Equations Pitch Angle – Angle between the longitudinal axis of the

Lift aircraft and the horizontal

Lift = CL x 1/2rho x V2 x S Centre of pressure – Total lift reaction acting through a
Load factor (n) = L/W single point on the chord line
New CL = Old CL x 1/(Change in speed)2 Effect of increasing AoA:
Wing loading = Weight / wing area - Symmetrical Aerofoil – CP remains stationary
Drag - Asymmetrical Aerofoil – CP shifts forward until
Drag = CD x 1/2rho x V2 x S approaching critical AoA then moves aft
Aspect ratio = span / mean chord Aerodynamic Centre – Average of CP (normally 25%)
LSS = 38.94 x √K MAC - The chord of an equivalent untwisted, rectangular
Climb and descent(Y = Climb angle / flight path angle) wing with the same pitching moment and lift
Load factor = COS(y) characteristics as the actual wing.
Lift = weight x COS(y)
Thrust (Climb) = Drag + (Weight x SIN(y)) Wing Types
Thrust (Descent) = Drag - (Weight x SIN(y)) More Camber = more lift
Climb gradient = SIN(y) x 100 Higher AR = more lift (reduced wing tip vortices)
Turning (Bank angle = ꝋ) Higher Sweepback = less lift
Load Factor = 1/COS(ꝋ) Bigger nose Radus = More Lift
Radius(m) = TAS2 / g x TAN(ꝋ) Large Reynolds Number = More Lift
Stalling
New VS = Old VS x √ (New Mass / Old Mass) Drag
New VS = old VS x √Load Factor Induced Drag – Lift induced drag increases with AoA
(1/IAS2)
Units - Can be reduced by wing tapering, winglets and
- Weight = Newtons - One KG weight is equal to 9.81N washout (Lower AoA at wing tips)
- Mass = Kilogram (kg) (not related to gravity) Parasitic Drag – Increases with Speed (IAS2)
- Force = Newton (N) the force that accelerates 1 kg at - Form drag – Due to turbulent airflow – Pressure drag
1m/sec2 - Skin Friction Drag – Boundary layer
- Time = seconds (sec) - Interference Drag – from objects e.g. panel seams
- Distance (m) At a higher altitude you can fly faster for the same total
- Area = Meter squared (m2) drag shifting the drag curve to the right
- Velocity = Meters per second (m/sec) Ground Effect
- Acceleration = meters per second per second (m/sec 2) 80% of Induced drag lost in ground effect
- Temperature = Kelvin (K) (0oC = 273k) Effect noticeable within 1/2 wingspans length
- Pressure = Pascal (Pa) a pressure of 1 N/m 2 Effects on Takeoff Effects on Landing
- Density = Kilograms per cubic metre (kg/m3) Wing tip vortices increase Wing tip vortices dec
- Energy = Joule (J) 1 N moving at 1 m Downwash angle increase Downwash angle dec
- Power Watt (W) a rate pf energy use of 1 J/sec Induced AoA increases Induced AoA dec
-Dry air 1.225 KG/m3 Effect AoA reduced Effect AoA increased
- Lift decreases - Lift increased
Terminology - Induced drag increases - Induced drag decreased
Dihedral = Upwards / Anhedral = Downwards - Increases downwash - Reduced downwash
“Angle between the wing plane and the horizontal” ( pitch up) ( pitch down)
Chord line – Straight line joining leading and trailing
edge of wing Propellers
The chord – Length of the chord line Small blade angle = Fine pitch (Low speed)
Mean Camber Line – Line equidistant between the Large blade angle = Coarse pitch (High speed)
upper and lower surface of an aerofoil Reference pitch is where max thrust occurs (70% of tip
Bernoullis Theorem – Total energy remains constant radius)
therefore an increase in velocity means static pressure Plane of rotation – 90o to crankshaft
must reduce Blade Angle – Angle between chord line and plane of
Angle of Attack – Angle between the relative airflow and rotation
the chord line of an aerofoil Angle of Attack – Angle between chord line and relative
Angle of Incidence – Angle between the aircraft airflow
longitudinal axis and the wing chord line Windmilling Prop – Max drag need to feather prop (max
coarse) to reduce drag
Propeller Slipstream – Clockwise prop produces left yaw - CoP moves aft
Torque Reaction – Clockwise prop twists airframe anti-
clockwise creating drag on left side = left yaw Leading Edge Slats
Gyroscopic Effect – A tail wheel aircraft presses the prop - Re-engises boundary layer pushing separation point aft
when leaving the ground = nose left on clockwise prop - Increases critical AoA
Asymetric Blade Effect (P-Factor) – Downgoing blade Increases CL and CLMAX
produces more thrust when angled up yawing left on the Leading Edge Flaps
ground on tail wheel. Increases with AoA and RPM - Effective AoA decreases
- Critical AoA increases
Constant speed prop - CL & CLMAX increase
- RPM Increase = Coarser Pitch
- RPM Decrease = Finer pitch Slats always extend first and retract last
- TAS increases = AoA decreases = Coarser Pitch
- TAS Decreases = AoA Increases = Finer Pitch Trim Drag – Downforce from tailplane acts as extra
weight meaning more lift needed = more induced drag
Flying Controls Increases as CoG moves forward

