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Notes Electronics Devices and Circuits

Notes on Electronics Devices and Circuits

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Muhammad Waseem
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62 views

Notes Electronics Devices and Circuits

Notes on Electronics Devices and Circuits

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Muhammad Waseem
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© © All Rights Reserved
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Summary ¢ 19 Diesion — pajunction —avegion (a) Atthe instant of junction formation ()Atequilibriam A FIGURE 1-20 Energy diagrams illustrating the formation ofthe pn junction and depletion region. ential is and how itis created. the barrier potential fora silicon diode? the barrier potential fora germanium diode? Section 1-1 According tothe classical Bohr model, the atom is viewed as having a planetary type structure with electrons orbiting at various distances around the central nucleus. According tothe quantum model, electrons do not exist in precise circular orbits as particles as in the Bolr model. Te electrons can be waves or particles and precise location at any time is uncertain. ' The nucleus of an atom consists of protons and neutrons. The protons have a positive charge and the neutrons are uncharged. The number of protons is the atomic numberof the atom. ‘Electrons have a negative charge and orbit around the nucleus at distances that depend on their ‘energy level. An atom Las discrete bands of energy called shel in which the electrons orbit. ‘Atomic structure allows a certain maximum numberof electrons in each shell. In their natural state all atoms are neutral because they have an equal numberof protons and electrons. ' The outermost shell or band of an atom is called the valence band, and electrons that orbit in this band are called valence electrons. These electrons have the highest energy ofall those inthe atom. Ifa valence election acquires enough cnergy from an outside source such as hea, it can {jump out ofthe valence band and break away from its atom, Section 1-2 Insulating materials have very few fre electrons and do not conduct curreat at all under normal circumstances. '® Materials that are conductors have a large numberof free electrons and conduct curent very well. '® Semiconductive materials fallin between conductors nd insulators in their ability to conduct current, '® Semiconductor atoms hive four valence electrons. Silicon isthe most ly used semiconduc- 20 IntRoDUCTION To ELECTRONICS Section 1-3 Section 1-4 Section 1-5 ‘Semiconductor atoms bond together in a symmetrical pattern to form a solid material called a ‘erystal. The bonds that hold s crystal together are called covalent bonds, '® The valence electrons that manage to escape from their parent atom are called conduction elec- trons or free electrons. They have more energy than the electrons inthe valence band and are free to drift throughout the material. ‘© When an electron breaks awey to become free, it Ieaves a hole in the valence band ereating what is called an electron-hole pai These electron-hole pairs are thermally produced because the level to an ge voltage. ‘Voltage multipliers are used in high-voltage, low-current applications such 2s for electron beam acceleration in CRT and for particle accelerators. A voltage multiplier uses a series of diode-capacitor stages Input voltage can be doubled, tripled, or quadrupled. A datasheet provides key information about the parameters and characteristics of an electronic sevice. A diode should always be operated below the absolute maximum ratings specified on the datasheet. Many DMMSs provide adiode test function DMMs display the diode drop when the diode is operating properly in forward bias ‘Most DMMSs indicate “OL” when the diode is open. ‘Troubleshooting isthe pplication of logical thought combined with a thorough knowledge of the cireuit or system to demify and correct a malfunction ‘Troubleshooting isa three-step process of analysis, planning, and messurement. aul analsi seeeeee eee eoeee oe the isolation of a fault toa particular circuit or portion ofa circuit, CKEY TERMS ____Key termsand other bold terms inthe chapter are defined in the end-ofbook loss. Bins ‘The application of «de voltage to a diode to make it ether conductor block current, ‘Clamper A circuit that alds ade level to an ac voltage using a diode and a capacitor. DC power supply A circuit that converts ac line voltage o de voltage and supplies constant power to operate a circuit or system, Diode _A semiconductor device witha single pn junction that conducts curent in only one direction Filter In 2 power supply. the capacitor used to reduce the variation of the output voltage from a rectifier. Forward bias "The condtion in which a diode conducts curent. Full-wave rectifier A circuit that converts an a sinusoidal input voltage into a pulsating de voltage ‘with two output pulses occuring fr each input eyce, Half-wave rectifier A cixuit that converts an ac sinusoidal input voltage into a pulsating de voltage with one output pulse occuring for each input eyle Limiter A diode circuit that clips off or removes part of a waveform above and/or below a specified level Line regulation The change in output voltage ofa regulator fora given change normally expressed as a percentage. Load regulation ‘The ctange in output voltage of a regulator fora given range of loud currents, normally expressed as a percentage. Peak inverse voltage (PIV) The maximum value of reverse voltage across diode that occurs at the peak ofthe input cycle when the diode is reverse-biasd. Rectifier An electronic creuit that converts ac into pulsating de; one part ofa power supply. Regulator An clecironic device or circuit that maintains an essentially constant output voltage for ‘range of input voltage or load values; one part of a power supply. Reverse blas The condition in which a diode prevents current. Ripple voltage The small vatiation inthe de output voltage ofa filtered rectifier eaused by the charging and discharging of the filter capacitor. input voltage, 94 * DIODES AND APPLICATIONS ‘Troubleshooting A systematis process of isolating, identifying, and correcting a fault in a circuit orsysiem. Val characteristic A curve showing the relationship of diode voltage and current. pseu a Forward cet, del diode model Pay Forward creat, pice navel 2 ale-vave average vale a4 Peak hal-wave eter ouput (seo) as eakiverse vogs, half-wave recier 26 Fallwave average vue Pa Centersapped ful-waveoupat 2B PIV = 2 pauy + 07 ak invert vokage, center tapped rectifier 29 Vues = Yoon) ~ WAV Bridge fall wave output 20 PIV = Vey + 07 eakinverse volts, bide recor y, an re Ripple factor Voc 212 Vecep) = (1 ‘Peak-to-peak ripple voltage, capacitor-input filter Hn (ig) ome 1 213 Ve = (1- wae om ‘DC output voltage, capacitor input iter 214 Line regulation = (A¥0UP re \ AVin oe 2s trate « (8H CTRUE/FALSE QUIZ ___trsvesanbe ound at wnpasanigsedcomio. “The two regions of a diode ae the anode and the collector. 2. A diode can conduct curren in two directions with equal ease. 3, A diode conducts current wien forward-biased. 4. When reverse-biased, a diode ideally appears asa short. 5. Two types of curreat in a dade are electron and hole 6. A basic half-wave rectifier consists of one diode. 7. "The output frequency of a half-wave rectifier is twice the input frequency. 8. The diode in half-wave restfier conducts for half the input eyce, 9, PIV stands for positive inves voltage. 10, Bach diode in a fll-wave refer conducts for the entire input yee LL. The output frequency ofa fill-wave rectifier is twice the input frequency. 12, A bridge rectifier uses four diodes. 13, In abridge rectifier, wo dicdes conduct during each half eycle ofthe input. 