Voltage Regulator and Power Supply

Zener Diode
A zener diode is a silicon pn junction device that is designed for operation in the
reverse-breakdown region.

Figure 1
Zener Breakdown
Zener diodes are designed to operate in reverse breakdown.
Two types of reverse breakdown in a zener diode are avalanche and zener.
The avalanche effect occurs in both rectifier and zener diodes at a sufficiently high
reverse voltage.
Zener breakdown occurs in a zener diode at low reverse voltages.
A zener diode is heavily doped to reduce the breakdown voltage. This causes a very
thin depletion region.
Zener diodes with breakdown voltages of less than approximately 5V operate
predominately in zener breakdown. Those with breakdown voltages greater than
approximately 5V operate predominately in avalanche breakdown. Both types,
however, are called zener diodes.
Zeners are commercially available with breakdown voltages from less than 1 V to more
than 250 V with specified tolerances from 1% to 20%.

Figure 2
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Zener Regulation
The ability to keep the reverse voltage across its terminals essentially constant is the
key feature of the zener diode.
A zener diode operating in breakdown acts as a voltage regulator because it maintains
a nearly constant voltage across its terminals over a specified range of reverse-current
values.
A minimum value of reverse current, IZK, must be maintained in order to keep the diode
in breakdown for voltage regulation.
You can see on the curve in figure 2, above that when the reverse current is reduced
below the knee of the curve, the voltage decreases drastically and regulation is lost.
Also, there is a maximum current, IZM, above which the diode may be damaged due to
excessive power dissipation.
So, basically, the zener diode maintains a nearly constant voltage across its terminals
for values of reverse current ranging from IZK to IZM.
A nominal zener voltage, VZ, is usually specified on a datasheet at a value of reverse
current called the zener test current.

Zener Equivalent Circuits

Ideal Model
Figure 3 shows the ideal model (first approximation) of a zener diode in reverse
breakdown and its ideal characteristic curve.
It has a constant voltage drop equal to the nominal zener voltage.
This constant voltage drop across the zener diode produced by reverse breakdown is
represented by a dc voltage symbol even though the zener diode does not produce a
voltage.

Figure 3
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Practical Model
Figure 4(a) represents the practical model (second approximation) of a zener diode,
where the zener impedance (resistance), ZZ, is included.
Since the actual voltage curve is not ideally vertical, a change in zener current (∆IZ)
produces a small change in zener voltage (∆VZ) as illustrated in Figure 4 (b).
By Ohm’s law, the ratio of ∆VZ to ∆IZ is the impedance, as expressed in the following
equation:
∆𝑉𝑍
𝑍𝑍 =
∆𝐼𝑍

Example No.1

A zener diode exhibits a certain change in VZ for a certain change in IZ on a portion of the linear
characteristic curve between IZK and IZM as illustrated in the Figure. What is the zener
impedance?

Solution:
∆𝑉𝑍 50𝑚𝑉
3

𝑍𝑍 = = = 𝟏𝟎𝛀
∆𝐼𝑍 5𝑚𝐴
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Temperature Coefficient
The temperature coefficient specifies the percent change in zener voltage for each
degree Celsius change in temperature.
For example, a 12 V zener diode with a positive temperature coefficient of will exhibit
a 1.2 mV increase in VZ when the junction temperature increases one degree Celsius.
The formula for calculating the change in zener voltage for a given junction temperature
change, for a specified temperature coefficient, is
∆𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉𝑍 𝑥 𝑇𝐶 𝑥 ∆𝑇
Where:
▪ VZ is the nominal zener voltage at the reference temperature of 25ºC
▪ TC is the temperature coefficient, %/ºC
▪ ∆T is the change in temperature from the reference temperature.
Note:
➢ A positive TC means that the zener voltage increases with an increase in temperature
or decreases with a decrease in temperature.
➢ A negative TC means that the zener voltage decreases with an increase in temperature
or increases with a decrease in temperature.
➢ In some cases, the temperature coefficient is expressed in mV/ºC rather than as %/ºC.
➢ For these cases, ∆𝑉𝑍 is calculated as
∆𝑉𝑍 = 𝑇𝐶 𝑥 ∆𝑇
Example No.2
An 8.2 V zener diode (8.2 V at 25ºC) has a positive temperature coefficient of
0.05%/ºC. What is the zener voltage at 60ºC?
Solution: The change in zener voltage is
0.0005
∆𝑉𝑍 = 𝑉𝑍 𝑥 𝑇𝐶 𝑥 ∆𝑇 = (8.2) ( ) (60℃ − 25℃) = 144𝑚𝑉
℃
The zener voltage at is 𝑉𝑍 + ∆𝑉𝑍 = 8.2𝑉 + 144𝑚𝑉 = 𝟖. 𝟑𝟒𝟒𝑽

