Unit: 1

Theory of Basic
Foundation
Computation
Presented by: Loknath
Regmi
 TOPICS COVERED
• Introduction
• Review of Set
• Review of Logic
• Review of Proof
• Automata Theory
• Symbols and alphabet
• Language
• Valid/invalid computation
 RESOURSES
• TEXT BOOK:
• J.E.Hopcroft, R.Motwani and J.D Ullman, ―Introduction to Automata
Theory, Languages and Computationsǁ, Second Edition, Pearson
Education, 2003.
• REFERENCES:
• H.R.Lewis and C.H.Papadimitriou, ―Elements of the theory
Computation,
of Second Edition, PHI, 2003.
• J.Martin, ―Introduction to Languages and the Theory of Computation,
Third Edition, TMH, 2003.
• Micheal Sipser, ―Introduction of the Theory and
Computation,
Thomson Brokecole, 1997.
 Theory of Computation
❖ Computation is calculation, solving, making decision or
any task done by computer/calculator/ any machine.
❖ The term Theory defines capabilities, limitations of those
machines.

❖ “Develop formal mathematical models of computation

that reflect real-world computers.”
 INTRODUCTION
• Mathematicalmodels of computer
– To complete various tasks
– What can’t a computer do?
– What can a computer do?
– How efficiency can a computer solve?
– Turing Machine
 INTRODUCTION
• Automata Theory
– FSA/FSM
– Pushdown Automata
– Linerbounded Automata
– Turing Machine
• Computability Theory
– Kind of problem solved by a model
• Complexity Theory
– Efficiency of problem
 APPLICATION
• Compiler Design
– FSA/ FSM
• Pattern Matching
– Online Filling Forms
• Linux /Unix OS Command 🡪 grep
• Syntax Testing
– Pushdown Automata
Basic Definitions
🡪 A Set is a collection of items,
called elements.
🡪 {1, 2, 3}
🡪 {x ∈ R | x2 > 5}
🡪 S = {Tom, Sue, Jim}
Basic Definitions
🡪 We use ellipses to simplify things:
🡪 {1, 2, 3, …, 10}
🡪 {1, 2, 3, …}
🡪 {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, …}
🡪 Be careful! ({1, 2, …}???)
Basic Definitions
🡪 We relate an item in the set with the set using
the “∈ (element of)” relation.
🡪 x ∈ {x, y, z}
🡪 {1, 2} ∈ {{1, 2}, {1, 2, 3}}.
Special Sets
🡪 We refer to specific sets of numbers so
often that we give them special names.
🡪 These sets, and their corresponding
symbols, will be referenced throughout
this course.
Natural Numbers
🡪 We define the Natural Numbers to be:

N = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}

🡪 Note that the Naturals are “closed” under

addition and multiplication.
The Integers
🡪 We define the Integers to be:

Z = {…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}

🡪 Note that Z is “closed” under addition,

subtraction, and multiplication.
The Rational Numbers
🡪 We define the Rationals to be:

Q = {p/q | p,q Î Z and q ¹ 0}

🡪 Note that Q is “closed” under addition,

subtraction, multiplication, and non-zero division.
🡪 Alternatively, we can view Q as the set of all
infinite, repeating decimal expansions.
🡪 7.35 = 7.3500000… ∈ Q
🡪 1.234234234… ∈ Q
🡪 However, π ∉ Q
The Irrational Numbers
🡪 I = {all infinite, nonrepeating decimals}
🡪 Obviously, irrational numbers are impossible to
write down exactly.
🡪 We use symbols to represent special values such
as π, e, and √2.
🡪 The Irrationals are not closed under + or ×.
The Real Numbers
🡪 R = {all decimal expansions}
🡪 The Real Numbers are created by adjoining the
Rationals with the Irrationals.
🡪 The Reals are closed under all operations and
satisfy the Field Axioms (see Appendix A, p. 695).
🡪 The Reals form a continuum: we use the Real
Number Line to represent this.
The Complex Numbers
🡪 The Reals fall short when solving simple
polynomial equations like x2 + 1 = 0.
🡪 The Complex Numbers patch this hole.
🡪 C = {a + bi | a,b ∈ R and i = √ (−1)}
🡪 Use the Complex Plane to represent these
numbers.
🡪 The Complex Numbers are also a field.
Subsets
🡪 If A and B are sets, A is called a subset of B,
denoted A ⊆ B, provided every element of A is
an element of B.
🡪 So, A ⊆ B means ∀x, if x ∈ A, then x ∈ B.
🡪 We also say, “A is contained in B” or
“B contains A” to show this relationship.
🡪 Equivalently, we denote A ⊄ B provided
∃x ∍ x ∈ A and x ∉ B.
Examples of Subsets
🡪 If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4}, then clearly A ⊆
B.

🡪 {{1}, {2}} ⊆ {{1}, {2}, {1,2}}.

🡪 Q ⊆ R and Z ⊆ Q and N ⊆ Z.
🡪 {a, b, c} is a proper subset of {a, b, c, d}.
🡪 {a, b, c} is an improper subset of {a, b, c}.
🡪 We denote interval subsets of R as
[a, b) = {x ∈ R | a ≤ x < b}. So [2, 5) ⊆ [0,5].
Set Equality
🡪 We say sets A and B are equal (A = B) if every
element of A is in B and every element of B is in A.
🡪 Thus, A = B means A ⊆ B and B ⊆ A.
🡪 For example {1, 2, 3} = {1, 2, 3}, but
A = {1, 2, 3} ≠ {1, 2, 3, 4} = B, since 4 ∈ B but 4 ∉ A.
🡪 Also, [a, b) ≠ [a, b] since b is only in [a, b].
 Operations on Sets
🡪 Given sets A and B, which are subsets of a universal
set, U, we define the following:
🡪 (Union) A ∪ B = {x ∈ U | x ∈ A or x ∈ B}.
🡪 (Intersection) A ∩ B = {x ∈ U | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}.
🡪 (Difference or Relative Complement)
A − B = {x ∈ U | x ∈ A and x ∉ B}.
🡪 (Complement) Ac = {x ∈ U | x ∉ A}.
🡪 Note that Ac = U − A.
 Examples of Set Operations
🡪 Let U = R, A = [1, 3] and B = (2, 4).
🡪 A ∪ B = [1, 4)
🡪 A ∩ B = (2, 3]
🡪 A − B = [1, 2]
🡪 B − A = (3, 4)
🡪 Ac = (−∞, 1) ∪ (3, ∞)
🡪 Bc = (−∞, 2] ∪ [4, ∞)
 Cartesian Products
🡪 Given two sets, A and B, we define the Cartesian
Product, A × B = {(a, b) | a ∈ A and b ∈ B}.
🡪 The element (a, b) is called an ordered pair, since (a,
b) and (b, a) are distinct if a ≠ b.
🡪 If A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {8, 9}, then:
A × B = {(1, 8), (1, 9), (2, 8), (2, 9), (3, 8), (3, 9)}
B × A = {(8, 1), (8, 2), (8, 3), (9, 1), (9, 2), (9, 3)}
 Generalized Cartesian Products
🡪 Given three sets, A, B, and C, we define their Cartesian
Product by
A × B × C = {(a, b, c) | a ∈ A, b ∈ B and c ∈ C}.
🡪 Although similar, we note that A × B × C and
(A × B) × C are not, technically, the same since one
contains (a, b, c) and the other ((a, b), c).
🡪 In general, we define A1×A2×A3×...×An to be
{(a1,a2,a3,…,an) | a1∈A1,a2∈A2,a3∈A3,…, an∈An}
 5.1.
25