14, The purpose ofthe capacitor filter a rectifier is to convert acto de. 15, The output voltage of a filtered retifier always has some ripple voltage. Summary * 159 FIGURE 3-66 Regulated 12 V power supply on the printed circuit (PC) board. SR eo a Hw Ht oaente a io s- e a - im ‘Schottky Tunnel (Current-regulator SUMMARY Section 3-1 ‘The zener diode operates in reverse breakdown. * ‘There are two breakdown mechanisms in a zener diode: avalanche breakdown and zener breakdown, 4 When Vz < 5'V, zenerbicakdowa is predominant, 160. ¢ SpeciAL-PurPose Drones ‘© When Vz > SV, avalanche breakdown i predominant. © A renee diode maintains a neatly constant voltage across it terminals over a specified range of © Zener diodes are available in many voltage ratings ranging from less than IV to more than 250, Section 3-2 Zener diodes are we as volage references, regulators, and limites Section 3-3 A varactor diode ats asa variable capacitor under reverse-bias conditions The capacitance ofa varactr varios inversely with everse-bias voltage, '* The curent regulator diode beeps its forward current at a constant specified value Section 3-4 © An LED emits light when forward-biase. © LEDs are avilable for either infared or visible ight. ‘+ High.itensty LEDs are usd in large-sereen displays, traffic lights, automotive lighting, and home lighting. Am organic LED (OLED) uses to ordre layers of organic material produce light. © Quantum dots are semiconductor devices that emit light when energized fom an extemal ‘The photosiode exhibits an increase in reverse curent with, Section 3-5 The Schottky diode has a meal-o-semicondacior junction, Tis used in fase-switching applications. ‘© The tunnel diode is used in oscillator circuits © ‘The pin diode has a p region, ann region, and an iatrinsc() region and displays a variable re- sistance characteristic when ‘orward- biased and a constant capacitance when reverse-biased ‘A laser diode is similar to an LED excep that itemitscoheret (single wavelength) ight when the forward current exceeds threshold value. hms _Key terms and other bold terms in the chapter are defined in the end-of book glossary. Electrolumineseenee The process of releasing light energy by the recombination of electrons in a semiconductor. Laser Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation LLight-emitting diode (LED) 4 type of diode that emits light when there is forward current. Photodiode A diode in which the reverse current varies directly withthe amount of light. Pixel In an LED display sereen, the 1g colored light and consisting of red, green, and blue LEDs. ‘Varactor A variable capacitaree diode. Zener breakdown The lower voltage breakdown in a zener diode. Zener diode A diode designeé for limiting the voltage across its terminals in reverse bias. je nit for produ peers avy mh 2 ave vx Tex Ar temperature change when TCs iC 330 ave rexar Vgtemperatre change when 7Cis VPC so Zener impedance 212% BIPOLAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS EMnunam ne uel eure min Se ‘BE junction forward-biased [BC junction reverse biased (Cutof. BE junction reverse-iased Mel witch Sawaton: BE junetion forward-iased eal switch Cjunction revers-iased equivalent for [BC junction forwant-bised —eaivaent for ‘utoft sotartion Key Teams 213 Pe Eee Section 4-1 Section 4-2 Section 4-4 Section 4-6 Section 4-7 Section 4-8, ‘The BIT (bipolar junctcn transistor) is constructed with tree regions: base, collector, and emitter. ‘The BIT has two pn junctions, the base-emitter junction and the base-colleetor junction, (Curent ina BIT consiss of both free electrons and holes, thus the term bipolar. ‘The base region is very thin and lightly doped compared to te collector and emitter regions. ‘The two types of bipola junction transistor are the npm and the pp. ‘To operate as an amplifier, the base-emitter junction must be forward: biased and the base collector junetion must be reverse-biased. Tis is called forward-reverse bias ‘The three currents in the transistor are the base current (Jy), emitter current (I), and collector ‘current (J). © Jyis very small compared to Jeans. '® The de current gain ofa transistor isthe ratio of Fc 10 fy and is designated pc, Values typically range from less than 20 to several hundred © yc is usually efered wo as figs on transistor datasheets, ‘The ratio of Ie t0 Fis clled anc. Values typically range from 0.95 t0 0.99. There is a variation in fc over temperature and also from one transistor to another ofthe same type. ‘When a transistor is forward-reverse biased, the voltage gain depends on the resistance and the exteraal collector resistance. Voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage o input voltage. Intemal transistor resistances are represented by a lowercase ‘A transistor can be operated as an electronic switch in cutoff and saturation In cutoff, both pn junctions are reverse-biased and there i essentially no collector current. The transistor ideally behaves like an open switch between collector and emitter. In saturation, both pn junetions are forward-biased and the collector current is maximum. The transistor ideally behaves like closed switch between collector and emitter. Ina phototransistr, base current is produced by incident light. ‘A phocotransistor can be either a two-lead ora thtee-lead device. ‘An optocoupler consist of an LED and a photodiode or phototransistor. Optocouplers are used to electrically isolate circuits, ‘There are many types of transistor packages using plastic, meta, or ceramic, ‘Two basic package types are through-hole and surface mount. tis best to check a transistor in-cicuit before removing it ‘Common faults in trans'stor circuits are open junctions, low fic, excessive leakage currents, tnd extemal opens and shorts on the czcuit board, ry . . sal emitter sees . eoeeeere CKEY TERMS —___Keytermsand other bold ters inthe chapter ae defined in the end of book oss Amplification The process of inereasing the power, voltage, or current by electronic means. Base One ofthe semicomiuctor regions in a BIT. The base is very thin and lightly doped compared to the other regions Beta (8) The ratio of de collector eurent to de base current in a BIT; current gain from base 10 collector. BJT A bipolar junction transistor constructed with three doped semiconductor regions separated bby two pm junetions. Collector The largest of the three semiconductor regions of BIT. CutotT The nonconducting state of transistor. Emitter The: vst heavily dope ofthe Uuee semiconductor regions of a BIT, 24° LAR JUNCTION TRANSISTORS Gain The amount by which aa electrical signal is increased or amplified. Linear Characterized by a staight-line relationship of the transistor currents Phototransistor A transistor in which base current is produced when light strikes the photosenst- tive semiconductor base region, Saturation The state of a BIT in which the collector current has reached 1 maximum and is inde- pendent ofthe base current 410 helt+h ‘Transistor currents I 42 Bo = = DC current gain Ie 4 Base-to-emitter voltage (si 4 Base current 45 Collectorto-emiter voltage (common-emitter) 46 Collector-to-base voltage 47 “Approximate ac voltage gain 48 Cutoff condition +9 Collector saturation current esa 410 unin = ee Minimum base current for saturation 411 Te = Bool Phototransistor collector current 1. A bipolar junction tansisto: has three terminals, 2. The three regions of a BIT ate base, emitter, and cathode. 3. For operation inthe linear ct active repion, the base-emitter junction ofa transistor is forward biased. 4, Two types of BIT are npn and pnp. ', The base current and collecor current are approximately equal 6, The de voltage gain ofa trasistoris designated Boc. 7. Cunoff and saturation are the two normal tates ofa linear transistor amplifier 8, When a transistor is saturated, the collector curent is maximum, 9. Boe and hate two diferent transistor parameters. 10, Voltage gain of a transistor amplifier depends on the collector resistor and the internal ac resistance. 11, Amplification isthe output voltage divided by the input current 12, A transistor in cutoff acts as an open switch, ([GRCUFFACTION UIZ) hover ito stwnoarntperton/ont 1. Ifa transistor witha higher iy is used in Figure 4-9, the collector current will (a) increase (b) decrease (@) not change 2, Ifa transistor witha higher Bye is used in Figure 4-9, the emitter current will (@) increase (b) decnase_(€) not change SUMMARY OF TRANSISTOR BIAS CinculTs © 255 RUA OO Oke e ULL My Fe lowly 256 © Transistor Bias Cincurrs im Section 5-1 Section 5-2 Section 5-3 © ‘The purpose of biasing a crcit is to establish a proper stable de operating point (Q-point), © ‘The Q-point ofa circuits defined by specific values for fc and Veg. These vas are called the ‘coordinates of the Q-point © A de load line passes through the Q-point ona transistors collector curves intersecting the vert- cal axis at approximately cj) and the horizontal axis at Verio) © ‘The linear (active) operating region of a transistor lies along the load line below saturation and above eutof. © Loading effects are neglected fora stiff voltage divide © ‘The de input resistance a the base of a BJT is approximately BycRs. © Voltage-divider bias provides good Q-point stability with a single-polaity supply voltage, Ieis the most common bias circu. © Emitter bias generally provices good Q-point stability but requires both postive and negative supply voltages. © ‘The base bias circuit arrangement has poor stability because its Q-point varies widely with Bpc. © ‘Emitter-feedback bias combines base bias with the addition of an emitter resistor, © Collector feedback bias provides good stability using negative feedback from collector to base CKEY TERMS Kets other bold terms in the chapter ae defined in the endof-book glossary. DC load line A straight ine plot of fe and Veg for a transistor eiruit. Feedback ‘The process of returning a portion ofa circuit's output back to the input in such a way as to oppose or aid a change inthe output Linear region The region of operation along the load line between saturation and cuoft. Q-point The de operating (bias) point of an amplifier specified by voltage and current values. Stifr voltage divider A voltage divider for which loading effets can be neglected. Ps eeviN ‘Voltage-Divider Bias ie (eee eae aes sa enn = 54 Ve = Voc ~ leRe BoeVa SS Rixwasey = “Te Vir = Vow, 56 = 1 Re + Ril Boo =Vrw + Vee St hg ee Re + Rrn/Boc Vin + Vor ~ Yer se p= tee Re + Rru/Poc Emitter Bias ee a Re + Rs/Boc Cincurr-Action Quiz © 257 Base Bias, S410 Ver = Vee ~ FeRte Bu Ie= Poc( “= YF) Te EmitterFeedback Bias Vex By + R/Boo Collector Feedback Bias = Veo - Var Re + Bi/Boc S14 Vor = Veo ~ fokte TRUE/FALSE QUIZ _ Answers can be found at ww. pearsonhighered,comi/loy 1, DC bias establishes the de operating point for an amplifier. 