UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

Santa Barbara

Ganti Andung, Gabe Ende (Replacing Laments, Becoming Hymns): The Changing

Voice of Grief in the Pre-funeral Wakes of Protestant Toba Batak

(North Sumatra, Indonesia)

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A Dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the
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requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in Music
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by
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William Robert Hodges Jr.

Committee in charge:

Professor Scott L. Marcus, Chair

Professor Dolores M. Hsu

Professor Timothy J. Cooley

September 2009
 UMI Number: 3379475

All rights reserved

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a note will indicate the deletion.

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UMI 3379475
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Copyright 2009 by ProQuest LLC.

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The dissertation of William Robert Hodges Jr. is approved.

____________________________________
Dolores M. Hsu

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____________________________________
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Timothy J. Cooley
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____________________________________
Scott L. Marcus, Committee Chair
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July 2009
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Ganti Andung, Gabe Ende (Replacing Laments, Becoming Hymns): The Changing

Voice of Grief in the Pre-funeral Wakes of Protestant Toba Batak

(North Sumatra, Indonesia)

Copyright © 2009

by

William Robert Hodges Jr.

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The individuals and institutions that have assisted me, encouraged me,

mentored and guided me in the processes of researching and writing this dissertation

are simply too many to count. To each of them I owe a great debt of gratitude for

their kindness, patience and help. I also beg their pardon for my shortcomings and

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failures in understanding, interpreting, or representing them in the pages that follow.

In particular I would like to express my deep gratitude to my dissertation

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committee for their patience with me during the production of drafts and revisions,
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their thoughtful guidance along the way, their encouragement and support of my

research efforts, and the friendship that has grown between us during these several

years. I trust that I will steward well the wisdom they have imparted and that our
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friendship will carry forward for many years to come.

I am so very thankful for, and honored to know, those in Sumatra with whom

I have been privileged to work in various capacities and over a span of nearly 20

years. Some, dearly loved, are gone now. Their passing remains an ache but the

memories of our friendship are sweet and fragrant. I am particularly indebted to Pdt.

W. F. Simamora, MTh. His kindness toward me and toward our family has been

immeasurable and stretches over many years. The help he provided during my field

research, our conversations together, his insight, his sensitivity, and his ability to

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reflect on events have been of tremendous benefit to me and have become my model

for professional and interpersonal relations with others. Likewise, I am deeply

thankful for the kindness and loving embrace of the Limbong family. The welcoming

openness of the family of Rev. Dr. Bimen Limbong in Aek Hahombu as well as that

of Bapak Washington Limbong in Medan has been a great source of strength,

laughter and comfort over the years.

I am grateful to colleagues at the HKBP Theological College in Pematang

Siantar—the staff, faculty and administration—who welcomed and included us in

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their lives during the years in the 1990s when I taught there and again in 2002 when

we returned for field research. I also want to express my thanks to the students we
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have over the years who now serve in Batak churches throughout Indonesia and
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beyond. Their friendship toward our family was a rich resource for learning and

growing during that time.

Particular thanks go, as well, to colleagues in the Music Department of

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Nommensen HKBP University in Medan as well as the Ethnomusicology Department

at the University of North Sumatra in Medan. It has been my privilege to teach

alongside some of their outstanding faculty in past years and to benefit from their

insights and encouragement during the research for this dissertation. Among those to

whom I am especially grateful are Ritha Ony Hutajulu, Irwansyah Hutasoit, Ben

Pasaribu, and Dr. Mauly Purba who encouraged and graciously mentored me during

my field research, who warmly welcomed us into his home on our arrival in October

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of 2002, and who, with his wife Tetty br. Aritonang, has remained a steady friend to

our family in the intervening years.