Formal Languages
🡪 Let Σ be a finite set, which we will, henceforth, call an
alphabet.
🡪 A string of characters of the alphabet Σ (or a string
over Σ ) is either: (1) an ordered n-tuple of elements of
Σ written without parentheses or commas, or (2) the
null string ε, which has no characters.
 5.1.
26

Formal Languages (cont’d.)

🡪 If Σ = {1, 2, 3}, then 131221 is a string of length 6 over Σ.
🡪 131221 → (1, 3, 1, 2, 2, 1) ∈ Σ×Σ×Σ×Σ×Σ×Σ.
🡪 Clearly, the length of a string, s, over an alphabet Σ, is
the number of characters of Σ that are in s.
🡪 We denote the function L(s) to be this length.
🡪 Hence, if Σ = {0, 1}, then L(101100111) = 9.
 5.1.
27

Formal Languages (cont’d.)

🡪 Any set of strings over an alphabet is called a formal
language over the alphabet.
🡪 Let Σ be an alphabet and n ∈ N :
Σn = {strings over Σ with L(s) = n};
Γn = {strings over Σ with L(s) ≤ n};
Σ* = {strings over Σ of finite length}.
 5.1.2
8

Examples
Let Σ = {0, 1}:
Σ3 = {000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, 111}
Γ3 = {ε, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, 001, 010, 011, 100,
101, 110, 111}
Σ* = {ε, 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, 11, 000, 001, 010, 011, 100,
101, 110, 111, …, 000000, …, 111111, ...}.
 5.3.
29

The Empty Set

🡪 The unique set containing no elements is
called the empty set, denoted ∅ or {}.
🡪 Theorem: If A is a set, then ∅ ⊆ A.
🡪 Corollary: ∅ is unique.
🡪 Why? Since ∅1 ⊆ ∅2 and ∅2 ⊆ ∅1 we
conclude ∅1 = ∅2 .
 5.3.
30

Set Operations With ∅

🡪 For any set A from a universal set U:
A∩∅=∅
A∪∅=A
A ∩ Ac = ∅
A ∪ Ac = U
Uc = ∅ and ∅c = U.
 5.3.
31

Partitions of a Set
🡪 Two sets are called disjoint if they have no
elements in common. That is, A and B are
disjoint provided A ∩ B = ∅.
🡪 Theorem: If A and B are any sets, then (A − B)
and B are disjoint.
🡪 A collection of sets {A1,A2,…,An} is called
mutually or pairwise disjoint if
Ai ∩ Aj = ∅ whenever i ≠ j.
 5.3.
32

Partitions of a Set (cont’d.)

🡪 A collection of sets {A1,A2,…,An} is called a
partition of a set A provided:

1. {A1,A2,…,An} is mutually disjoint;

2. A1 ∪ A2 ∪ ... ∪ An = A.

🡪 {{1, 2, 3},{4, 5},{6, 7, 8}} partitions?

🡪 {{1,2,3,...},{-1,-2,-3,...},{0}} partitions?
🡪 {Q, I} partitions?
 5.3.
33

Power Sets
🡪 If A is a set, the Power Set of A, denoted P (A),
is the set of all subsets of A.
🡪 Since ∅ ⊆ A, we conclude ∅ ∈ P (A), and A ⊆
A implies A ∈ P (A).
🡪 If A = {0,1}, P (A) = {∅,{0},{1},{0,1}}
🡪 Theorem: If A and B are sets with A ⊆ B, then P
(A) ⊆ P (B).
🡪 Theorem: If |A| = n, then | P (A) | = 2n.
 5.3.3
4

Boolean Algebras
🡪 If A is a set, the collection {A, +, ⋅} is called a
Boolean Algebra if:
1. ∀ a,b∈A, a + b = b + a and a ⋅ b = b ⋅ a
2. ∀ a,b,c∈A, (a + b) + c = a + (b + c)
and (a ⋅ b) ⋅ c = a ⋅ (b ⋅ c)
3. ∀ a,b,c∈A, a + (b ⋅ c) = (a + b) ⋅ (a + c)
and a ⋅ (b + c) = (a ⋅ b) + (a ⋅ c)
4. ∃! 0,1∈A ∍ ∀ a∈A, a + 0 = a and a ⋅ 1 = a
5. ∀ a∈A, ∃ b∈A ∍ a + b = 1 and a ⋅ b = 0
 1.1.3
5

Logic of Compound Statements

🡪 A statement (or proposition) is a sentence that is true
(T) or false (F), but not both or neither.
🡪 Examples:
Today is Monday.
x is even and x > 7.
If x2 = 4, then x = 2 or x = −2.
 1.1.3
6

Counterexamples
🡪 If a sentence cannot be judged to be T or F or is not
even a sentence, it cannot be a statement.
🡪 Examples:
Open the door! (imperative)
Did you open the door? (interrogative)
If x2 = 4. (fragment)
 1.1.3
7

Compound Statements
🡪 Denote statements using the symbols p, q, r, ...
🡪 Denote the operations ∧, ∨, ~, → (to be defined
shortly), where:
p ∧ q - conjunction of p and q (p and q);
p ∨ q - disjunction of p and q (p or q);
~ p - negation of p (not p);
p → q - implication of p and q (p implies q);
 1.1.3
8

Compound Statements (cont’d.)

🡪 A Compound statement (or statement form) is a
statement which includes at least one operation and
one other “atomic” statement.
🡪 For example, “x = 7 and y = 2” is a compound
statement based on the “atomic” statements
p = “x = 7” and q = “y = 2”.
🡪 In this instance, we can symbolize the compound
statement as r = p ∧ q.
 1.1.3
9

Compound Statements (cont’d.)