2. Q-point isthe quadratic point in a bias circuit ‘3. The de load line intersects the horizontal axis of a transistor characteristic eurve at Vee = Vee: 44. The dc load line inteseets the vertical axis ofa transistor characteristic curve at fc = 0. 'S. The linear region of a transistors operation lies between saturation and cutoft. 16. Voltage divider bias is rarely used, ‘7. Input resistance atthe base ofthe transistor can afectvoltage-divier bias, 8, Stiff voltage-divider bis is essentially independent of base loading. 19 Emitter bias uses one de supply voltage 10, Negative feedback is employed in collector-feedback bias. 11, Base bias i less stable than voltage-divider bis, 12, A pnp transistor requires bias voltage polarities opposite to an npn transistor. ([EUREURTACTION QUIZ owen conte ds wrnperomtiphrecan 1 If Vapi Figure 5-7 is inereased, the Q-point value of collector current will (@) increase (b) decrease —_(€) not change 2. If Von in Figure 5-7 is increased, the Q-point value of Vex will (a) increase (b) decrease —_() not change 13 IF the value of Rin Figure 5-10 is reduced, the base voage will (@) increase () decrease (€) not change 44. Ifthe value of Ry in Figure 5-10 is increased, the emitter current will (a) increase (b) decrease _() not change 'S. IF Rp in Figure 5-15 is decreased, the collector current will (@) increase (b) decrease _(€) not change 6. IF Ry in Figure 5-18 isreduced, the base-to-emitter voltage will (a) increase (b) decrease —_(€) not change 7. I Voc in Figure 5-20’ inereased, the base-to-emitter voltage will (@) increase (b) decrease (€) not change ‘8 IFR, in Figure 5-24 opens, the collector voltage will (@) increase (b) decrease _(€) not change ‘9. IF Rp in Figure 5-24 opens, the collector voltage will (a) increase (b) decrease —_(€) not change 10, IF Ry in Figure $-24 isincreased, the emitter current will (@) increase (b) decrease (6) not change S12 ip SB Ie SUMMARY OF THE COMMON-EmITrER Ampuifien © 319) SUMMARY OF THE COMMON-EMITTER AMPLIFIER at the base. Output is at the collector. ‘a phase inversion from input to output. Care coupling capacitors forthe input and output signals. have a negligible reactance atthe frequency ‘so they appear as shorts, DC equivalent circuit AC equiv circuit 320 © BIT Ampuiriees ~ swamping resistor Rs She, AC equivalent circuit ETI ami Reo Ree mene nu ena juces the voltage gain. The smaller the the gain. SUMMARY OF COMMON-BASE AMPLIFIER * 321 AC equivalent creat AU meo ones wa earn! 322 © BIT Ampuriens Enna aaa enue a Section 61 Section 6-2 Section 6-3 Section 6-4 Section 6-5 Summary ¢ 323 "= Both input signals are the same phase, frequency, “and amplitude, -* Common-mode rejection ratio: ‘A-smnall-signal amplifier uses only a small portion of its load line under signal conditions. ‘The ac load line differs from the de load Tine because the effective ac collector resistance is less ‘than the de collector resistance. ‘rparameters are easily identifiable and applicable with a transistors circuit operation. ‘parameters are important because manufacturers’ datasheets specify transistors using k parameters, ‘A.common-emitter amplifier has high voltage, curent, and power gains, but relatively low input resistance. ‘Swamping is a method of stabilizing the voltage gain. ‘ A.common-colletor amplifier has high input resistance and high current gain, but is voltage tins approrimaely 1 ‘ADslington par provides beta multiplication for ineeased input resistance. ‘Acommon-collector anplir is known as an eminer-fllowet. “The common-base amplifier asa high volage gin, but thas very low input resistance and its curent gain is approsimately 1, ‘Common emit, comnon-cllector, nd common-base amplifier cofgurtons re summs- rized in Table 6-4. layer, whereas the gate and channel in aJFET are separated by apn junction © A depletion MOSFET (D-MOSFET) can operate with a zero, postive, or negative gate1o- source voltage © ‘Tho D-MOSFET has a physical channel between the drain and source. * Foran n-channel D-MOSFET, negative values of Vos produce the depletion mode and postive ‘values produce the enhancereent mode. © The enhancement MOSFET (E-MOSFET) has no physical channel Unlike JFETS and D-MOSFETs the E-MOSFET cannot operate with Vo ‘A channe! is induced in an E MOSFET by the application of Vos greater than the threshold valve, Vesa ‘An E-MOSFET has no Is parameter. It's extremely small, if specified (ideally 0, ‘An n-channel E-MOSFET his a positive Vasa A p-channel E-MOSFET has a negative Vos ‘Tho wansfer characteristic curve for a D- MOSFET intersects the verical Jp axis “The transfer characteristic curve for an E-MOSFET des not intrsct the fy axis. AAIIMOS devices are subjetto damage from electostati discharge (ESD), ‘Midpoint bias fora D-MOSEET is fp = Ipss obtained by seting Vos =O. “The gate ofa zero-biased D- MOSFET is at 0 V due toa large resistor to ground ‘An E-MOSFET must have aVes greater than the threshold vale. ‘The insulated-gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) combines the input characteristics of a MOSFET With the ourpat characteristics of @ BIT. ‘The IGBT has three terminal: emiter, gate, and collector. IGBTS are used in high-voltege switching applications. Section 8-9 An open gate is hard to detect in a zero-biased D-MOSFET because the gate is normally at V; however, erratic behavior mey occur * Anopen gate is easy to detect in an E-MOSFET because the gate is normally ta voltage other than OV. KEY TERMS Key terms and oer ol ters in th hater ate defn in the end of book sa Depletion In a MOSFET, the process of removing or depleting the channel of charge carriers and thus decreasing the channel conductivity Drain One of the three terminals of a FET analogous tothe collector of a BIT, Enhancement In a MOSFET, the process of creating a channel or increasing the conductivity of ‘the channel by the addition of ckarge carriers. Gate One ofthe thee terminals of a FET analogous tothe base of a BIT. Section 8-6 Section 8-7 see eesene Section 8-8 oe Cincurr-Action Quiz * 437 IGBT Insulated-gate bipolar transistor; a device that combines features of the MOSFET and the [BIT and used mainly for high-voltage switching applications, JFET Junction field-effest transistor; one of two major types of field-effect transistors. MOSFET Metal oxide semiconductor field-effect transistor; one of two major types of FETS; sometimes called IGFET fer insulated-gate FET, Ohmic region The portion ofthe FET characteristic curve lying below pinch-off in whieh Ohm's law applies. Pineh-off voltage The value of the drain-to-source voltage of a FET at which the drain current ‘becomes constant when the gate-to-source voltage is zero. Source One ofthe three terminals of a FET analogous to the emiter of @ BIT, ‘Transconductance (fq) The ratio of @ change in drain current to a change in gate-o-source volt age ina FET. Ves)? #1 p& hs(1 - JFET/D-MOSFET transfer characteristic Vasa Ye 82 en = en( 1 - 2) Transondictnce Vesa pss #3 ene ‘Transconductnceat Ves = 0 Wes] 84 Ip = KiVes — Vesan)? E-MOSFET transfer characteristic TRUE/FALSE QUIZ ___ avers can be found at www.pearsonhighered.com/floyd. 1. The JFET always operstes with a reverse biased gate-to-souree pn junction 2. ‘The channel resistance ofa JFET is a constant. 13 The gateto-source volage ofan n-channel JFET must be negative, 4. Ip becomes ze atthe pinch-off voltage. 'S. Vos has no effect om fp. {6 Vescon) and Vp are always equal in magnitude but opposite in polarity 7, The JPET isa square-aw device because ofthe mathematical expression teristic curve, ‘8, Forward transconductance is the change in drain voltage for a given change in gate voltage. 9. ‘The parameters gy any are the same. 10. The D-MOSFET can te operated in two modes. 11, An E-MOSFET operats in the depletion mode. 12, A_D-MOSFET has a piysical channel and an E-MOSFET has an induced channel. 13, ESD means electronic semiconductor device. 