I would like to express my gratitude to my music teacher, Bapak Kalabius

(Sampeltek) Simbolon, and all the members of Grup Gondang Dame Nauli at Batu

Opat in Pematang Siantar (including, of course, Ibu—the real brains behind the

operation). Pak Sampeltek patiently taught me tunes and techniques, answered an

almost endless barrage of questions, crafted beautiful drums, and welcomed me to

join the others on many occasions of playing for funerals, secondary burials, and

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other feasts. I cannot forget our bus rides to gigs in far-off places, playing and

dancing into (and through) the night, Bapak’s energy and enthusiasm as he practiced
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his craft, and all the many ways he cared for and shared himself with each of us.
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I am grateful for the strong support, shown in so many ways, of friends and

family in Porterville and in Santa Barbara. You are as delightful a squadron of

cheerleaders, meal makers, hikers, sailors, photocopy specialists, music software

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manipulators, deity petitioners, and back rubbers as any one has a right to hope for in

this life, and I’m grateful for each you. Particularly, I am grateful for the wonderful

love of my parents-in-law, Dr. Laurie and Donna Abbey (“Hube and Glo”) for their

always-warm hospitality, peaceful home and amply forenstificatious fixings.

Finally, I want to express my deep love and gratitude to my family: my dear

parents, Reverend W. Robert Sr. and Constance; all my supportive siblings; my best

beloved, Catherine, who has endured this ordeal by dissertation with grace, stood

with me these past 25 years, strong, steady, wise and astoundingly capable; and my

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incredible children Clara and Mac. I adore you and I thank you for enabling this

project to reach its conclusion – it belongs to you. Now, let’s get up and dance!!

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 DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to the memory of

Constance R. Hodges
Inong Pangintubu

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1922-2007

She moved with grace and strength, a dedicated and compassionate teacher.
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And
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Estomihi Simamora
Silansaponki
1974-1992
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He was too soon gone, this young man of gentle spirit.

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 VITA OF WILLIAM ROBERT HODGES JR.

September 20, 1961 Born, Oneonta, New York.

EDUCATION (Post-Secondary)

2009 Doctor of Philosophy in Music (concentration in

Ethnomusicology), University of California at
Santa Barbara (expected July, 2009)

1988 Master of Arts in Intercultural Studies, specialization in

Applied Ethnomusicology. Wheaton Graduate School,
Wheaton, Illinois

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1986 Master of Music, concentration in violoncello performance.
Central Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington

1984 Bachelor of Music, concentration in violoncello performance.

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University of Redlands, Redlands, California

PROFESSIONAL EMPLOYMENT
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Spring 2007 – Adjunct Instructor in Music, Fine and Applied Arts Division,
Porterville College, Porterville, California. Course: Exploring
the World through Music
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2005 – 2006 Music Instructor, St. Anne’s School (K – 8). Part-time.

Porterville, California. Course: General Music, grades 4 – 8

Summer 2001 Graduate Teaching Associate, Dept. of Music, UC Santa

Barbara. Santa Barbara, California. Course: World Music
Survey

Fall 2000 – Graduate Teaching Assistant, Dept. of Music, UC Santa

Spring 2001 Barbara. Santa Barbara, California. Course: Popular Music
and Culture in the U.S.A.

Summer 2000 Graduate Teaching Associate, Dept. of Music, UC Santa

Barbara. Santa Barbara California. Course: Popular Music
and Culture in the U.S.A.

1998 – 2000 Staff position as Coordinator for Chapel Music. Westmont

College, Santa Barbara, California

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1995 – 1997 Founder and Editor of NadaDasar, an Indonesian language
` Church Music publication for the Batak Protestant Church in
Indonesia. Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia

1995 – 1997 Lecturer in Music. Nommensen University, Medan,

North Sumatra, Indonesia. Course: Seminar in Music in the
Christian Church. Other duties: student thesis advising

1995 – 1997 Lecturer in Ethnomusicology. University of North Sumatra,

Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia. Courses: Western music
theory, Western harmony. Other duties: consulting in curricular
development

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1993 – 1994 Part-time Faculty in Music. Westmont College, Santa Barbara,
California. Courses: World Music Survey, String Instrument
Pedagogy

1990 – 1993
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Lecturer in Music and English. Batak Protestant Theological
College, Pematang Siantar, North Sumatra, Indonesia.
Courses: English reading comprehension, Church music
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survey, Music and Liturgy, Hymnology, Choral conducting
techniques. Other duties: Director of College Choir

1984 – 1986 Graduate Teaching Assistant. Central Washington University,

Ellensburg, Washington
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1985 – 1986 Assistant Conductor of Yakima Youth Symphony, Yakima,

Washington

PUBLICATIONS

1996 “Sing To The Lord A New Song: Ethnic Hymnody in the

Developing Church.” In Jubileum: Merayakan 25 Thn.
Pelayanan di HKBP oleh Pdt. Dr. R. R. Rajagukguk.
Pematang Siantar: Penerbit HKBP.