🡪 The Truth Table of a compound statement is the
collection of all the output truth values corresponding
to all possible combinations of input truth values of the
atomic statements.
🡪 Since each atomic statement can take on 1 of 2
values, 2 inputs have 4 combinations, 3 inputs have 8,
4 inputs have 16, 5 inputs have 32, etc.
 1.1.4
0

Logical Operations
🡪 Negation:p ~p
T F
F T
🡪 Conjunction: • Disjunction:
p q (p ∧ q) p q (p ∨ q)
T T T T T T
T F F T F T
F T F F T T
F F F F F F
 1.1.4

Example: (p ∨ q) ∧ ~r 1

🡪 Proceed from left to right:

p q r (p ∨ q) ~r (p ∨ q) ∧ ~r
T T T T F F
T T F T T T
T F T T F F
T F F T T T
F T T T F F
F T F T T T
F F T F F F
F F F F T F
 1.1.4
2
Logical Equivalence
🡪 Two compound statements are logically equivalent if
they have the same truth table. We denote this as p ≡
q.
🡪 p ~p ~(~p)
T F T
F T F hence p ≡ ~(~p).
🡪 ~(p ∧ q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q ?
No, since ~(T ∧ F) ≡ T, but (~T ∧ ~F) ≡ F.
 1.1.4
3
Tautology & Contradiction
🡪 A statement whose truth table is all “T” is called a
tautology, denoted as p ≡ t.
🡪 A statement whose truth table is all “F” is called a
contradiction, denoted as p ≡ c.
🡪 Clearly, ~t ≡ c and ~c ≡ t.
🡪 Are all logical statements either tautology or
contradiction?
 1.1.4
4
Algebra of Symbolic Logic
🡪 Commutative Laws:
p∧q≡q∧p
p∨q≡q∨p
🡪 Associative Laws:
(p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)
(p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r)
🡪 Distributive Laws:
p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)
p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)
 1.1.4
5
Algebra of Symbolic Logic
🡪 Identity Laws:
p∧t≡p
p∨c≡p
🡪 Negation Laws:
p ∧ ~p ≡ c
p ∨ ~p ≡ t
🡪 Double Negative Laws: ~(~p) ≡ p
🡪 Negations of t and c: ~t ≡ c ~c ≡ t
 1.1.4
6
Algebra of Symbolic Logic
🡪 Idempotent Laws: p ∧ p ≡ pp ∨ p ≡ p
🡪 DeMorgan’s Laws:
~(p ∧ q) ≡ ~p ∨ ~q
~(p ∨ q) ≡ ~p ∧ ~q
🡪 Universal Bound Laws: p ∧ c ≡ c p ∨ t ≡ t
🡪 Absorption Laws:
p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ p
p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p
 1.2.4
7
Conditional Statements
🡪 If p and q are statement variables, the conditional or
implication of q by p is “If p then q” or
“p implies q” and is denoted by p → q.
🡪 The truth table of the implication operator is:
p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
🡪 Example: If you mow my lawn, I’ll pay $20.
 1.2.4
8
Hypotheses & Conclusions
🡪 In the form “If p then q” the statement p is called the
hypothesis and the statement q is the conclusion.
🡪 Conditionals form the basis of “deductive” reasoning.
(Aristotilean Logic)
🡪 In looking at the truth table, we consider the cases
where the hypothesis is false to yield vacuous results.
The interesting cases are when the hypothesis is true.
 1.2.4
9
Logical Equivalences
🡪 In the framework of symbolic logic, the implication
operator would seem to be a new and distinct
process.
🡪 However, this is not the case!
🡪 Theorem: p → q ≡ ~p ∨ q.
🡪 Thus, we can always rewrite an implication as a
disjunction.
🡪 Corollary: ~(p → q) ≡ p ∧ ~q.
 1.2.5
0
Negation of a Conditional
🡪 From the previous corollary, the negation of
p → q is p ∧ ~q.
🡪 For example, the negation of
If today is Sunday, then I wash my car.
is:
Today is Sunday and I do not wash my car.
 1.2.5
1
Converse of a Conditional
🡪 Given the statement p → q, we define its converse to
be the statement q → p.
🡪 For example, the converse of
If today is Sunday, then I wash my car.
is:
If I wash my car, then today is Sunday.
 1.2.5
2
Contrapositive of a Conditional
🡪 Given the statement p → q, we define its
contrapositive to be the statement ~q → ~p.
🡪 For example, the contrapositive of
If today is Sunday, then I wash my car.
is:
If I do not wash my car, then today is not Sunday.
 1.2.5
3
Inverse of a Conditional
🡪 Given the statement p → q, we define its inverse to be
the statement ~p → ~q.
🡪 For example, the inverse of
If today is Sunday, then I wash my car.
is:
If today is not Sunday, then I do not wash my car.
 1.2.5
4
Equivalent Forms
🡪 Theorem: Given the statement p → q, we have that p
→ q ≡ ~q → ~p.
🡪 Corollary: Given the statement p → q, we have that q
→ p ≡ ~p → ~q.
🡪 Therefore from the above, we see that a conditional
and its contrapositive are logically equivalent.
🡪 Moreover, the statement’s converse and inverse forms
are logically equivalent to each other.
 1.2.5
5
Biconditional Statements
🡪 Definition: Given the statement variables p and q, the
biconditional of p and q is read, “p if and only if q,”
denoted p ↔ q and means that both
p → q and q → p .
🡪 By direct calculation: p q p ↔ q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T
 1.2.5
6
Using the Biconditional
🡪 Looking closely at the truth table, we see that
p ↔ q is T whenever p and q have the same truth
value.
🡪 Theorem: p ↔ q is a tautology implies p ≡ q and
conversely, p ≡ q implies p ↔ q is a tautology.
🡪 This gives us a systematic way to calculate logical
equivalence, rather then just scan the matches of
truth values by eye.
 1.3.
57
Valid and Invalid Arguments
🡪 An argument (or argument form) is a sequence of
statements.
🡪 All statements but the final one are called premises,
assumptions, or hypotheses.
🡪 The final statement is called the conclusion.
🡪 An argument form is valid provided its conclusion is
always true whenever all of its premises are true.
 1.3.
58

Valid and Invalid Arguments

🡪 An argument (or argument form) is a sequence of
statements.
🡪 All statements but the final one are called premises,
assumptions, or hypotheses.
🡪 The final statement is called the conclusion.
🡪 An argument form is valid provided its conclusion is
always true whenever all of its premises are true.
🡪 The truth of the conclusion follows inescapably from
the truth of the hypotheses.
 5.2.
59