Zener Power Dissipation

Zener diodes are specified to operate at a maximum power called the maximum dc
power dissipation, PD(max).
For example,
o 1N746 zener is rated at a PD(max) of 500 mW
o 1N3305A zener is rated at a PD(max) of 50 W
The dc power dissipation is determined by the formula,
𝑃𝑍 = 𝑉𝑍 𝐼𝑍
Power Derating
The maximum power dissipation of a zener diode is typically specified for temperatures
at or below a certain value (50 ºC, for example).
Above the specified temperature, the maximum power dissipation is reduced according
to a derating factor.
The derating factor (DF) is expressed in mW/ºC.
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The maximum derated power can be determined with the following formula:
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𝑃𝑍(𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 𝑃𝐷(max) − (DF)∆𝑇

Example No. 3
A certain zener diode has a maximum power rating of 400mW at 50 ºC and a derating
factor of 3.2mW/ºC. Determine the maximum power the zener can dissipate at a temperature of
90 ºC.
Solution
3.2mW
𝑃𝑍(𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑) = 𝑃𝐷(max) − (DF)∆𝑇 = 400𝑚𝑊 − ( ) (90℃ − 50℃) = 𝟐𝟕𝟐𝒎𝑾
℃
ZENER DIODE APPLICATIONS
A major application for zener diodes is as a type of voltage regulator for providing
stable reference voltages for use in power supplies, voltmeters, and other instruments.
Regulation means maintaining the output voltage at any load.
Analysis:

1. Determine the state of the Zener diode by removing it from the network and calculating
the voltage across the resulting open circuit.

By applying the voltage divider rule will result:

If V ≥ VZ, the diode is “on” If V < VZ, the diode is “off”

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2. Substitute the appropriate equivalent circuit and solve for the desired unknowns.
If V ≥ VZ, the diode is “on”

The Zener diode current must be determined by an application of Kirchhoff’s current law.
That is,

where:

The power dissipated by the Zener diode is determined by

Example No.1:
(a) For the Zener diode network, determine VL, VR, IZ, and PZ.
(b) Repeat part (a) with RL = 3 KΩ.
(b) Repeat part (a) with RL = 4 KΩ. (Seat work)3.5Kohms

Solution:
a.) With RL = 1.2KΩ
Analysis 1
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Analysis 2
Since V = 8.73 V is less than VZ = 10 V, the diode is in the “off” state. Substituting
the open-circuit equivalent will result

b.) With RL = 3KΩ

Since V = 12 V is greater than VZ = 10 V, the diode is in the “on” state

c.) With RL = 4KΩ

𝑅𝐿 𝑉𝑖 4𝑘Ω(16V)
𝑉= = = 12.8𝑉
𝑅 + 𝑅𝐿 1𝐾Ω + 4𝐾Ω
Since V = 12.8 V is greater than VZ = 10 V, the diode is in the “on” state
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑍 = 10𝑉
𝑉𝑅 = 16 − 10 = 6𝑉
𝑉𝐿 10𝑉
𝐼𝐿 = = = 2.5𝑚𝐴
𝑅𝐿 4𝐾Ω
𝑉𝑅 6𝑉
𝐼𝑅 = = = 6𝑚𝐴
𝑅 1𝐾Ω
𝐼𝑍 = 𝐼𝑅 − 𝐼𝐿 = 6𝑚𝐴 − 2.5𝑚𝐴 = 3.5𝑚𝐴
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𝑃𝑍 = 𝐼𝑍 𝑉𝑍 = (3.5𝑚𝐴)(10𝑉 ) = 35𝑚𝑊 which is larger than the specified 𝑃𝑍 = 30𝑚𝑊

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the diode may be damaged due to excessive power dissipation.

Zener Resistor Values (Fixed Vi, Variable RL)
➢ If R is too large, the Zener diode cannot conduct because the available amount of current
is less than the minimum current rating, IZK. The minimum current is given by:
I Lmin = I R − I ZM
The maximum value of load resistance is:
V
RLmax = Z
I Lmin
➢ If R is too small, the Zener current exceeds the maximum current rating, IZM. The
maximum current for the circuit is given by:
V VZ
I L max = L =
RL RL min
The minimum value of resistance is:
RVZ
RL min =
Vi − VZ
Example No.2:
(a) For the network, determine the range of RL and IL that will result in VRL being
maintained at 10 V.
(b) Determine the maximum wattage rating of the diode.

Solution:
(a) To determine the value of RL that will turn the Zener diode on,
𝑅𝑉𝑍 (1𝐾Ω)(10𝑉)
𝑅𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = = = 𝟐𝟓𝟎𝛀
𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑍 50𝑉 − 10𝑉
The maximum level of load current
𝑉𝐿 10𝑉
𝐼𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 𝟒𝟎𝒎𝑨
𝑅𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 250Ω
The minimum level of load current
𝐼𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑅 − 𝐼𝑍𝑀
where:
𝑉𝑅 𝑉𝑖 − 𝑉𝑍 50 − 10 40
𝐼𝑅 = = = = = 40𝑚𝐴
𝑅 𝑅 1𝐾Ω 1𝐾Ω
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𝐼𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝐼𝑅 − 𝐼𝑍𝑀 = 40𝑚𝐴 − 32𝑚𝐴 = 𝟖𝒎𝑨

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 The maximum value of RL
𝑉𝑍 10𝑉
𝑅𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 𝟏. 𝟐𝟓𝑲𝛀
𝐼𝐿𝑚𝑖𝑛 8𝑚𝐴

b. maximum wattage rating of the diode

𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑉𝑍 𝐼𝑍𝑀 = (10𝑉 )(32𝑚𝐴) = 𝟑𝟐𝟎𝒎𝑾

Zener Voltage Values (Variable Vi, Fixed RL)

➢ For fixed values of RL, the voltage Vi must be sufficiently large to the Zener diode on.
➢ The minimum turn-on voltage Vi = Vimin is determined by

➢ The maximum value of Vi is limited by the maximum Zener current, IZM.