14, MOSFETs must be handled with care, transfer charac can be found at www.pearsonhighered.com/loyd, 1. Ifthe drain current in Figure 8-17 is increased, Vp will (@) increase (b) decrease (©) not change 2. Ifthe drain curent in Figure 8-17 is increased, Vos will (a) increase (b) decrease _(@) not change FIGURE 9-53 ‘configuration of the active antenna ina metal housing cover removed) with a 9V battery ard an impedance: ‘matching transformer. EM asmaai wea IPED Sefftias SUMMARY OF FET Ampuiricns © 491 E-MOSFET Voltagesdvidr bias Yoo (Ves ~ Vasu)” "AY Bae v sre RLF) reas 492 © FET Ampuriens anp SwirckiNe Cincurts SUMMARY OF FET SWITCHING CincurTS * 493 SUMMARY OF FET SWITCHING CIRCUITS I 494 © FET Ampuriens anD SwircHING Cincurts POOR Section 9-1 Section 9-2 Section 9-3, Section 9-4 Section 9-5 Section 9-6 “© The transconductance, ggg of 4 FET relates the output current, to the input voltage, Voy © The voltage gain of a commen-source amplifier is determined largely by the transconductance, nm tnd the drain resistance, Ry ‘© The internal drain-to-source resistance, r,, ofa FET influences (reduces) the gain if it sufficiently greater than R, so that it ean be neplected. ‘An unbypassed resistance between source and ground (R,) reduces the voltage gain of a FET amplifier, ‘A load resistance connected the drain of a common-source amplifier reduces the voltage gui, “There isa 180° phase inversion between gate and drain voltages. ‘The input resistance atthe gete of a FET is extremely high. ‘The voltage gain of a commcn-drain amplifier (source-follower) is always slightly less than 1 ‘There is no phase inversion tetween gate and source in a source-follower. ‘The input resistance ofa common-gate amplifier isthe reciprocal of fy, ‘The cascode amplifier combines a CS amplifier and a CG amplifier. ‘The class D amplifier isa nonlinear amplifier because the transistors operate as switches. ‘The class D amplifier uses pulse-width modulation (PWM) to represent the input signal. A low-pass filter converts the PWM signal back to the original input signal ‘The efficiency of a class D amplifier approaches 100%. An analog switch passes or blocks an analog signal when turned on or off by digital contro input A sampling circuit isan analpg switch that is tumed on for short time intervals to allow a suffi- cient number of discrete inpet signal values to appear on the output so that the input signal can ‘be accurately represented by those discrete values. ‘An analog multiplexer consists of two or more analog switches that connect sampled portions of ‘their analog input signals tos single output in time sequence. ‘Switched-capacitors are used to emulate resistance in programmable IC analog arrays. ‘Complementary MOS (CMOS) is used in low-power digital switching cireuits. ‘CMOS uses an n-channel MOSFET and a p-channel MOSFET connected in series. ‘The inverter, NAND gate, ani NOR gate are examples of digital logic circuits. not Coe eee eeroee @ ° eoee KEY TERMS Key terms and other bold terms nthe chapter are defined inthe endo book ssa. ‘Analog switch A device tha switches an analog signal on and off. Class D A nonlinear amplifier in which the transistors are operated as switehes. (CMOS Complementary MOS. ‘Common-drain A FET amplifier configuration in which the drain isthe grounded terminal ‘Common-gate A FET amplifier configuration in which the gate is the grounded terminal. ‘Common-source A FET ampifier configuration in which the source isthe grounded terminal. Pulse-width modulation A process in which a signal is converted toa series of pulses with widths that vary proportionally tothe signal amplitude. Souree-follower The commor-drain amplifier. ER ‘Common-Source Amplifier 91 Ay = Bay ‘Voltage gain with source grounded or R, bypassed IoRs Vest Self-biased JFET current ee Cincurt-Action Quiz + 495 93 take Votuge gain % San, Ro i(722) Tnputreslatance, self-bias and zero-blas Tess. 9S Rin = Rill RDNRincque) Input resistance, voltage-divider bias Common-Drain Amplifier 06 A cous 6 Votage gain 9-7 R= Ro IRiveu Input resistance Common-Gate Amplifier 98 A= enke Vote gin 1 9-9 Ri = Int resistance be MOSFET Analog Switching o10 Emulate resistance CTRUE/FALSE QUIZ Answers can be found at ww. peasonhighered,com yd. 1. A common-source (CS) amplifier has very high input resistance. 2, The drain current in & CS amplifier can be calculated using a quadratic formula, 3. The voltage gain of « CS amplifier isthe transconductance times the source resistance. 4. There is no phase inversion in a CS amplitir. 5. ACCS amplifier using » D-MOSFET can operate with both positive and negative input voltages. 6 A.common-drain (CD) amplifiers called a drain-follower 1 i 9. . The input resistance of a CD amplifier is very low. The input resistance of a common-gate (CG) amplifier is very low. . A cascode amplifier uses both a CS and a CG amplifier 10, The class D amplifier lways operates in the linear region, AL, The lass D amplifier wes pulse-width modulation 412, An analog switch is controlled by a digital input 13, The purpose of a switched-capacitor circuit isto emulate resistance. 14, CMOS isa device used in linear amplifiers. 15, CMOS utilizes a pnp MOSFET and an npn MOSFET connected together [EIRCUTTACTION QUIZ _snnen-an enna nnipaninieeconsd D TFeaT Susie seers reser (@) increase (b) decrease (©) not change ee oes sig uae aig cs ave a Fy a Uncen Ba aes ree ka I oo (a) increase (b) decrease (©) not change 4. Irthe value of Rg in Figure 9-9 is increased, Vos will @) deurcase ©) 554 © AMPUFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE 6. What would be the approximate rms amplitude of the output waveform at 300 Hz? 7. Based on the oseilloscope measurement in Figure 10-55, express the voltage gain at kHz in dB, 8. Based on the oscilloscope measurement in Figure 10-55, express the voltage gain at 60 Hz in dB. -isv #5V 45 mV peak input sigeal ——} Output a 5 kite Output at 60 Hz A FIGURE 10-55 Frequency test of new preamp beard using an escillescope. SUMMARY Section 10-1 ® The coupling and bypass capacitors of an amplifier affect the low-frequency response ‘The internal transistor capacitances affect the high-frequency response. Section 10-2. ® The decibel is a logarithmic unit of measurement for power gain and voltage A decrease in voltage gain 1 70.7% of midrange value isa reduction of 3 dB, A halving of the voltage gain comresp ‘The dBanis au nd toa reduction of 6 dB. peeeee for weasut power levels efescuved to 1 aiW, Section 10-3 Section 10-4 Section 10-5 Section 10-6 Section 10-7 Key Formutas ¢ 555 Critical frequencies are values of frequency at which the RC circuits reduce the voltage gain to 70.7% of its midrange value. Bach RC circuit causes the gain to drop ata rate of 20 dBhdecude, © For the low-frequency KC circuit, the highest critical frequency is the dominant critical frequency. © A decade of frequency change is a ten-times change (increase or decrease), * Anoctave of frequency change isa two-times change (increase or decrease). For the high-frequency RC circuits, the Iowestcritial frequency isthe dominant critical Frequency. '® The bandwidth of an amplifiers the range of frequencies between the dominant lower critical frequency and the dominant upper critical frequency. '® The gain-bandwidth product is a transistor parameter that is constant and equal to the unity-gain ‘frequency. ‘The dominant critical frequencies of a multistage amplifier establish the bandwidth * ‘Two frequency response measurement methods are frequency/amplitude and sep. CKEVTERMS _key terms and other bold terms in the chapter are defined in the end-ot book glossary. Bandwidth The characteristic of certain types of electronic circuits that specifies the usable range ‘of frequencies that pass from input to output Bode plot An idealized graph of the gain in dB versus frequency used to graphically illustrate the response of an amplifier or filter. Critical frequeney The frequency at which the response of an amplifier or filter is 3 dB less than. at midrange. Decade A ten-times increase or decrease in the value of a quantity such as frequency, Decibel A logarithmic measure ofthe ratio of one power to another or one voltage to another. Midrange gain ‘The gainthat occurs for the range of frequencies between the lower and upper crit. ical frequencies. Roll-off ‘The rate of decrease inthe gain of an amplifier above or below the critical frequencies. EE ‘Miller's Theorem 10-1 Ciypnitey = ClAy + 1) Miller input capacitance, where C = Cpe 0F Cys 10-2 Conpenes Miller output capacitance, where C= Cyc ot Cpa The Decibel 10-3 Power gain in decibels 10-4 Voltage gain in decibels R 04 Agu = Mirange vtage gin 10-6 fotinpary = rec Lower critical frequency, input RC circuit wr o= anA(20 Phase angle, input RC circuit = owi(% ase angle, input RC i 1 108 fama = FRE RG Lower critical frequency, ousput RC circuit 556 © ANLIFIER FREQUENCY RESPONSE FET Amplifier Low-Frequency Response L Der RG || Rinigate Cr -a(Xer eas = wo(22) W012 Senn = 1 Bay + RDC [BJT Amplifier High-Frequency Response 1 1016 Seaton = DR ARNG Bact 11 Ra| tos 0= g(a Bae 1 118 Saioura) = FR Eeoma, 9 ose) XC FET Amplifier High-Frequency Response 10-20 ye = Co W021 Cy = Cn ~ C, 10-22 Ca = Can ~ Cos j 023 Senin) = FAT at a= wen( 2) ae ama Ee 1 10-25 fewourat = RE anna, wae os w(t) a “Total Response 10-27) BW = few — fet 10-28 fy = AvmigBW ‘Multistage Response 10-29 Sind, = tie Vara Phase angle, output RC circuit Resistance looking in at emiter Lower critical frequency, bypass RC circuit Lower critical frequency, input RC ereuit Phase angle, input RC cireuit Lower critical frequency, output RC circuit Phase angle, output RC circuit Upper critical frequency, input RC circuit Phase angle, input RC circuit Upper critical frequency, output RC circuit Phase angle, output RC circuit Gate-to-drain capacitance Gate-to-source capacitance Drain-to-source capacitance Upper critical frequency, input RC circuit Phase angle, input RC circuit Upper critical frequency, output RC eiuit Phase angle, output RC circuit Bandwidth Unity-gain bandwidth Overall dominant lower critical frequency for case of equal dominant critical fre- quencies Cincurt-Acrion Quiz * 557 10-30 Fost) = Seti V2 = 1 Overl dominant upper crcl regueny for case of equal dominance freencies ‘Measurement Techniques wat fa = ‘Upper crea fequeney wn y= XS Lower critica frequency 1. Coupling capacitors inan amplifier determine the low-frequency response. 