Some Subset Relations

🡪 For all sets A, B, and C:
1. A ∩ B ⊆ A and A ∩ B ⊆ B
2. A ⊆ A ∪ B and B ⊆ A ∪ B
3. If A ⊆ B and B ⊆ C, then A ⊆ C.
 5.2.
60

Procedural Versions
of the Set Operations
🡪 x ∈ A ∪ B means x ∈ A or x ∈ B.
🡪 x ∈ A ∩ B means x ∈ A and x ∈ B.
🡪 x ∈ A − B means x ∈ A and x ∉ B.
🡪 x ∈ Ac means x ∉ A.
🡪 (x, y) ∈ A × B means x ∈ A and y ∈ B.
 5.2.
61

Example: Show A ∩ B ⊆ A
🡪 Let x ∈ A ∩ B. Show x ∈ A.
🡪 x ∈ A ∩ B means x ∈ A and x ∈ B.
🡪 In particular, this means x ∈ A.
🡪 Hence, given x ∈ A ∩ B, we deduce that x
∈ A.
🡪 Therefore A ∩ B ⊆ A.
 5.2.
62

Basic Method to Show Set

Equality
🡪 Let sets A and B be given. Show A = B.
🡪 First, show A ⊆ B.
🡪 Second, show B ⊆ A.
🡪 If the “⊆” holds in both directions, then we can
conclude that A = B.
 5.2.
63

Example 1:
A ∪ (B ∩ C) = (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C)

First, show A ∪ (B ∩ C) ⊆ (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C).

Then, show (A ∪ B) ∩ (A ∪ C) ⊆ A ∪ (B ∩ C).

 5.2.
64

Example 2: If A ⊆ B, then
A ∪ B = B and A ∩ B = A

First, show A ∩ B ⊆ A.

Then, show A ⊆ A ∩ B.
 2.1.
65

Predicates
🡪 To study these types of logical arguments, we turn to
predicate calculus.
🡪 A predicate is a sentence that contains a finite
number of variables and becomes a statement when
specific values are substituted for the variables.
🡪 The domain of a predicate variable is the set of all
values that may be substituted in place of the
variable.
 2.1.
66

Predicate Notation
🡪 If P(x) is a predicate and x has a domain D, the truth
set of P(x) is the set of all elements of D that make P(x)
true when substituted for x.
🡪 The truth set is denoted {x ∈ D | P(x)}.
🡪 If P(x) and Q(x) are predicates and the common
domain of x is D, then the notation P(x) ⇒ Q(x)
denotes that the truth set of P(x) is a subset of the
truth set of Q(x).
🡪 If P(x) and Q(x) have the same truth set, we denote
this as P(x) ⇔ Q(x).
 2.1.
67

The Universal Quantifier

🡪 We often find predicates involved when we are
making claims about properties that some or all the
elements of a set obey. This leads us to look at
statements using one of two quantifiers.
🡪 The Universal Quantifier: If P(x) is a predicate over a
domain D, we say a universal statement is one of the
form “∀x ∈ D, P(x).”
🡪 This universal statement is true provided P(x) is true for
every x in D.
🡪 Any x ∈ D with P(x) false, is a counterexample.
 2.1.
68

Examples
🡪 Example 1: Let D = {1,2,3,4,5} and let P(x) be the
predicate x2 ≥ x. Using the Method of Exhaustion, we
find that 12 ≥ 1, 22 ≥ 2, 32 ≥ 3,
42 ≥ 4, and 52 ≥ 5 are all true, hence the universal
statement ∀x ∈ {1,2,3,4,5}, x2 ≥ x is true.
🡪 Example 2: If we change this universal statement to:
∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ x, it is no longer true since x = 1/2 is a
counterexample.
 2.1.
69

The Existential Quantifier

🡪 The Existential Quantifier: If P(x) is a predicate over a
domain D, we say an existential statement is one of
the form “∃x ∈ D ∍ P(x).”
🡪 This existential statement is true provided P(x) is true
for at least one x in D, and is false if P(x) is false for
every x in D.
🡪 From this, we see that the negation of an existential
statement is a universal statement, and, likewise, the
negation of a universal statement is an existential
one.
 2.1.
70

More Examples
🡪 Consider: ∃x ∈ D ∍ x < 0.
2

🡪 Example 1: If D = C (the Complex numbers), then x = i

yields i2 = (−1) < 0, hence the existential statement is
true.
🡪 Example 2: If D = R, then by the properties of R, we
know that x2 ≥ 0 for all x in R, hence the existential
statement is false.
🡪 This second example show us the negation of
∃ x ∈ R ∍ x2 < 0 is the universal statement
∀x ∈ R, x2 ≥ 0.
 2.1.
71

Negations of Quantifiers
🡪 As seen in the previous example, the negation of an
existential statement is a universal statement.
🡪 Formally, we denote:
~[∃x ∈ D ∍ P(x)] ≡ ∀x ∈ D, ~P(x).
🡪 By the same process, we have that:
~[∀x ∈ D, P(x)] ≡ ∃x ∈ D ∍ ~P(x).
🡪 Intuitively, the first says the opposite of at least one
thing satisfying a property is that none do, and the
opposite of all things satisfying the property is that at
least one does not.
 2.1.
72

Examples of Negations
🡪 The negation of:
Some people are sad.
is
All people are not sad.
🡪 The negation of:
All integers are rational.
is
At least one integer is irrational.
🡪 Which of each pair is true?
 2.1.
73
Universal Conditional
🡪 The statement:
∀x, if P(x), then Q(x)
is called the universal conditional.
🡪 Many mathematical statements are universal
conditionals.
🡪 Example: ∀x ∈ R, if x > 2 then x2 > 4 (formal)
is equivalent to: (informally)
🡪 Every real number greater than 2 has a square greater
than 4.
🡪 The square of any real number greater than 2 is greater
than 4.
 2.1.74

Negation of Quantified Conditionals

🡪 Since we see the properties of symbolic logic carry
over when dealing with quantified logic, we deduce
that:
~[∀x ∈ D, if P(x), then Q(x)]
is ∃x ∈ D ∍ P(x) and ~Q(x).
🡪 Similarly, ~[∃x ∈ D ∍ if P(x), then Q(x)]
is ∀x ∈ d, P(x) and ~Q(x).
🡪 Negate: 1. Every CS student studies CMSC203.
2. Some CS students study CMSC203.
 2.2.
75

Negation of Universal Existentials

🡪 What is the negation of the statement:
∀ people x, ∃ a person y such that x loves y?
🡪 Recall this is “Everybody loves somebody,” so its
negation would be the case of “Somebody who
does not love anybody.”
🡪 In formal terms:
∃ a person x ∍ ∀ people y, x does not love y.
🡪 Thus:
~ [∀ x, ∃ y ∍ P(x,y) ] ≡ ∃ x ∍ ∀ y, ~P(x,y)
 2.2.
76