1996 “How I Found My Job By Losing It: Journeying Toward

Authentic Worship in North Sumatra.” EM News. Dallas:
SIL, 5(4).

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1992 “Fungsi Nyanyian Dalam Ibadah.” [The Function of Singing
in Worship] Vocatio Dei. Pematang Siantar: STT-HKBP,
33/34:86-91.

GRANTS AND FELLOWSHIPS

2004 University of California President’s Dissertation Year

Fellowship

2003 Pacific Rim Research Program Mini-grant. University of

California

2003 Pre-doctoral Dissertation Grant. Interdisciplinary Humanities

Center, UC Santa Barbara

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2002 Fulbright-Hays Doctoral Dissertation Research Abroad
Fellowship. Awarded and accepted for research in North
Sumatra, Indonesia 2002 – 2003

2002
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Fulbright IIE Dissertation Research Grant. Awarded and
declined.
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2002 Humanities Research Grant. Graduate Division, UC Santa
Barbara

2002 Travel Grant. Department of Music, UC Santa Barbara (for

conference presentation)
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2001 Travel Grant. Graduate Division, UC Santa Barbara (for

conference presentation)

PRIZES AND HONORS

2005 Honorable Mention, Ki Mantle Hood Prize for Best Student

Conference Paper. Annual Meeting of Society for
Ethnomusicology Southern California Chapter, Azusa Pacific
University, Azusa, CA 26-27 February

2002 Honorable Mention, Ki Mantle Hood Prize for Best Student

Conference Paper. Annual Meeting of Society for
Ethnomusicology Southern California Chapter, Pomona
College, Claremont, CA 22-23 February

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1999 – 2000 Excellence in Ethnomusicology: Scholarly Activity. Dept. of
Music, UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California

1998 – 1999 Excellence in Ethnomusicology: Scholarly Activity. Dept. of

Music, UC Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California

1986 Winner, Concerto Competition. Dept. of Music, Central

Washington University, Ellensburg, Washington

1984 Outstanding Senior Performer. Dept. of Music, University of

Redlands, Redlands, California

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 ABSTRACT

Ganti Andung, Gabe Ende (Replacing Laments, Becoming Hymns): The Changing

Voice of Grief in the Pre-funeral Wakes of Protestant Toba Batak

(North Sumatra, Indonesia)

by

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William Robert Hodges Jr.

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This dissertation is a multifaceted investigation of the ways in which

Protestant Toba Batak mourn their dead through song during the pre-funeral wake
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period preceding the burial of older Toba Batak. It investigates the way in which a

musical practice contains and conveys meaning, cultural value and identity to
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members of that community in the present day.

Toba Batak mourning rituals today are marked by an internal and

emblematic opposition between the need to fulfill long-standing practices of ancestor

spirit veneration in association with Toba Batak adat law and the obligations which

the primarily Protestant Christian Toba Batak feel to live in accordance with the

doctrinal teachings and practices of the Batak Protestant Christian Church (Huria

Kristen Batak Protestan—HKBP). The tradition of lamenting in funerary contexts is

challenged by church leadership which views the veneration of ancestor spirits

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through laments as inconsistent with the doctrinal teachings of the Batak Protestant

Church.