2, Bypass capacitors in an amplifier determine the high-frequency response. 3. Intermal transistor capacitance has no effect on an amplifiers frequency response 4. Miler’s theorem states that both gain and intemal capacitances influence high-frequency response. 5, The midrange gain i tetween the upper and lower critical frequencies. ‘The critical frequency is where the gain is 6 dB less than the midrange gain. . dBm is a unit for measuring power levels. 3. A ten-times change in requency is called a decade, 1. An octave corresponds 1 a doubling or halving ofthe frequency. ). The input and output RC circuits have no effect on the frequency response. ‘A Bode plot shows the voltage gain versus frequency on a logarithmic scale. 3. Phase shift is part of an amplifiers frequency response. _CIRCUIT-ACTION QUIZ _ Answers can be found at wn.parsonhigheredcom/oyd. 1. If the value of R in Figure 10-8 is increased, the signal voltage atthe base will (a) increase (b) decrease (€) not change 2, Ifthe value of C; in Figure 10-27 is decreased, the critical frequency associated with the input ircuit will (@) increase (b) decrease _(€) not change 3. Ifthe value of Ry in Figure 10-27 is increase, the voltage gain will (a) increase (b) decrease (€) not change 4. IF the value of Rcin Figure 10-27 is decreased, the voltage gain will (@) increase (b) decrease (€) not change 5. If Voc in Figure 10-34is increased, the de emitter voltage will (@) increase (b) deerease —_(€) not change 6 Ir the wansstorin Figure 10-34 s replaced with one having a higher By the crical frequency wil (@) increase (b) decrease _(€) not change 7. Ite transistor in Figure 10-34 is replaced with one having a lower fi. the midrange voltage in will (@) increase (b) decrease (€) not change 8 IF the value of Rp in Figure 1042s increased, the voltage gain will (@) increase (b) derease—_(€) not change 9. the value of R, in Figure 10-42 is increased, the erica frequency wil (@) increase (b) decrease (€) not change 10, IF the FET in Figure 10-42 is replaced with one having a higher gj the eel requeney wil (@) incase (b) decicase (©) not change 594 © Tuvristors nav 1202 ‘Simulates ood of motor (@) Test of board | (Test of board 2 (@)Testof boa FIGURE 11-51 9, Determine the problem, if any, in each of the board tests in Figure 11-51. 10. List possible causes of any problem from item 9.? ETI Ga me SO 1 tO ttt OT (os tayerdiode (W)SCR(LASCR (Disc (Tine SCS UIT — PUT Key Formutas 595 Section 11-1 Section 11-2 Section 11-4 Section 11-5 Section 11-6 Section 11-7 ‘ ‘Thyristors are devices emsructed with four semiconductor layers (pnp). ‘Thyristors include 4-layer diodes, SCRs, LASCRs, dics, triacs, SCSs, and PUT * The 4-layer diode is a tyristor that conducts when the voltage across is terminals exceeds the breakover potential ‘ The silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) can be triggered on by a pulse atthe gate and turned off by reducing the anode carent below the specified holding value. Light acts as the trigger source in ligh-atvated SCRs (LASCR). ‘The die can conduet current in either diection and is tumed on when a breakover voltage is ‘exceeded. It turns off wien the curret drops below the holding value. * The ic, ike the dic, sa idiestonal device tcan be tured on by a pulse a the gate and ‘conducts in a dretion depending on the voltage polarity across the two anode terminals ‘ The silicon-conrolled saitch (SCS) has two gate terminals and canbe turned on bya pulse at the cathode gate and ture off by apse atthe anode gate ‘ The intinsiestndot ato ofa unijunetion transistor (UST) determines the voltage at which the exe wil trigger on The programmable unijanction transistor (PUT) canbe exterally programmed to turn on ata desired anode-to-gate voltage level, . CKEYTERMS and other bold terms inthe chapter are defined in the end-of book glossa Dine A two-terminal fourlayer semiconductor device (thyristor) that ean conduct current in either direction when properly acivated. Forward-breakover voltage (Vpxir;)_ The voltage at which a device enters the forward blocking region, A-layer diode The type of two-terminal thyristor that conducts current when the anode-to-catbode voltage reaches a specified “breakover” value. Holding current (fy) Tue value of the anode current below which a device switches from the {Forward conduction region to the forward-blocking region, LASCR Light activated silicon-controlled rectifier; a four-layer semiconductor device (thyristor) that conducts current in one direction when activated by a sufficient amount of light and continues to conduct until the current falls below a specified value. PUT _ Programmable unijnction transistor, atype of three-terminal thyristor (more like an SCR than. ‘4 UST) thats tiggered into conduction when the voltage atthe anode exceeds the voltage at the gate SCR_ Silicon-controlled rctifir; a type ofthree-erminal thyristor that conducts current when tig ‘gered on by a voltage atthe single gate terminal and remains on uotil the anode current falls below a specified value. SCS _ Silicon-controlled switch; a type of four terminal thyristor that has two gate terminals that are used to trigger the device on and off. Standoff ratio ‘The characteristic of a UIT that determines its turn-on point ‘Thyristor A class of fourlayer (pmpn) semiconductor devices. ‘Triae A three-terminal thyristor tht can conduct current in either direction when properly activated. UIT Unijunction transisior; a three-terminal single pn junction device that exhibits a negative resistance characteristic. pesca rh ite UST intrinsic standoff ratio Vp = Van + Vou UIT peak-point voltage 650 © THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER SUMMARY OF OP-AMP CONFIGURATIONS Ierting__PS input Nonieveting input Summary ¢ 651 ‘summary Section 12-1 Section 12-2 Section 12-3 Section 12-4 Section 12-5 Section 12-6 Section 12-7 Section 12-8 * oe seeoe oe sees . oe eeeeee eoee ‘The basic op-amp has three terminals not including power and ground: inverting (~) input, noninverting (+) input, and output A differential amplifier forms the input stage ofan op amp. “Most op-amps require both a positive and a negative de supply voltage. ‘The ideal op-amp has ifinite input impedance, zero outpot impedance, infinite open-loop voltage gain, and infinite bandwidth ‘A practical op-amp has very high input impedance, very low output impedance, and very high ‘open-loop voltage gain. ‘Two types of op-amp input operation are the differential mode and the common mode. ‘Common made occurs when equal in-phase vollages are applied to both input terminals. ‘The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR) is a measure of an op-amp’s ability to reject ‘common-mode inputs ‘Open-loop voltage gainis the gain of an op-amp wi Inpot offset voltage produces an output error voltage (with no input voltage. Inpot bias current also produces an output error voltage (with no inpat voltage). Input oftset current i the difference between the two bias currents ro external feedback connections Slew rte isthe rate in vols per microsecond at which the output voltage of an op-amp can ‘change in response to a step input Noise degrades the performance of an amplifier by the introduction of an unwanted signal Negative feedback ocews when a portion of the output voltage is connected back to the inverting input such tha it subtracts from the input voluge, thus reducing the voltage gain but increasing the stability an bandwidth, ‘There ate three basic op-amp configurations: inverting, noninverting, and voltage-follower, ‘The three basic op-amp configurations employ negative feedback, Closed-loop voltage gain isthe gain of an op-amp with extemal feedback. ‘A noninverting amplifier configuration has « higher input impedance and a lower output impedance than the op-amp itself (without feedback) ‘An inverting amplifier configuration has an input impedance approximately equal tothe input resistor ‘Rrand an output impedaree approximately equal tothe output impedance ofthe op-amp itself ‘The voltage-follower has the highest input impedance and the lowest output impedance of the three amplifier configurations. {All practical op-amps have small input bias currents and input ofiset voltages that produce small ‘output error voltages ‘The input bias curent effect can be compensated for with external resistors, ‘The input offset voltage can be compensated for with an external potentiometer berwcen the two offset null pins provided on the IC op amp package and as recommended by the manufacture. ‘The closed-loop voltage gain is always les than the open-loop voltage gain. ‘The midrange gain of an op-amp extends down to de. ‘The gain of an op-amp decreases as frequency increases above the critical frequency. ‘The bandwidth of an op-amp equals the upper critical frequency. “The open-loop response curve of a compensated op amp rolls off at ~20 dBdecade above ‘The internal RC lag circuits that are inherently pat of the amplifier stages cause the gain roll off as Frequency goes up. ‘The intemal RC lag circuits also cause a phase shift between input and output signals. [Negative feedback lowers the gain and increases the bandwidth ‘The product of gain and bandwidth is constant fora given op-amp. ‘The gain-bandwidth preduct equals the frequency at which unity voltage gain occurs. 