Negation of Existential Universals

🡪 What is the negation of the statement:
∃ a person x such that ∀ people y, x loves y?
🡪 Recall this is “Somebody loves everybody,” so its
negation would be the case of “Everybody has at
least one person they do not love.”
🡪 In formal terms:
∀ people x, ∃ person y ∍ x does not love y.
🡪 Thus:
~ [∃ x ∍ ∀ y, P(x,y) ] ≡ ∀ x, ∃ y ∍ ~P(x,y)
 2.2.
Equivalent Forms of 77

Universal Conditionals
🡪 Given the statement:
∀ x∈D, if P(x), then Q(x)
analogous to our definitions from propositional
calculus, we can construct the following.
🡪 Contrapositive: ∀ x∈D, if ~Q(x), then ~P(x).
🡪 Converse: ∀ x∈D, if Q(x), then P(x).
🡪 Inverse: ∀ x∈D, if ~P(x), then ~Q(x).
🡪 Negation: ∃ x∈D ∍ P(x), and ~Q(x).
 3.1.
78

Even and Odd Integers

🡪 Definition: An integer n is even provided there exists
an integer k such that n = 2k.
🡪 Definition: An integer n is odd provided there exists an
integer k such that n = 2k + 1.
🡪 38 is even since 38 = 2(19) and 19 is an integer.
🡪 417 is odd since 417 = 2(208) + 1 and 208 ∈ Z.
🡪 417 is not even since 417 = 2(208.5) but
208.5 ∉ Z.
 3.1.
79

Prime and Composite Integers

🡪 Definition: An integer n is prime if, and only if, n > 1,
and for all positive integers r and s, if
n = r⋅s, then r = 1 or s = 1.
🡪 Definition: An integer n is composite if, and only if, n >
1, and for all positive integers
r and s, if n = r⋅s, then r ≠ 1 and s ≠ 1.
🡪 Every natural number > 1 is either prime or composite.
🡪 2 is the only even prime number.
 3.1.
80

Proving Existential Statements

🡪 To show: There exists an a such that P(a).
🡪 Demonstrate an Example:
Prove there is an even integer that can be written in
two ways as the sum of two primes.
Proof: 10 = 3 + 7 = 5 + 5.
🡪 Construct an Example:
Prove if r,s ∈ Z, then 4r + 6s is even.
Proof: Let r,s ∈ Z. Thus 2r + 3s = k ∈ Z, and
4r + 6s = 2k, therefore (4r + 6s) is even.
 3.1.
81

Proving Universal Statements

🡪 Most theorems are of the form:
∀ x∈D, if P(x), then Q(x).
🡪 If D is a finite set, we can just exhaust over each
element n to verify that Q(n) holds.
🡪 Example: Prove all n ∈ {4, 6, 8, 10, 12} can be written
as the sum of two primes.
Proof: 4 = 2 + 2 6=3+3
8=3+5 10 = 3 + 7
12 = 5 + 7.
 3.1.
82

Method of Direct Proof

🡪 Express the statement to be proved in the form:
∀ x∈D, if P(x), then Q(x)
if possible. (Often, this is done mentally)
🡪 Start the proof by supposing that n is a particular but
arbitrary element of D for which P(n) is true. (Suppose
n∈D and P(n))
🡪 Show that the conclusion Q(n) follows from P(n) by
using definitions, axioms, previously established results,
and the rules for logical inference.
 3.1.
83
Example:
Prove: If the sum of two integers is even, then
so is their difference.
Proof: Let m and n be any integers with (m + n) even.
This means there is an integer k such that (m + n) = 2k.
Now, (m − n) = (m + n) − 2n = 2k − 2n
= 2 (k − n) = 2p,
where k − n = p is an integer. Thus (m − n) is even.
Also, (n − m) = −(m − n) = 2(−p),
so (n − m) is also even. Therefore, the difference of m
and n is even. QED
 3.1.
84

Directions for Writing Proofs

🡪 Write the statement to be proved.
🡪 Clearly mark the beginning of your proof with the
word Proof.
🡪 Make your proof self-contained:
🡪 Identify each variable used in the body of the proof;
🡪 Introduce only necessary variables and notation;
🡪 Use Lemmas to show significant but related ideas.
🡪 Write proofs in complete (English) sentences.
 3.1.85

Common Mistakes
🡪 Arguing from examples;
🡪 Using the same letter to mean different things;
🡪 Jumping to a conclusion;
🡪 Begging the question (i.e. assuming true that which
you want to prove);
🡪 Using if when you mean since, hence, thus, therefore,
hencely, thusly, hereforthwith, etc.
 3.6.
Proof by Contradiction 86

🡪 Instead of the Universal Modus Ponens argument form:

∀x, [P(x) → Q(x) AND P(x)] ⇒ Q(x), a Proof by
Contradiction (reductio ad absurdum) follows the
Universal Modus Tollens form: ∀x, [P(x) → Q(x) AND
~Q(x)] ⇒ ~P(x).
🡪 We obtain a contradiction when the conclusion of this
form is combined with our standard assumption in a
direct proof the P(x) holds.
🡪 This differs marginally from the Method of
Contraposition which proves directly the validity of the
comtrapositive statement.
 3.6.
87

Method of Proof By Contradiction

🡪 Suppose the statement to be proved is FALSE;
🡪 Show this supposition leads logically to a
contradiction (either to the original hypotheses or to
some other statement of fact);
🡪 Conclude that the original statement to be proved is
TRUE.
 3.6.
88

Example: No Greatest Integer

Theorem: There is no greatest integer.
Proof: (Contradiction) Suppose there is a greatest
integer N. Thus for every integer k, k ≤ N.
Now, since N is an integer, by closure, (N+1) is an
integer. Thus: N+1≤N,
hence 1 ≤ 0.*
Therefore, there is no greatest integer. QED
 3.6.
89

Sums of Rationals and Irrationals

Theorem: The sum of a rational and an irrational is
irrational.
Proof: (Contradiction) Let r be rational, s be irrational,
and assume (r + s) is rational. Thus there exist a,b,c,d
∈ Z, with r = a/b,
(r + s) = c/d and b,d ≠ 0.
Now, s = (r + s) − r = c/d − a/b
= (bc − ad)/bd.
Since a,b,c,d ∈ Z and b,d ≠ 0, we have s ∈ Q.*
Therefore (r + s) is irrational. QED
 3.6.
90