In contemporary practice, many of the formal and stylistic characteristics of

traditional Toba Batak funerary lamenting are being replaced with the singing of

Protestant Christian hymns drawn from the corpus of hymns in use by the Batak

Protestant Church—a phenomenon captured in the oft heard expression ganti andung,

gabe ende, translated as “replacing laments, becoming hymns.” This dissertation is

an examination of the processes (cultural, religious, historic, etc.,) surrounding the

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replacement of laments for the dead with the singing of hymns in the context of

Protestant Toba Batak funerary ritual. These processes not only represent changes in
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the way a community voices its grief, but also reflect dynamic and ongoing processes
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of cultural and religious identity negotiation for Toba Batak Protestants in the present

day. My thesis is that the dialectic nature of present day mourning rituals

(particularly the pre-funeral wake period) for Protestant Toba Batak, as evidenced
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through formalized expressions of grief (i.e., laments for the dead and Protestant

funerary hymns) reflects the larger and ongoing processes of both socio-cultural and

religious identity formation, negotiation, and expression for Protestant Toba Batak.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Copyright Notification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii

Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iv

Dedication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii

Vita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ix

Abstract . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii

List of Figures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxiii

List of Audio Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvii

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Notes on Translations and Non-English Terms . . . . . . . . . xxix

Music Transcription Key for Lament Examples . . . . . . . . . xxx

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Part I: Introductory Matters

CHAPTER ONE: Introduction to the Dissertation . . . . . . . . . 1

Thesis Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
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Locating Myself in an Epistemological Frame . . . . . . . . . 13

The Backstory—Our Early Years in Sumatra . . . . . . . . 14

The Backdrop—A Brief History of the HKBP . . . . . . . . 17

Our Interaction with the College and Community . . . . . . . 21

Methodological Approach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Theoretical Approaches from Ethnomusicological Studies . . . . . . . 29

Fieldwork . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Content and Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

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CHAPTER TWO: Review of Literature on Toba Batak Culture and Society . . 43

Early Historic Accounts of Toba Batak Culture . . . . . . . . . 43

Studies of Religious Concepts in Toba Batak Culture . . . . . . . 46

Colonial Contributions to the Study of Toba Batak Culture . . . . . . 48

Studies of Batak Culture and Change from the Colonial to the Post-colonial . . 49

Studies of Protestant Christianity and Toba Batak Culture . . . . . . 52

Studies of Toba Batak Music (and Related) Traditions . . . . . . . 57

More Recent Scholarship on Toba Batak Music . . . . . . . . . 59

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Pt II: The Toba Batak Social Complex
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CHAPTER THREE: The Toba Batak Social Complex—Society and Culture . . 70
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The Geographic Setting—Sumatra (Sumatera) . . . . . . . . . 71

North Sumatra Province (Sumatera Utara) . . . . . . . . . . 71

The Batak Ethno-linguistic Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . 74

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Batak Origins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .75

Toba Batak Core Cultural Values . . . . . . . . . . . . 77

Kekerabatan—Familial Connections in the Dalihan na Tolu

(Three Hearthstones) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78

Kekerabatan—Familial Connections in the Marga (Clan) System . . . 83

My Adoption into the Limbong Mulana Clan . . . . . . 85

Religi—The Cultural Value of Religion in Toba Batak Society . . . 88

Pre-Christian Belief Systems (Aliran Kepercayaan) and Religion . . . 90

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 Mediating Conflict in Belief Practices . . . . . . . . . . 92

Hagabeon, Hasangapon, and Hamoraon—(3Hs) as Core Cultural Values .96

Hagabeon as Cultural Value . . . . . . . . . . 97

Hasangapon as Cultural Value . . . . . . . . . . 99

Hamoraon as Cultural Value . . . . . . . . . . 100

Patik dohot Uhum as Core Cultural Value and Connections to Adat . . 103

Hindu-Buddhist Influences on Toba Batak Culture . . . . . . . . 107

Islamic Influences on Toba Batak Culture . . . . . . . . . . 109

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European Protestant Missionary and Colonial Influences on

Toba Batak Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

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Early Mission Efforts to Reach the Toba Batak . . . . . . . . .114
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Opposition to the Mission’s Activities . . . . . . . . . . . 117

Mission Support from the Dutch Colonial Government and the

Enactment of Civil Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119

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Educational and Social Programs of the Mission . . . . . . . . .121