652 © THE OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER CKEYTERMS Key terms and other bold terms in the chapter are defined inthe end of book glossary. ‘Closed-loop voltage gain (A,,) The voltage guin of an op-amp with external feedback. MRR Common-mode rejection ratio; the ratio of open-loop gain to common-mode ga ‘measure of an op-amp's ability © reject common-mode signals. ‘Common mode A condition characterized by the presence of the same signal on both op-amp inputs Differential amplifier A typeof amplifir with two inputs and two outputs that is used as the input stage of an op amp, Differential mode A mode ofop-amp operation in which two opposite-polarity signal voltages are applied tothe to inputs (double-ended) or in which a signal is applied to one input and ground to the other input (single-ended) Gain-bandwidth produet A constant parameter which is always equal to the frequency at which the op-ump's open-loop gain i enity (I). Inverting amplifier An op-anp closed-loop con the inverting input. [Negative feedback The process of retuming a portion of the output signal tothe input of an am- plifier such that it is out of phase with the input signal Noninverting amplifier An o9-amp closed-loop configuration in which the inpt signal is applied to the noninverting input Open-toop voltage gain (4) ‘The voltage gain ofan op-amp without external feedback. Operational amplifier (op-amp) A type of amplifier that has very high voltage gain, very high input impedance, very low output impedance, and good rejection of common-mode signals. Phase shift The relative angular displacement of a time-varying function relative toa reference. Slew rate The rate of change ofthe output voltage of an op-amp in response toa step input. Yoltage-follower A closed-loep, noninverting op amp with a voltage gui of uration in which the input signal is applied to ESS ‘Op-Amp Input Modes and Parameters na Common-mode ejetion ratio na ‘Common mode rejection 0 (4B) hth : 23 tus = Ath Input bis coment 12-4 Jos = Ih he Input ost coment 12-5 Vos = lose Offset votage 12-6 — Vowrierroe) = AyosRin Output error voltage Vout 127 Stewrate = S¥a Sew rate a op-Amp Configurations % 8 Aggy 214% Vag ein converting) 12-9 Agvp = 1 Voltage gain (voltage-follower) a 12410 Ag = — Voltage gain (inverting) Ri Cincurt-Acrion Quiz + 653 ‘Op-Amp impedances TAL Zana) = + ABZ Input impedance (noninverting) Zant ; 2 Zann = Tg Output impedance (noninverting) TAS Zagyny = + AadEin Input impedance (voltage follower) Zou W146 Zewern = 7 + dap Output impedance (voltage-follower) TAS Zing) R; Input impedance (inverting) my : 6 tu = EG ‘Output impedance (inverting) ‘Op-Amp Frequency Responses AT BW = fy Op-amp bandwith Vout 1 1g et = 4 ‘RC attenuation Ya Vie Pin Anion 29 Ay = loop voltage gain we Open: loop voltage gsi na os -w(L) ae 1221 faa = Sol + BAstais)) Closed oop excl frequency 12-22 BWey = BWy(l + BAstinis)) (Closed-Loop bandwidth 1223 fy = Aafea Unity gain bandvitn CTRUE/FALSE QUIZ ___Aaswers ane fund t won pearsonhighere.com/oy 1. An ideal op-amp has aa infinite input impedance. 2, AAn ideal op-amp has a very high output impedance. '3. The op-amp can operate in both the differential mode or the common mode. 4. Common-mode rejection meuns tht a signal appearing on both inputs is effectively cancelled 5. CMRR stands for common-mode rejection reference. 6, Slew rate determines how fast the output can change in response to a step input 7. Negative feedback reduces the gain of an op-amp from its open-loop value. 8, Negative feedback reduces the bandwidth of an op-amp from its open-loop value. 9. A noninverting amplifier uses negative feedback. 10, The gain of a voltage-flloweris very high, 11, Negative feedback affects the input and output impedances of an op-amp. 12, A compensated op-amp as & gain roll-off of ~20 dBidecade above the critical frequency. 13, The guin-bandwidth product equals the unity-gain frequency. 14, IF the feedback resistor in an inverting amplifier opens, the gain becomes zero. CIRCUIT-ACTION QUIZ _Answerscan be found at wow parsonhigheedcom/oyd. IF Ryis decreased inthe circuit of Figure 12-18, the voltage gan wil (@ increase (b) decrease (©) not change 2. 1fViq = L mV and Ry-cpens inthe cixeuit of Figure 12-18, the output voltage will (@) incase (b) decrease (©) not change Summary oF ComPARATORS AND Op-AMp Cigcurts * 707 SUMMARY OF COMPARATORS AND OP-AMP CIRCU Input Oupa aie Ly] pu | oni R, toga Bs Zero-level detector Reference br Nonzero-level detector Vaiss (Vex +07 V) Bounded comparator Comparator with hystererie y= R= R= y= = -(Wini + Vina + Viva + ++ Vin) 2 evn) 708 © Basic Or-Ame Cincurts & = Output voltage: v Vout ("Jn = Slope of output voltage: f Vou Vin = Vo=Vn ar RC Section 13-1 Inan op-amp comparator, when the input voltage exceeds a specified reference voltage, the out- put changes state, © ‘Hysteresis gives an op-amp noise immunity. ® A comparator switches to one state when the input reaches the upper trigger point (UTP) and back to the other state when ihe input drops below the lower trigger point (LTP). © The difference between the UTP and the LTP is the hysteresis voltage. Bounding limits the output amplitude of a comparator. Section 13-2 The output voltage of a summing amplifier is proportional to the sum ofthe input voltages. © An averaging amplifier is « summing amplifier with closed-loop gain equal to the reciprocal of ‘the number of inputs ‘© Ima scaling adder, a different weight can be assigned to each input, thus making the input ‘contribute more or contibute less to the output Section 13-3 @ Integration is a mathematical process for determining the area under a curve ‘© Imegration ofa step input produces a ramp output with a slope proportional to the amplitude. * Differentiation is a mathematical process for determining the rate of change of a function. n of a ramp input produces a step output with an amplitude proportional othe slope, CKEYTERMS Key terms and other bold terms in the chapter are defined inthe endof-book glossary. Bounding The proces of limiting the ouput range of an amplifier or otber creat Comparator A circuit that cempares two input voltages and produces an output in either of two states indicating the greater than or less than relationship of the inputs, Differentiator A circuit that produces an output which approximates the instantaneous rate of change of the input function, Hysteresis Characteristic of acitcuit in which two different trigger levels create an offset or lag in the switching action, Integrator A circuit that produces an output which approximates the area under the curve of the input funetion. Schmitt trigger A comparator wth buil-in hysteresis. Summing amplifier An op-anp configuration with two or more inputs that produces an output ‘voltage thet is proportional to the negative of the algebraic sum ofits input voltages, ‘Summing Amplifier 13-4 Vour = —(Wan + Vine + & 13-5 Your = am + Vin + + Vann) Ry Ry &, 46 ton = -(Zrm + s eT RUE SUS oceans |. The output of a comparator has two states. Cincurt-Action Quiz + 709 Upper trigger point Lower trigger point Hysteresis voltage input adder Adder with gain va toes Bing) Stiga it in Integrator output rate of ‘change Differentiator output voltage with ramp input 2. The reference voltage on a comparator input establishes the gain. 1 2 3. Hysteresis incorporates positive feedback. 4. A comparator with hytress has two trigger points 5. Asumming amplifier can have more than two inputs 6. The gain of a summing amplifier must always be unity (1). 7. DAC stands for digital 1o-analog comparator. 8. An IQR ladder cireutis one form of DAC. 9. An integrator produces a ramp when a step input is applied, 10, In. practical imegrato, a resistor is connected across the capacitor 11, When a triangular waveform is applied toa differential a sine wave appears on the output. 