Method of Proof by Contraposition

🡪 Express the statement to be proved in the form
∀x, if P(x) then Q(x).
🡪 Rewrite this as its contrapositive
∀x, if ~Q(x) then ~P(x).
🡪 Prove the contrapositive form directly:
🡪 Suppose x is such that Q(x) is FALSE.
🡪 Show that P(x) is FALSE.
 3.6.91

Example of Contraposition
Theorem: Given any integer n, if n2 is even, then
n is even.
(Contrapositive: If n is odd, then n2 is odd.)
Proof: (Contraposition) Let n be an integer and assume
that n is odd. Thus, there is an integer k such that n =
2k + 1. Show that n2 is odd.
Now, n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k + 1
= 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1.
Since k is an integer, (2k2 + 2k) is an integer.
Therefore n2 is odd. QED
 4.2.92

What Is Induction
🡪 One of the more recently developed proof
techniques;
🡪 Used to verify conjectures about processes that
occur repeatedly, according to definite patterns;
🡪 Used to prove statements indexed on the Natural
Numbers (i.e. For all integers n ≥ 0, ...)
 4.2.93

Climbing Infinite Staircases

🡪 Consider the problem of trying to climb an infinitely
tall staircase.
🡪 How can I know that this staircase is climbable?
🡪 First, show the staircase exists. (Basis)
🡪 Second, show standing at any arbitrary step implies I
can climb to the next step. (Induction)
🡪 The basis shows there is an initial step.
🡪 The induction validates a rule of motion from one
step to another.
 4.2.94

In Pictures
Induction

Induction

Induction

Induction

Basis
 4.2.95

Principle of Mathematical Induction

🡪 Let P(n) be a predicate that is defined for integers n,
and let a be a fixed integer.
🡪 Suppose the following two statements are true:
1. P(a) is true;
2. For all integers k ≥ a, if P(k) is true, then P(k + 1) is true.
🡪 Then, for all integers n ≥ a, P(n) is true.
 4.2.96

Outline of an Inductive Proof

🡪 Basis step says to show P(initial value) is true.
🡪 Inductive step says:
🡪 Assume P(k) is true for an arbitrary k.
🡪 Use this to show P(k + 1) is true.
🡪 This assumption of P(k) is called the inductive
hypothesis.
 4.2.97

Tuppence and Nickels

🡪 Show that any monetary value of 4 cents or more
can be composed of tuppence (a two-cent coin)
and nickels.
🡪 BASIS: 4 cents = tuppence + tuppence.
🡪 INDUCTION: Assume k-cents can be made up from
tuppence and nickels (k = 2t + 5n). Show (k+1) can
too.
 4.2.98

Tuppence and Nickels (cont’d.)

🡪 Case 1: (At least one of each coin: k = 2t + 5n)
k + 1 = 2t + 5n + 1 = 2t + 5n + 6 − 5
= (2t + 6) + (5n − 5) = 2(t + 3) + 5(n − 1).

🡪 Case 2: (No tuppence: k = 5n)

k + 1 = 5n + 1 = 5n + 6 − 5 = 2(3) + 5(n − 1).

🡪 Case 3: (No nickels and t > 2: k = 2t)

k + 1 = 2t + 1 = 2t + 5 − 4 = 2(t − 2) + 5(1).
 4.2.99

Sum of the First n Integers

🡪 Carl Friederich Gauss is bored in school.
🡪 Teach instructs him to add together the numbers from 1
to 100.
🡪 Zip! Carl is done. Sum is 5050. How?
🡪 1 + 2 + 3 + ... + 100
= (1 + 100) + (2 + 99) + (3 + 98) +...+ (50 + 51)
= 101 + 101 + 101 +...+ 101
= 50(101)
= 5050.
 4.2.10
0
Sum of the First n Integers (cont’d.)
Prove: n
Σ k = n(n + 1) / 2 .
k =1
Proof: (Induction)
Basis: Show: 1
Σ k = 1(2) / 2 .
k =1
1
Σ k = 1 and 1(2)/2 = 2/2 = 1, so they are equal.
k =1
 10.1.10
1
Functions
🡪 A function from A to B is a relation that satisfies the
properties:
1. For each x in A, there is a y in B such that (x,y)
is in the function;
2. If (x,y) and (x,z) are in the function, then y = z.
 10.1.10
2
Examples of Functions (Not)
🡪 To understand functions, it is easier to study what are
not:
Violates Property 1
1
2 a
3 b
4
Violates Property 2

1
2 a
3 b
4
 10.1.10
3
Inverse Relations
🡪 Definition: If R is a relation from set A to set B, then the
inverse relation of R, denoted R−1, is
R−1 = {(y,x) | (x,y) ∈ R}.
🡪 For example, if R = {(1,3), (2,1), (4,5), (6,6)}, then R −1 =
{(3,1), (1,2), (5,4), (6,6)}.
🡪 Could R = R−1?
🡪 Sure - let R = {(1,2), (2,1), (2,3), (3,2), (4,4)}.
 10.1.10

Directed Graph of a Relation 4

🡪 When R is a relation on a set A, we draw it using a

directed graph. For example, if
R = {(1,1), (2,4), (3,2), (4,1), (4,3)},
then its directed graph is:

2
1 3
4
 10.2.10
Reflexivity, 5

Symmetry, and Transitivity

🡪 Definition: Let R be a binary relation on A.
🡪 R is reflexive if for all x ∈ A, (x,x) ∈ R.
(Equivalently, for all x e A, x R x.)
🡪 R is symmetric if for all x,y ∈ A, (x,y) ∈ R implies (y,x) ∈
R. (Equivalently, for all x,y ∈ A, x R y implies that y R x.)
🡪 R is transitive if for all x,y,z ∈ A, (x,y) ∈ R and (y,z) ∈ R
implies (x,z) ∈ R. (Equivalently, for all x,y,z ∈ A, x R y
and y R z implies x R z.)
Examples
🡪 Reflexive: The relation R on {1,2,3} given by
R = {(1,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,3)} is reflexive. (All loops
are present.)
🡪 Symmetric: The relation R on {1,2,3} given by
R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (1,3), (3,1)} is symmetric.
(All paths are 2-way.)
🡪 Transitive: The relation R on {1,2,3} given by
R = {(1,1), (1,2), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (1,3)} is transitive.
(If I can get from one point to another in 2 steps,
then I can get there in 1 step.)
Violations of the Properties
🡪 Why is R = {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)} not reflexive on
{1,2,3,4}?
Because (4,4) is missing.
🡪 Why is R = {(1,2), (2,1), (3,1)} not symmetric?
Because (1,3) is missing.
🡪 Why is R = {(1,2), (2,3), (1,3), (2,1)} not transitive?
Because (1,1) and (2,2) are missing.
🡪 Is {(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)} symmetric? transitive?
Yes! Yes!
 10.2.10
The Transitive Closure 8