Impact of Western Music and Music Education . . . . . . . . . 122

Seeds of an Independence Movement . . . . . . . . . . . 123

Toward an Independent Batak Church . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Independent Church and Independent Republic . . . . . . . . .126

CHAPTER FOUR: The Music Culture of the Toba Batak . . . . . . .131

Early Reports on Toba Batak Music . . . . . . . . . . . . 131

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 Recent Research on Toba Batak Music Traditions . . . . . . . . . 132

Framing the Discourse on Toba Batak Music—Coming to Terms . . . . 133

The Contexts of Ceremonial and Non-ceremonial Instrumental Music . . . 138

Ende Batak—Vocal Music Genres in Toba Batak Society . . . . . . . 142

Continuity and Change to Ende Batak Traditions . . . . . . . .147

Opera Batak and Vocal Music Style . . . . . . . . . . . .147

Protestant Christianity and Changes to the Ende Batak Tradition . . . 148

Mission Impact on Toba Batak Musical Expressions . . . . . . . . 149

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Toba Batak Music and Ethno-religious Identity . . . . . . . . . .151

Toba Batak Music and the Growth of Popular Music Styles . . . . . .152
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The Advent of Radio and the Impact on Toba Batak Popular Music . . . .153
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Post-Independence—Popular Music, the Growth of Pop Daerah (Local Pop)

and the Nostalgic Return to Traditional Styles . . . . . . . . . 154

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CHAPTER FIVE: Death in Toba Batak Society . . . . . . . . . 159

Early Reports Concerning Death in Toba Batak Society . . . . . . . 159

Descriptive Terms for the Dead in Toba Batak Society . . . . . . 164

Titles for the Dead and Connections to Toba Batak Adat . . . . .165

Scholarly Contributions to the Study of Toba Batak Funerary Practice . . . 176

Adat Ritual as a Reflection of Status in Toba Batak Funerary Practice . . . 177

Adat Rites for Those Below Sari Matua Status . . . . . . . 178

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 Considering the Spirits of the Deceased in Below

Sari Matua Status Deaths . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

Funerary Practices Relating to the Status of Sari Matua and Above . . . 181

Batak Protestant Church Teachings on Death and the Afterlife . . . . . 208

Pt III: The Voicing of Grief in Toba Batak Pre-Funeral Wakes

CHAPTER SIX: Funerary Laments (Andung tu na Mate)—Origins

and Present Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

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Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220

Conceptualizing Lament: Vignette 1 . . . . . . . . . . . 223

Markers of Authenticity—Knowledge of Hata Andung .

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Markers of Authenticity—Style, Context, and Content of Lament . . .228

Markers of Authenticity—Structural and Performative Features of

Lament: The Interplay of Spoken and Sung Text . . . . . .229

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Meta Signals of Grief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .231

Learning to Lament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

Rhythmic Accent in Laments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Positive Benefits and Emotional Release . . . . . . . . . 237

Negative Associations and Connections to Suffering . . . . . . . 238

Conceptualizing Lament: Vignette 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 238

Affective Power of Lament on the Living-Though-Distant . . . 240

Affective Power of Lament on the Living—Cursing / Accusing . . . 243

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 Affective Power of Lament on the Living—Making Needs Known . . 245

Situating Lament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .246

Origins of Toba Batak Lament . . . . . . . . . . . . .246

Origins of the Lament Language (Hata Andung) . . . . . . 249

Another Origin Story—Palm Wine Tapper’s Lament (Andung Paragat) . 257

Taxonomy of Toba Batak Lament Types . . . . . . . . . . 260

Modes of Lament Classification . . . . . . . . . . . 260

Ethno-Classification of Toba Batak Laments . . . . . . . 261

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Other Taxonomic Models . . . . . . . . . . . 262

Changes to Lament Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263

Situating Lament and the Protestant Church Historically

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Performing Lament: Lament Sources and Data Collection . . . . . . 267

The Lamenters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268

The Laments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270

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Musicological Features of Toba Batak Laments for the Dead . . . . . 271

Musical Ambitus in Laments . . . . . . . . . . . . 272

Melodic Shape in Laments . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273