12, Ina practical differentiator, a resistor is connected in series [EIRCUTEACTION QUIZ Anes canbe nnd a wnseneniiretonto. withthe capacitor, (@) increase (0) decrease (€) not change TER, opens in the comparator of Figure 13-3, the output voltage amplitude will 2. In the trigger circuit of Figure 13-9, if Ry is decreased to SOKO, the upper trigger-point voltage will (@) imicase —(b) devtease (©) nee 754 © Speciat-Punpost Op-Amp Cincutrs A FIGURE 14-52 Waveform measurement with a 10 mV comparator hysteresis. PAM Experiment ‘To program, download, and tes circuit using AnadigmDesigner? software and the programmable analog module (PAM) board, go Experiment 14-B in Laboratory Exercises for Electronic Devices by David Buchla and Steven Wetterling. SUMMARY Section 14-1 Section 14-3, Section 14-4 © A basic insteumentation again-seting resistor Ra, + An instrumentation amplifier has high input impedance, high CMR, low output offset, and low output impedance, © The voltage gain of abasic instrumentation amplifier is set by a single external resistor fer is formed by three op-amps and seven resistors, including the * An instrumentation amplific ms where smalls ‘common-mode noise, A basic isolation amplifier has electrically isolated input and output stages. Isolation amplifier use capacitive, optical, or transformer coupling for isolation ‘Isolation amplifiers are used to interface sensitive equipment with high-voltage em and to provide protection From electrical shock in certain medical applications. '® The operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) is voltage-to-current amplifier. ‘© The output current of an OTA is the input voltage times the transconductance, ® Iman OTA, transconductance varies with bias current; therefore, the gain of an OTA can be var ied with « bias voltage ofa variable resistor. jis useful in appli nals are embedded in large '* The operation of log and antilog amplifiers is based on the nonlinear (logarithmic) characteris- ties of apn junction, * A.log amplifier has a pn junction in the feedback loop, and an antilog amplifier has a pe june: tion in series with the input. Key Formutas ¢ 755 Section 14-5 A constant-curent sour delivers the same load current regardless of load resistance (within limits), ‘ Ima peak detector, an op-amp is used as a comparator to charge a capacitor through a diode to the pak vale of the fpat voltage. Ii useful in measuring peak voltage surges. CKEYTERMS _key terms and other bold terms in the chapter are defined in the end-ot book glossary. Instrumentation amplifier mode voltages ‘Anamplifier used for amplifying small signals riding on lage common Isolation amplifier An anplifir with electrically isolated internal stages. ‘Natural logarithm The exponent to which the base e(e ‘equal a given quantity 2.71828) must be raised in order to Operational transconductance amplifier (OTA) A voliage-to-current amplifier ‘Transconduetance In anclectronic device, the ratio of the output current tothe input voltage. ET Instrumentation Amplifier Ma Ag Wa Re Isolation Amplifier Rn 43 way Ry Ra 4 ane 2° Ra 14-5 = fe Seer rye 4-6 Bm = Kins Log and Antilog Amplifiers Tek: ima) WoT Vou = Kina t= omar 8) 9 Yar = 08¥0( 10 Vou ® ~Rytenoanton (52>) Converters and Other Op-Amp Circuits wen = = 1412 Vow = Ry wh, Constant-current source ‘Current-to-voltage converter Voltage-to-current converter Summary ¢ 797 contains an amplifier with gain, the amplifier in the RFID reader circuit has less gain than ifa 1 mV ASK signal were available. Also the retiier and low-pass filter are combined in one CAM. FPAA2 is used asa signal yource to replicate a 125 kHz carier modulated witha 10 kHz square wave. This chip is for test purposes only and is not part ofthe RFID reader Analysis: The simulation ofthe RFID reader is shown in Figure 15-41, The top waveform isthe ‘output of the 125 kHz bane-pass filter CAM and is an ASK input signal representing a digital 1 fol- lowed by a0. The second waveform isthe output of the inverting gain stage CAM with a unity ‘gain. The third waveform isthe output ofthe half-wave rectfier/low-pas filter CAM. The bottom ‘output is the digital signal from the comparator. ta mete (Cor A FIGURE 15-5 ‘Simulation waveforms for the RFID reader. Pro} Exerc rami |. Why is a software program the best way to specify and implement active filters? 2. List the filter types available inthe AnadigmFilter software, 3. List the filter approximations available in the AnadigmFilter software PAM Experiment ‘To program, download, and test a circuit using AnadigmDesigner? software and the programmable : analog module (PAM) board, go to Experiment 15-B in Laboratory Exercises for Electronic Devices by David Buchla ani Steven Wettrling. SUMMARY. Section 15-1 In filter terminology, a single RC circuit is called a pole. ‘The bandwidth in a low-pass filter equals the critical frequency because the response extends oO He + ‘The passbuin of a high;pess fier eatends above the critical fequeacy and is limited ouly by the inherent frequency limitation of the active citcuit. 798 © Active Fitrens Section 15-2 Section 15-3 Section 15-4 Section 15-5 Section 15-6 Section 15-7 © A band: pass filter passes all Frequencies within a band between a lower and an upper critical fre- ‘quency and rejects all others outside this band, '® The bandwidth of a band-pass filter isthe difference between the upper critical frequency and the lower critical frequency. The quality factor Q of a band-pass filter determines the filter’ selectivity. The higher the Q, the narrower the bandwidth and he beter the selectivity © A band:stop filter rejects all Frequencies within a specified band and passes all those outside tis band. ‘Filters with the Butterworth response characteristic have a very flat response in the passband, exhibit a roll-off of ~20 dB decade/pole, and are used when all the frequencies inthe passband must have the same gai. “© Filters with the Chebyshev characteristic have ripples or overshoot in the passband and exhibit a faster roll-off per pole than fters with the Butterworth characteristic. “© Filters with the Bessel characteristic are used for filtering pulse waveforms. Their linear phase ‘characteristic results in minimal waveshape distortion. The roll-off rate per pole is slower than forthe Butterworth, Each pole in a Butterworth fter causes the output to roll off at arate of ~20 4B decade. ‘The damping factor determires the filter response characteristic (Butterworth, Chebyshev, oF Besse Single-pole low-pass filters tave a —20 dB /decade roll-off ‘The Sallen-Key low-pass filer has two poles (second order) and has a ~40 dB/decade roll-off, ach additional iter in a cascaded arrangement adds ~20 dB tothe roll-off rate Single-pole high-pass filters ave a ~20 dB /decade roll-off ‘The Sallen-Key high-pass filer has two poles (second ordet) and has « —40 dB(deacde roll-off Each addtional filter in a cascaded arrangement adds ~20 dB tothe roll-off rate ‘The response ofan active high-pass filter is limited by the internal op-amp roll-off Bandpass fillers passa specified band of frequencies. ‘A band-pass filter can be achieved by cascading a low-pass and a high-pass filter ‘The multiple-feedback band. pass filter uses two Feedback paths to achieve is response characteristic. ‘The state-variable band-pass filter uses a summing amplifier and two integrators. ‘The biquad filter consists ofan integrator followed by an inverting amplifier and a second imegrator. Band:-stop filters reject a specified band of frequencies. '® Muliple-feedback and state-variable are common types of band-stop filters. ‘© ‘Filter response can be measured using discrete point measurement or swept frequency measurement. oe eee eerenes oe KEY TERMS ___Keyterms ad other bold terms nthe chapter are defined inthe eno book ssa Band-pass filter A (ype of filer that passes a range of frequencies lying berween a certain lower Trequency and a certain higher frequency. Band-stop filter A type of filler that blocks or rejects a range of frequencies lying between a cer- tain lower frequency and a certain higher frequency. Damping factor A filter charvteristic that determines the type of response. Filter A circuit that passes certain frequencies and attenuates or rejects all other frequencies. High-pass Milter A type of filer that passes frequencies above a certain frequency while ejecting lower frequencies. Low-pass filler A type of filer that passes frequencies below a certain frequency while reject ales fleyuenies. TRUE/FALSE Quiz * 799 Pole _A circuit containing one resistor and one capacitor that contributes ~20 dB/decade wo filter's rlhoff rate Roll-off ‘The rate of decrease in gain, below or above the critical frequencies ofa filter. 15-4 ‘Low-pass bandwidth 15-2 Filter bandwidth of a band-pass filter 15-3 Center frequency ofa band-pass filter 4 Quality factor of a band-pass filter 15-5 Damping factor 15-6 Closed loop voltage gain By £=—— ritical frequency fora second-order Sallen-Key filter ° RE CCitical frequency for a second-order Sallen-Key filter 1 —Fe 58 = EV eR Center frequency of a multiple-feedback filter Ra 9 Ay oe Gain of a mulple-feedback filter UTRUE/FALSE QUIZ “Answers can be found at www. pearsonhighered,com/loyd “The response ofa filter can be identified by its passband. A filter pole isthe cutoff frequency of afte. 3. Assingle-pole filter has one RC circuit. 4. A single-pote filter produces a roll-off of -25 dB/decade. 5. A low-pass filter can passa de voltage. 6, A high-pass filter passes any frequency above de. 7. The critical frequency ofa filter depends only on R and C values 8. The band-pass filter has two critical frequencies. 