🡪 Definition: Let R be a binary relation on a set A. The

transitive closure of R is the binary relation Rt on A
satisfying the following three properties:
1. Rt is transitive;
2. R is a subset of Rt;
3. If S is any other transitive relation that
contains R, then S contains Rt.
🡪 In other words, the transitive closure of R is the smallest
transitive relation containing R.
 10.2.10
9
Example of the Transitive Closure
🡪 Given the relation R on {1,2,3,4},
1 2

its transitive closure4 is: 3

1 2

4 3
 10.2.11
Properties of Equality 0

🡪 Consider the Equality (=) relation on R:

Equality is reflexive since for each x ∈ R, x = x.
Equality is symmetric since for each x,y ∈ R, if x = y,
then y = x.
Equality is transitive since for each x,y,z ∈ R, if x = y and
y = z, then x = z.
🡪 As a graph, the relation contains only loops, so
symmetry and transitivity are vacuously satisfied!
 10.2.11
1
Properties of Congruence Mod p
🡪 Let p be an integer greater than 1, and consider the
relation on Z given by:
R = {(x,y) | x,y ∈ Z and x ≡ y mod p}.
🡪 When we say x ≡ y mod p, this means (x − y) = kp for
some integer k.
🡪 Now, R is reflexive since (x − x) = 0 = 0p, for all integers
x.
🡪 Moreover, R is symmetric, since if x ≡ y mod p, then (x −
y) = kp, thus (y − x) = (−k)p, implying that y ≡ x mod p.
 10.2.11

Congruence Mod p (cont’d.) 2

🡪 Finally, R is transitive. Why?

🡪 Let x ≡ y mod p and y ≡ z mod p. This means there are
integers k and j such that (x − y) = kp and (y − z) = jp.
Hence, (x − z) = (x − y) + (y − z)
= kp + jp = (k + j)p. Therefore, x ≡ z mod p.
Properties of Inequality
🡪 Consider the Inequality (< or >) relation on R:
Inequality is not reflexive since for no x ∈ R is it true that
x < x.
Inequality is not symmetric since for each
x,y ∈ R, if x < y is true, then y < x is false.
Inequality is transitive since for each x,y,z ∈ R, if x < y
and y < z, then x < z.
🡪 Inequality is so pathelogically unsymmetric, that we
define a special property to describe it.
 10.2.11
4
The Anti-symmetry Property
🡪 Definition: A relation R on a set A is called
anti-symmetric if (x,y) ∈ R and (y,x) ∈ R implies x
= y.
🡪 This is equivalent to requiring that if x ≠ y and
(x,y) ∈ R, then (y,x) ∉ R. (All streets are one-way.)
🡪 Example: R = {(1,1), (1,2), (3,2), (3,3)} is
anti-symmetric.
🡪 Is every relation symmetric or anti-symmetric?
🡪 No! Consider R = {(1,2), (2,1), (1,3)}.
 10.3.11
5
Equivalence Relations
🡪 Definition: Let R be a binary relation on A. R is an
equivalence relation on A if R is reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive.
🡪 From the last section, we demonstrated that
Equality on the Real Numbers and Congruence
Modulo p on the Integers were reflexive,
symmetric, and transitive, so we can describe
them as equivalence relations.
Examples
🡪 What is the “smallest” equivalence relation on a
set A?
R = {(a,a) | a ∈ A}, so that n(R) = n(A).

🡪 What is the “largest” equivalence relation on a

set A?
R = A × A, so that n(R) = [n(A)]2.
Equivalence Classes 10.3.11
7
🡪 Definition: If R is an equivalence relation on a set A,
and a ∈ A, then the equivalence class of a is defined
to be:
[a] = {b ∈ A | (a,b) ∈ R}.
🡪 In other words, [a] is the set of all elements which relate
to a by R.
🡪 For example: If R is congruence mod 5, then
[3] = {..., −12, −7, −2, 3, 8, 13, 18, ...}.
🡪 Another example: If R is equality on Q, then
[2/3] = {2/3, 4/6, 6/9, 8/12, 10/15, ...}.
🡪 Observation: If b ∈ [a], then [b] = [a].
 10.3.11
A String Example 8

🡪 Let Σ = {0,1} and denote L(s) = length of s, for any string

s ∈ Σ*. Consider the relation:
R = {(s,t) | s,t ∈ Σ* and L(s) = L(t)}
🡪 R is an equivalence relation. Why?
🡪 REF: For all s ∈ Σ*, L(s) = L(s);
SYM: If L(s) = L(t), then L(t) = L(s);
TRAN: If L(s) = L(t) and L(t) = L(u), L(s) = L(u).
🡪 What are the equivalence classes of R?
🡪 [θ], [0], [00], [000], [0000], ...
in other words, Σ0, Σ1, Σ2, Σ3, Σ4, ...
 10.3.11
Relations and Partitions 9
🡪 Recall that a partition of a set is a collection of
mutually disjoint subsets whose union is the original set.
🡪 Equivalence relations and partitions are tied together
by the following:
🡪 Definition: Given a partition of a set A, the binary
relation induced by the partition is
R = {(x,y) | x and y are in the same partition set}.
🡪 Theorem: If A is a set with a partition and R is the
relation induced by the partition, then R is an
equivalence relation.
 10.3.12
Making Equivalence Relations 0
🡪 This example shows how to apply this theorem to create
the induced equivalence relation.
🡪 The collection {{1,2,3}, {4,5}, {6}} is a partition of
{1,2,3,4,5,6}. To find the induced equivalence relation,
observe:
🡪 {1,2,3} × {1,2,3} = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2),
(2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3)}
{4,5} × {4,5} = {(4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5)}
{6} × {6} = {(6,6)}
🡪 R = {(1,1), (1,2), (1,3), (2,1), (2,2), (2,3), (3,1), (3,2), (3,3),
(4,4), (4,5), (5,4), (5,5), (6,6)}
Automata Fundamentals

• Definitions and properties of mathematical models of

computation.
• These models playa role in several applied areas of
computer science.
• Finite automata, is used in text processing, compilers, and
hardware design.
• Another model, called the context-free grammar, is used
in programming languages and artificial intelligence.
BASIC MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
AND TECHNIQUES
Symbol: Anything by(lower case and upper case letters,
digits, operators etc).
• Example: a, b, c, 0, 1, 2, . . .
Alphabet : It is a finite, non – empty set of symbols .
It is denoted by ∑.
• Examples:
• ∑ = {0,1} : Binary alphabet
• ∑ = {A~Z, 0~9} : Alphanumeric alphabet
• ∑ = {a,b,c, ….,z} : Alphabet of small letters
 BASIC MATHEMATICAL NOTATION
AND TECHNIQUES
• String
• A string or word is a finite sequence/group of
symbols chosen from the alphabet (∑)