Phrase Contour and the Use of Reciting Pitches in Laments . . . . 274

Rhythmic Features in Laments . . . . . . . . . . . .277

Cadential Patterns in Laments . . . . . . . . . . . 280

Shifts Between Spoken and Sung Texts in Laments . . . . . . 282

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CHAPTER SEVEN: Protestant Hymns in Funerary

Practice (Ende na Mangapuli) . . . . . . . . . . 286

Review of Literature on Protestant Mission Activity and Religious Encounter . 288

Review of Literature on Protestant Hymnody in Missions . . . . . . . 289

Vignette: Opportunities to Join-In . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290

Origin of Protestant Hymns in Toba Society . . . . . . . . . . 296

Hymn Use in the Liturgy of the HKBP . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Hymn Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

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Hymnal Structure and Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

Hymn Use in the Daily Life of Toba Batak Protestant Christians . . . . . 303
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Hymns Associated with Funerary Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
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Hymns in Pre-funeral / Funerary Contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . 309

Hymn Singing and Solidarity: Sharing Tears, Memories, Comfort . . .311

Hymn Singing as a Palliative . . . . . . . . . . . . . .313

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Hymn Choice and the “Fragrance of Lament” . . . . . . . . 317

Musicological Features and Performative Characteristics of Funerary Hymns . 320

Musical Ambitus in Hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . . .321

Melodic Shape in Hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321

Phrase Shape and Form in Hymns . . . . . . . . . . . 323

Rhythmic Features in Hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

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Pt IV: Replacing Laments, Becoming Hymns (Ganti Andung, Gabe Ende)

CHAPTER EIGHT: The Socio-cultural Dialectics of Grief—Hymns that have

the Fragrance of Lament . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335

Vignette: Laments and Hymns in Dialogue . . . . . . . . . .337

A Comparative Look at Laments and Hymns: Conjunctions and Disjunctions

in Musical and Stylistic Features of Laments and Hymns . . . 341

Conjunctions and Disjunctions in Performative Aspects of

Laments and Hymns . . . . . . . . . . . 344

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Gestures for Giving and Receiving Blessing . . . . . . 346

Conjunctions and Disjunctions: Expressions of Grief in Laments

and Hymns . . .
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Conjunctions and Disjunctions in the Formation and Maintenance of

Communal Solidarity in Laments and Hymns . . . . . . 353

Conjunctions and Disjunctions in Texts and Language of Laments

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and Hymns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359

The Protestant Church and the Practice of Lament—Pondering an Embrace . 370

Vignette: Lamenting as Part of a Protestant Worship Liturgy . . . . . 375

CHAPTER NINE: Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400

Discography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Filmography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. Photo portrait of Ingwer Ludwig Nommensen

of the Rheinische Missionsgesellschaft. Founder of the
Batak Protestant Christian Church. Revered as the
Apostle to the Batak. Reproduced from Lumbantobing
(1992:70). 19

Figure 2. Members of Grup Dame Nauli from Batu Opat,

Pematang Siantar. Kalabius (Sampeltek) Simbolon, playing
the sarune bolon, is the group’s leader. Photo by the author.

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June 23, 2003, Pematang Siantar. 34

Figure 3. Map of North Sumatra showing locations mentioned

in Chapter One. 42
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Figure 4. The island of Sumatra with the Province of
North Sumatra highlighted. 72
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Figure 5. The family tree Limbong Mulana into which I was grafted.
Presented to me by Karisos Limbong, in Singkam village, May 23, 1997. 87

Figure 6. Map of North Sumatra showing locations mentioned

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in Chapter Three. 130

Figure 7. Map of North Sumatra showing locations mentioned

in Chapter Four. 158

Figure 8. Map of North Sumatra showing locations mentioned

in Chapter Five. 219

Figure 9. During the mompo rite the casket, ready to receive body
of the deceased, is danced into the house to the accompaniment
of the gondang sabangunan ensemble. Photo by the author,
near Balata, June 2, 2003. 202

Figure 10. During the mompo rite the body of the deceased is
transferred by the family from the bed to the coffin, symbolically
taking up residence in the “new home.” Photo by the author,
Pematang Siantar, December 24, 2002. 203

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