9. ‘The quality factor of a band-pass filter is the rato of bandwidth to the center frequency. 10, The higher the Q, the rarrower the bandwidth of a band-pass filter 11, The Butterworth characteristic provides flat response in the passband, 12, Filters with « Chebyshev response have a slow roll-off 13, A Chebyshev response has ripples inthe passband, 14, Bessel filters are useful in filtering pulse waveforms. 15, The order of a filter isthe numberof poles it contains. 16, A Sallen-Key filter is also known as a VCVS filter. 17, Multiple feedback is wed in low-pass filters, 18, A stato-variable filter uses differentiators, 19. A band-stop filter rejects certain frequencies. 20, Tilter response can be measured using a sweep generator. 844 © OscitaTons Es Section 16-1 Section 16-2 Section 16-3 Section 16-4 Section 16-5 Section 16-6 © ‘Sinusoidal feedback oscillatces operate with postive Feedback. © Relaxation oscillators use an RC timing circuit. ‘The two conditions for positive feedback are the phase shift around the feedback loop must be (0° und the voltage gain aroued the feedback loop must equal © Forinital start-up, the voltage gain around the feedback loop must be greater than 1 © ‘Sinusoidal RC oscillators include the Wien bridge, phase-shift, and twin-T. © Sinusoidal LC oseistors include the Colpitts, Clapp, Hartley, Armstrong, and crystal- controlled. © ‘The feedback signal in a Colpitts oscillator i derived from a capacitive voltage divider in the LC cireuit © ‘The Clapp oscillator is variation of the Colpits with @ capacitor added in series with the inductor. © ‘The feedback signal in a Harley oscillator is derived from an inductive voltage divider in the LC ciruit. © ‘The feedback signal in an Ammstzong oscillator is derived by transformer coupling. © Crystal oscillators are the mest stable type of feedback oscillator © Arelaxation oscillator uses an RC timing cicuit and a device that changes states to generate a periodic waveform. © ‘The frequency ina voltage-eontrolled oscillator (VCO) can be varied witha de control voltage © ‘The 535 timer isan integrated circuit that can be used as an oscillator, in addition to many other plications. EE ee re cnsrton er ‘Astable Characterized by having no stable states, Oseitlator An electronic circit that produces a periodic waveform on its output with only the de supply voltage as an inpat. Positive feedback The return of a portion ofthe output signal tothe input such that i reinforces and sustains the output ‘Voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) _A type of relaxation oscillator whose frequency can be var- Jed by ade control voltage. ww en gre ik tern 162 Wien-bridge resonant frequency wes Pe-i ck steso 64 peclgs — Mmetitentiortepeny Wes a stige cits Cama ey spin et ey we 4-8 obi nt ni Cincurr-Action Quiz * 845 16 Cops mnt tee 6s ary sag i Pa Amat mn oy 16-10 = Be riangulk i ae gh(f ‘ager ota eae) ten Wal seo YEO ey a Wi f= Wt Gn ‘555 astable frequency, vets mate = (EEE) ss aut CTRUE/FALSE QUIZ __Answerscanbe four at wen ensonighredcom/oy 1. Two categories of osiltors are feedback and relaxation. 2. A feedback oscillator ves only negative feedback 3. Posie feedback s never wsodin an oxilator 4 ‘The not phase shi aroand the osilstor feedback loop must be 2x0. 5. The voltage gin arurd th closed feedback loop must be greater han It sustain oscillations 6, For startup, the lop gain mas be greater than 1 7. A Wien-idge oscillator uses an RC crest in the positive feedback loop 8. The phase shift osilaor ilies RC cits 9. The win-Tesilaior contains an LC feedback crit. 10, Colpits, Clapp Harty, and Armstong se examples of LC oselatos. 1. The costal osilatoris based on the phototectic effect, 12, A relaxation oscillator uses no postive feedback 13, Mos relaxation osilitors produce sinusoidal opus 14, VCO stands fr variabi-capacitane oscillator. 16, The $55 ter can be sed as an oscillator. CIRCUTT-ACTION QUIZ Answers cane fund at won pearsonhigheredcom oy 1. IER, and R are increased to 18 KO in Figure 16-12, the frequency of oscillation will (a) increase (b) decrease (©) not change 2. Ifthe feedback potentiometer Ry is adjusted to a will (a) increase (b) decrease (@) not change 43. In Figure 16-14, ifthe Ris decreased, the feedback attenuation will (@) increase (B) decrease (@) not change 4. Ifthe capacitors in Figure 16-14 are increased o 0.01 uF, the frequency of oscillation will, (a) increase —(b) decrease (©) not change 5. In order to increase Vir in Figure 16-30, Ry must (@) increase (B) decrease (©) not change 6. IF the capacitor in Figure 16-30 opens, the frequency of oscillation will (a) increase (b) decrease (@) not change er value, the voltage gain in Figure 16-12 Key Formutas * 883 Section 17-1 Section 17-2 Section 17-3, Section 17-4 Section 17-5 Section 17-6 ‘© Voltage regulators keep a constant de output voltage when the input or load varies within limits ‘Line regulation iste percentage change inthe output voltage for a given change in the input voltage of a regulator. Load regulation is the pcentage change in output voltage fra given change in lad current A basic voltage regular consists ofa reference voltage source, an eror detector, a sampling element, and a control device. Protection circuitry is also found in most regulators. ‘Two basic categories of voltage regulators ar liner and switching, ‘Two basic types of Hiner regulators are series and shunt Ina linear series regultor,the control element is a transistor in series with the Toad, Ina linear shunt regula, the contol element i a wansistr in parallel wih the load, ‘Three configurations for switching regulators ae step-dowa, step-up, and averting, Switching regulators are more efficent than linear regulators and ae particularly useful in Jow-voltage, high-curent application. ‘The -terminal linear IC regulators are avilable for either fixed output o variable output voltages of positive or negative polarities. ‘The TBXX series ae thae-terminal IC regulators with fixed postive ouput voltage. ‘The 79XX series are thie terminal IC regulators with fixed negative output voltage. ‘The LMBIT isa three-erminal IC regulator with a positive variable output voltage. ‘The LM337 isa three-terminal IC rgulator with a negative variable output voltage. ‘An extemal pas transisor increases the current capability ofa regulator. eo eeeeee & eeeee KEY TERMS ___Keytermsand other bold tams in the chapter are defined inthe endo bok ssary. Linear regulator A voltege regulator in which the control element operates inthe linear region. Line regulation ‘The percentage change in output voltage fora given change in input line) voltage Load regulation The percentage change in output voltage for a given change in load current from, ‘no load to fll load Regulator An lectronic cieuit that maintains an essentially constant output voltage with a chang- ing input voltage or load current Switching regulator A voltae regulator in which te control element operates asa switch ‘Thermal overload A condition in a rectifier where the internal power dissipation ofthe cireut exceeds a certain maximum due to excessive current Voltage Regulation 17-1 Line regulation = (22) 0% Line regulation asa percentage (BVour/Vour)100% 17-2 Lineregulation = AYour/Vour00% ine reputation in /V Vi 17-3 Load regulati Yu. = Vin’ Z regolaion = (TSS—TH)100% Percent ad repslation Load regulation in terms of output = (Row 1-4 Londen = (SF nos resnace a filondresiance 384 Vourace REGULATORS Basic Serles Regulator 18 Voer>(1 +25) a ee peony sakes pa 7 ha = Maxum ad coe tate suing ep 8 veer = ('8)¥ pe tepdom rg pe ted Cet ge eis ms es cos reper scence CTRUE/FALSE QUIZ Answers can be found at www.pearsonhighered.comv floyd, 1. Line regulation is @ measure of how constant the output voltage is for a given change inthe input voltage. 2, Load regulation depends on the amount of power dissipated in the loa. 3. Linear and switehing are two main categories of voltage regulators 4, Two types of linear regulater are series and bypass. 5, Three types of switching regulator are step-down, step-up, and inverting 6, The three terminals of a 78XKX series regulator are input, output, and contol 7. AAn external bypass transistor is sometimes used to inerease the current capability ofa regulator. 8. Current limiting is used to protect the external bypass transistor. 9. The purpose of a heat sink is to help the regulator dissipate excessive heat. 10. A variable pulse-width modulator is part of a linear voltage regulator. [ETRCUTEACTION QUIZ ees ned rwrnpecontipertcon te 1. Ifthe input volage in Figure 17-7 is increased by 1 V, the ouput volage will (a) increase (b) derease_(€) not change 2, Ifthe zener diode in Figure 17-7 is changed to one witha zener voltage of 68 V, the output voltage will (a) increase (b) decresse —_(@) not change 3. IF Ry in Figure 17-7 is increased in value the output voltage will (a) increase (b) decresse —_(@) not change 4. 1° Ry in Figuee 17-9 is reduced, the amount of current that the regulator can supply to the load will (@) increase (b) decree (@) not change

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