Since IZM = IR - IL,

➢ Since IL is fixed at VZ/RL and IZM is the maximum value of IZ, the maximum Vi is
defined by

Example No.3:
Determine the range of values of Vi that will maintain the Zener diode in the “on” state.
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A plot of VL versus Vi

Waveform generated by a filtered rectified signal.

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POWER SUPPLY
Block diagram showing parts of a power supply

POWER SUPPLY FILTER AND REGULATION

A power supply filter ideally eliminates the fluctuations in the output voltage of a half-
wave or full-wave rectifier and produces a constant-level dc voltage.
Filtering is necessary because electronic circuits require a constant source of dc voltage
and current to provide power and biasing for proper operation.
Filters are implemented with capacitors.
Voltage regulation in power supplies is usually done with integrated circuit voltage
regulators.
A voltage regulator prevents changes in the filtered dc voltage due to variations in input
voltage or load.

Filter

Capacitor-Input Filter
The filter is simply a capacitor connected from the rectifier output to ground. RL
represents the equivalent resistance of a load.

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Ripple Voltage
As you have seen, the capacitor quickly charges at the beginning of a cycle and slowly
discharges through RL after the positive peak of the input voltage (when the diode is
reverse-biased).
The variation in the capacitor voltage due to the charging and discharging is called the
ripple voltage.
Generally, ripple is undesirable; thus, the smaller the ripple, the better the filtering
action.

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Output Waveform

Ripple Voltage (rms)

Example No.4
Calculate the ripple voltage of a full-wave rectifier with a 100 µF filter capacitor
connected to a load drawing 50 mA.
Solution:

DC Voltage

Example No.5
If the peak rectified voltage for the filter circuit is 30 V, calculate the filter dc
voltage.
Solution:
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Filter Capacitor Ripple

Example No.6
Calculate the ripple of a capacitor filter for a peak rectified voltage of 30 V,
capacitor C = 100 µF, and a load current of 50 mA.
Solution:

The ripple factor (r) is an indication of the effectiveness of the filter and
is defined as

Where:
Vr(rms) is the rms ripple voltage
VDC is the dc (average) value of the filter’s output voltage

Note: The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter. The ripple factor can be lowered by
increasing the value of the filter capacitor or increasing the load resistance.
Example No.7
From example nos. 4 to 6. Calculate the ripple of a capacitor filter.
Solution:

Example No.8
Using a dc and ac voltmeter to measure the output signal from a filter circuit, we
obtain readings of 25 Vdc and 1.5 Vrms. Calculate the ripple of the filter output voltage.
Solution:
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VOLTAGE REGULATION
The amount the dc voltage changes between the no-load and load conditions is
described by a factor called voltage regulation.
The voltage provided at the output under no-load condition (no current drawn from the
supply) is reduced when load current is drawn from the supply (under load).

Example No.9
A dc voltage supply provides 60 V when the output is unloaded. When connected
to a load, the output drops to 56 V. Calculate the value of voltage regulation.
Solution:

IC VOLTAGE REGULATORS
Regulator IC units contain the circuitry for reference source, comparator amplifier,
control device, and overload protection all in a single IC.

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Fixed Positive Voltage Regulators
The series 78 regulators provide fixed regulated voltages from 5 to 24 V.

POSITIVE VOLTAGE REGULATION SPECIFICATIONS

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Fixed Negative Voltage Regulators
The series 7900 ICs provide negative voltage regulators, similar to those providing
positive voltages.

Example No.10

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Adjustable Voltage Regulators
Voltage regulators are also available in circuit configurations that allow the user to set
the output voltage to a desired regulated value.
The LM317 can be operated with the output voltage regulated at any setting over the
range of voltage from 1.2 to 37 V.

Example No. 11

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POWER SUPPLY
5V Power Supply

5V and 3.3 V Power Supply

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Assignment

1. (a) Determine VL, IL, IZ, and IR if RL =180 ohms

(b) Repeat part (a) if RL = 570 ohms.
(c) Determine the value of RL that will establish maximum power conditions for the Zener
diode.
(d) Determine the minimum value of RL to ensure that the Zener diode is in the “on” state.

2. For the network of the Figure below, determine the range of Vi that will maintain VL at 8 V
and not exceed the maximum power rating of the Zener diode.

3. (a) Design the network of the Figure below to maintain VL at 11 V for a load variation (IL)
from 0 to 250 mA. That is, determine Rs and VZ.
(b) Determine Pzmax for the Zener diode of part (a).

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