• Example:

i. 01001 , 101, 11001 over Σ ={0,1}

ii. aaabbbbccc, abc, aabcc over Σ ={a,b,c}

 Operations on Strings
• Length of a string:
“length of the string |w|” 🡪 the number of symbols composing
the string.
Count of symbols in that string.
• Examples: i. if w = abcd then |w| = 4
• ii. if x = 0101101011 then | x | = 10
• Empty or NULL Strings 𝝐 :
▪ The String consisting of zero symbols.
▪ Length of empty string is | 𝜖 | = 0.
 Operations on Strings
• Concatenation of String
xy 🡪 appending the symbols of y to the rights end of symbols of x. i.e.,
❑ x = a 1, a 2, . . . , a n
❑ y = b1, b2, . . ., bm
then xy = a1, a2, . . . , an b1, b2, . . ., bm
• Examples:
i. u = 010 v = 1
uv = 0101 vu = 1010
ii. x = PAS y = CAL xy=PASCAL
iii.Empty string is the identity element for concatenation operator.
w𝝐=𝝐𝒘=w
 Operations on Strings
• Reverse a string
It is obtained by writing the symbols in reverse order. Let
w be a string. Then its reverse is wR.
i.e., w = a 1, a 2, . . . , a n
wR = an, , . . . ,a2, a1.
Example: Let u = 0101110
uR = 0111010
 Operations on Strings
• Powers of an alphabet (Number of elements in a set):
Let ∑ be an alphabet.
∑* denotes the set of all string over the alphabet ∑.
∑m denotes the set of all string over the alphabet ∑ of length m.
Examples: If ∑ = {0, 1} then
∑0 = 1={ 𝜖 } empty string
∑1 =2= { 0,1} set of all strings of length one over ∑= { 0,1 }
∑2 =4= {00,01,10,11} set of all strings of length two over ∑= { 0,1 }
∑3 =8= {000,001,010,011,100,101,110,111} set of all strings of
length three over ∑= { 0,1 }
The cardinality of ∑n =2n is if over ∑= { 0,1 }
 Operations on Strings
• Kleene Closure:
Let ∑ be an alphabet. Then “Kleene Closure ∑*” denotes the
set of all strings ( including 𝜖 , empty string) over the alphabet ∑.
∑* = ∑0 U ∑1 U ∑2 U , . . .
Examples:
i. If ∑ = {0,1} then
🡺 ∑0 = { 𝜖 } ∑1 = { 0,1 }
🡺∑2 = { 00, 01, 10, 11}
🡺∑3= { 000, 001, 010, 011,100,101,110,111}. . .
then ∑*= { 𝜖 , 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, . . . }
ii. If ∑ = {0 } then ∑*= { 𝜖 , 0, 00, 000, . . . }
 Operations on Strings
• Positive Closure:
Let ∑ be an alphabet. Then “Positive Closure
∑+” denotes the set of all strings ( excluding 𝜖)over
the alphabet ∑.
∑+ = ∑1 U ∑2 U ∑3 U , . . .
Examples: i. If ∑ = {0,1} then
• ∑1 = { 0,1 }
• ∑2 = { 00, 01, 10, 11}
• ∑3= { 000, 001, 010, 011,100,101,110,111}
. . . then ∑+= { 0, 1, 00, 01, 10, . . . }
 Operations onStrings
• Substring:
A string v appears within another string w (w = uv) is called
“substring of w”. If w = uv, then substrings u & v are said to be
prefix and suffix of w respectively.
• Examples:
i. w = abbab be a string over an alphabet
∑ = {a, b} then a, ab, abb, ba, bab, . . . are all
substrings of w.
ii. w = 674
Prefixes = { 𝜖, 6, 67, 674}
Suffixes = { 𝜖, 4, 74, 674}
 Operations on Strings
• Palindrome:
A palindrome is a string, which is same whether written
forward (or) backward.
• Examples:
i. mam, noon, nun, Malayalam, 11211.
ii. If the length of a palindrome is even , then it can be
obtained by concatenation of a string and its reverse.
• Example:
If u = 01 uR = 10 then even palindrome = 0110
 Language
• Language is a set of strings chosen from the alphabet ∑
• Language L could be finite or infinite
• Example: Suppose ∑ = { a,b }
L1 = Set of all strings of length 2
= { aa, ab, ba, bb } [Finite] L2
= Set of all strings of length 3
= { aaa, aab, aba, abb, baa, bab, bba, bbb }[Finite] L3 =
Set of all strings where each string starts with “a”
= { a, aa, ab, aaa, aab, aba, abb,…….. } [Infinite]
Implication
• Where we use those theorem, idea form
computation?
• C Programming language.

void main ()
{
int a,b;
etc; etc;
}
Valid / Invalid Computation:

• Check the given string is present in the language

or not ?
• Given,
L is a Finite language; ∑ = { a, b }
L1 = { aa, ab, ba, bb } String, S = aaa
• Here, S = aaa is not present in the language and
we can calculate this and thus is invalid operation
for computation.
Valid / Invalid Computation
• Example
Given,
L is a infinite language; ∑ = { a, b } L2
= { a, aa, aaa, ab, aab, abb,…. } String, S
= baba
• Here, S = baba , present in the language So this is an
example of valid operation for computation.
 Automata
• The term "Automata" is derived from the Greek
word which means "self-acting".
• An automaton is an abstract self-propelled
computing device which follows a predetermined
sequence of operations automatically.
• A algorithm or program that automatically
recognizes if a particular string belongs to the
language or not, by checking the grammar of the
string.
 Automata
• There are different verities of abstract machines
which can be defined mathematically.
• Some of them are as powerful as today's real
computers,
while the simpler ones are less powerful.
• Some models are considered even more powerful
than any real computers as they have infinite
memory.
FINITE AUTOMATA
• An automaton with a finite number of states is called a Finite
Automaton (FA) or Finite State Machine (FSM).
• It is act as a recognizer for specific a language/pattern.
• Any problem can be presented in form of decidable problem
that can be answered by Yes/No.
• FA (machine with limited memory) can solve any problem.
• Read an input string from tape
• Determine if the input string is in a language
• Determine if the answer for the problem is “YES” or “”NO for
the given input on the tape
8