain. The bridge is composed of two
voltage dividers, so the differential voltage Δe can be expressed as the difference in
e1 and e2.
(a) Find Δe.

Figure 2P-27

(b) If the resistance R2 is has a fixed value of R2*, plus a small increment in
resistance, δR, then R 2 = R*2 +  R . For equal resistance values (R1 = R3 =
R4 = R2* = R), rewrite the bridge equation (i.e. for Δe).

(a) e = e1 - e2

31
   +
e =  R 2 - R 4 e
 R1 + R 2 R 3 + R 4 
(b) If all four resistors are equal (R1 = R3 = R4 = R2* = R), then the bridge equation
reduces to

R
e = +
e
2R

The equivalent resistance from e+ to ground can be calculated by considering

two sets of series resistors operated in parallel:
( R1 + R 2 )( R3 + R4 )
Req =
( R1 + R 2 ) + ( R 3 + R 4 )

If all of the resistors are equal (with value R), then the equivalent resistance is
simply R.

2-28. Fig. 2P-28 shows a circuit made up of two RC circuits. Find the dynamic
equations of the system.

Figure 2P-28
Individual currents are:

e0 - e1
i R1 =
R1
i C1 = C 1e1 with e1(0)
e1 - e2
i R2 =
R2

32
i C2 = C 2e2 with e2(0)
The node equations are
i R1 = iC1 + i R2
i R2 = I C2
Substitute the current equations into the node equations and rearrange we get:
R1C 1 e1 + (1 + R1 / R 2 ) e1 = ( R1 / R 2 ) e2 + e0
R2C 2e2 + e2 = e1
Since we are interested in e2 as a function of e0, we can substitute the second
equation for e1 into the first and rearrange to obtain
R 1C 1 R 2C 2e 2 + ( R 1 C 1 + R 1C 2 + R 2 C 2 ) e 2 + e 2 = e0

2-29. For the Parallel RLC Circuit, shown in Fig. 2P-29, find the dynamic equations
of the system.

Figure 2P-29
Individual currents are:
e0 - e1
iR =
R
e1
iL =  dt with i L(0)
L

33
i C = C e1 with e1(0)
The node equation is
i R = i L + iC
Substituting the component equations into the node equation and rearranging yields
the classical differential equation for the voltage e1 as a function of e0:
L L
LC e 1 + e1 + e1 = De0
R R

PROBLEMS FOR SECTION 2-3

2-30. Hot Oil forging in quenching vat with its cross-sectional view is shown in Fig.
2P-30.

Figure 2P-30
The radii shown in Fig. are r1, r2, and r3 from inside to outside. The heat is
transferred to the atmosphere from the sides and bottom of the vat and also the
surface of the oil with a convective heat coefficient of ko. Assuming:
kv = The thermal conductivity of the vat
ki = The thermal conductivity of the insulator
co = The specific heat of the oil
do = The density of the oil
c = The specific heat of the forging
m = Mass of the forging
A = The surface area of the forging
h = The thickness of the bottom of the vat
Ta = The ambient temperature

Determine the system model when the temperature of the oil is desired.

34
Due to insulation, there is no heat flow through the walls. The heat flow through the
sides is:

Where T1 and T2 are the temperature at the surface of each cylinder.

As , then from equation (1) and (2), we obtain:

The conduction or convection at:

The thermal capacitance dynamics gives:

Where
According to the equation (7) and (8), T1 and Tf are state variables.
Substituting equation (3), (4), (5) and (6) into equation (7) and (8) gives the
model of the system.

2-31. A power supply within an enclosure is shown in Fig. 2P-31. Because the
power supply generates lots of heat, a heat sink is usually attached to dissipate the
generated heat. Assuming the rate of heat generation within the power supply is
known and constant, Q, the heat transfers from the power supply to the enclosure by
radiation and conduction, the frame is an ideal insulator, and the heat sink
temperature is constant and equal to the atmospheric temperature, determine the
model of the system that can give the temperature of the power supply during its
operation. Assign any needed parameters.

35
Figure 2P-31
As heat transfer from power supply to enclosure by radiation and conduction,
then:

Also the enclosure loses heat to the air through its top. So:

Where

And Ct is the convective heat transfer coefficient and At is the surface

area of the enclosure.
The changes if the temperature of heat sink is supposed to be zero, then:

Therefore where , as a result:

According to the equations (1) and (4), Tp and Te are state variables. The state
model of the system is given by substituting equations (2), (3), and (6) into
these equations give.

36
2-32. Fig. 2P-32 shows a heat exchanger system.

Figure 2P-32
Assuming the simple material transport model represents the rate of heat energy
gain for this system, then.
(mc)(T2 − T1 ) = qgained

where m represents the mass flow, T1 and T2 are the entering and leaving fluid
temperature, and c shows the specific heat of fluid.
If the length of the heat exchanger cylinder is L, derive a model to give the
temperature of Fluid B leaving the heat exchanger. Assign any required parameters,
such as radii, thermal conductivity coefficients, and the thickness.

If the temperature of fluid B and A at the entrance and exit are supposed to be
and , and TAN and TAX, respectively. Then:

The thermal fluid capacitance gives:

From thermal conductivity:

37
 Where Ci and Co are convective heat transfer coefficient of the inner and outer
tube; Ai and Ao are the surface of inner and outer tube; Ri and Ro are the radius of
inner and outer tube.
Substituting equations (1), (2), and (5) into equations (3) and (4) gives the
state model of the system.

2-33. Vibration can also be exhibited in fluid systems. Fig. 2P-33 shows a U tube
manometer.

Figure 2P-33
Assume the length of fluid is L, the weight density is  , and the cross-section area
of the tube is A.
(a) Write the state equation of the system.
(b) Calculate the natural frequency of oscillation of the fluid.
The total potential energy is:

The total kinetic energy is:

Therefore:

As a result:

38
So, the natural frequency of the system is calculated by:

Also, by assuming and substituting into yields

the same result when calculated for maximum displacement.

Note: the system at hand is similar to a spring mass system.

2-34. A long pipeline connects a water reservoir to a hydraulic generator system as

shown in Fig. 2P-34.

Figure 2P-34
At the end of the pipeline, there is a valve controlled by a speed controller. It may
be closed quickly to stop the water flow if the generator loses its load. Determine
the dynamic model for the level of the surge tank. Consider the turbine-generator is
an energy converter. Assign any required parameters.
If the height of the reservoir, the surge tank and the storage tank are assumed to be
H, h1 and h2, then potential energy of reservoir and storage tank are:

For the pipeline we have:

The surge tank dynamics can be written as:

39
 At the turbine generator, we have:

where I is a known input and Q2-v is the fluid flow transfer between point 2
and valve. The behaviour of the valve in this system can be written as:

Regarding Newton’s Law:

According to above equations, it is concluded that Q and h1 are state variables

of the system.
The state equations can be rewritten by substituting P2, Pv, Ps and Q2-v from
other equations.

2-35. A simplified oil well system is shown in Fig. 2P-35. In this figure, the drive
machinery is replaced by the input torque, Tin(t). Assuming the pressure in the
surrounding rock is fixed at P and the walking beam moves through small angles,
determine a model for this system during the upstroke of the pumping rod.

40
Figure 2P-35

d

G

F
Mg

If the beam rotate around small angle of α , then

41
 where A and E are cross sectional area and elasticity of the cable; H is the
distance between point O and the bottom of well, and y is the displacement.
On the other hand, Newton’s Law gives:

F Pa A

m Bv2

mg Pb A

where B is the viscous friction coefficient, Aw is the cross sectional area of the
well; P1 and P2 are pressures above and below the mass m.
The dynamic for the well can be written as two pipes separating by mass m:
Pb A

Ps A

Q
Q y
Ff

Pa A P1 A
a） b)

Where D is the distance between point O and ground, Ps is the pressure at the
surface and known. If the diameter of the well is assumed to be r, the Ff for the
laminar flow is

42
Therefore:

The state variables of the system are ω, v, y, Q, Q1.

2-36. Fig. 2P-36 shows a two-tank liquid-level system. Assume that Q1 and Q2 are
the steady-state inflow rates, and H1 and H2 are steady-state heads. If the other
quantities shown in Fig. 2P-36 are supposed to be small, derive the state-space
model of the system when h1 and h2 are outputs of the system and qi1 and qi2 are the
inputs.

Figure 2P-36
If the capacitances of the tanks are assumed to be C1 and C2 respectively, then

Therefore:

Asa result:

43
See Chapter 3 for more information on state space variables.

PROBLEMS FOR SECTION 2-4

2-37. Fig. 2P-37 shows a typical grain scale.

Assign any required parameters.
(a) Find the free-body diagram.
(b) Derive a model for the grain scale that determines the waiting time for the
reading of the weight of grain after placing on the scale platform.
(c) Develop an analogous electrical circuit for this system.

Figure 2P-37
a)

44
 

M m

F3

F1 Mg F2
mg
B
K

a) The equation of the translational motion is:

 Mdv
 dt = Mg − F1 + F2 − F3 (1)

 F1 = Ky

 dy
=v
 dt
 F2 = − Bv

The equation of rotational motion (by taking a moment about the center of m is:
 d
 J = F3r
dt

 d
=
 dt
1 2
where J = mr
2
Also, the relation between rotational and translational motion defines:
v = r 

 y = r
Therefore, substituting above expression into the first equation gives:
 m 
F3 =   ( Mg − Ky − Bv )
 2M + m 
The resulted state space equations are:

45
d  2   Mg − Kr − Br 
  =   
 dt  r  2 + m 

 d
 =
 dt
b) According to generalized elements:
1) Viscous friction can be replaced by a resistor where R = B
1
2) Spring can be replaced by a capacitor where C =
k
3) Mass M and m can be replaced by two inductors where L1 = M
and L2 = m . Then the angular velocity is measured as a voltage of the
inductor L2
1
4) The gear will be replaced by a transformer with the ratio of N =
r
5) The term Mg is also replaced by an input voltage of Ve = Mg

2-38. Develop an analogous electrical circuit for the mechanical system shown in
Figure 2P-38.

Figure 2P-38
As the base is not moving then the model can be reduced to:

46
 v

m F

K
B

Therefore:
dv
1) As m = F , they can be replaced by a inductor with L = m
dt
2) Friction B can be replaced by a resistor where R = B
1
3) Spring can be replaced by a capacitor where C =
k
4) The force F is replaced by a current source where Is = F

2-39. Develop an analogous electrical circuit for the fluid hydraulic system shown
in Fig. 2P-39.

Figure 2P-39

47
 R

DC V
V2

PROBLEMS FOR SECTION 2-5

See Chapter 3 for more linearization problems

48