Best specific range with best TAS/DRAG ratio

Best Endurance = VMD for jet, VMP for piston
Load factor in steady level flight = 1

Best Angle of climb / Gradient (VX)

- Dependant on excess thrust (Jet = V MD, Prop VMP)
- Will climb steeper but cover less distance on ground
- Preferable for obstacle clearance
- Headwind increases climb gradient
Best rate of climb (VY)
- Depends on excess power. VY is always greater than VX

Service ceiling – 500fpm in a jet, 100fpm in a prop

Elevators – Pitch
Rudder – Yaw (secondary Roll to same side) Turning
Ailerons – Roll (Secondary Adverse Yaw) - Lift deflected from the central (Centripetal force)
Frise and Differential Ailerons reduce adverse Aileron - To maintain altitude an increase in lift is required
Yaw - Load factor > 1
Aerodynamic balance manages stick forces. Options are: - Turn radius is not affected by mass only TAS
- Inset Hinge
- Horn Balance Stalling (Minimum CAS the aircraft is controllable at)
- Internal Balance Critical AoA – Lift = Weight & CL is max
- Balance Tab After critical AoA – CL reduces, drag increases
- Anti-Balance tab Effect of CoG moving forward = increase in VS
- Servo tab
- Spring Servo Tab

Trim tabs – Slower aircraft with less authority than

trimmable Stabiliser found on large aircraft

Flaps
Trailing edge:
- Increase effective AoA
- Increase Camber
- CL increases
- CLMAX increases => VS Decreases
- Critical angle of attack decreases - CP moves forward at stall on sweepback wing
- Parasite drag increases Tip stall alleviation
- Induced Drag decreases (lower AoA) - Washout (root has higher AoA so stalls first)
- Wing fences – prevents root to tip airflow -Maintained by Vertical Stabiliser
- Vortex generators – re-energise the boundary layer -Will always align the aircraft with the relative airflow
close to wing tips -Sideslip
-If relative airflow is from the right the aircraft has a
Deep stalls – T-Tail and Swept back wings positive sideslip
- If the aircraft yaws left is has a positive sideslip
Incipient Spin recovery - CG Position – Forward CG increases stability
- Neutral controls - Tailplane design
- Rudder in direction of higher wing -Dorsal Fin
-Increases directional and static lateral stability
Stability -Ventral Fin
+ve Dynamic stability can only follow +ve static stability -Increases directional static stability
Static Stability Dynamic Stability -Decreases lateral static stability
Aircrafts first reaction Reaction with time -Wing Sweepback has stabilising effect
-Fuselage and Nacelles have destabilising effect
Positive- Return to Positive – Over time the
original position static stability reaction
Lateral Stability (Longitudinal (Roll))
Neutral - No reaction reduces
-Maintained by Wings
Negative – Causes Neutral – disturbance
- On a roll the AoA is increased on the down going wing
further deviation remains the same over
increasing lift relative to the up going one
time
-Wing dihedral has a stabilising effect
Negative – Disturbance
-High wing has a stabilising effect
is amplified over time
-Power has a de-stabilising effect
-High lift devices – de-stabilising

Dutch Roll
-Lateral Stability > Directional Stability
-Caused by disturbance in Yaw
-Yaw damper mandatory on aircraft prone to it

Speed stable is aircraft flying > VMD

Asymmetric Flight

Engine failure
-Set thrust to MCT
Longitudinal Stability (Lateral Axis)
-Rudder to correct yaw
- Maintained by Horizontal Stabiliser
-Can apply max 5o bank to live engine
- Longitudinal Dihedral
-Difference between angles of incidence of the wing
Critical Engine – Worst engine that could fail
and tailplane
-Both props rotating clockwise = left engine due to p-
-Results in longitudinal stability
factor making thrust asymmetric
-CG position
-Counter rotating props removes critical engine
-Forward CG = Increased
-Wind direction affects critical engine on jets
- CP Position
-CP forward of CG = De-destabilising
Minimum control speeds
- Power
-VMCG – Min control speed on the ground
-High wing mounted = stabilising effect
-Max deviation from centreline: 30ft
-Low wing = Destabilising
-Must be possible without Nose wheel steering
- Altitude – Increased altitude = decreased stability
-VMCA – Min control speed in the air
- Tailplane design features increasing stability
-VMCL – Min control speed landing
-Increased negative camber
- Minimum roll rate of 20o towards the live engine in not
-Increased thickness
more than 5 seconds
-Increased area
-More negative incidence angle
Flight envelope
-Sweepback
Directional Static Stability (Normal axis Yaw) Design Limit Load (DLL) – Max load with no deformation
Design Ultimate Load (DUL) – Max load without failure
DUL = DLL x 1.5 (Safety factor) - The freestream mach number when the first local flow
DLL Limits (transport aircraft) - +2.5 -> -1 becomes supersonic (normally on top of the wing)
- Increasing AoA decreases MCRIT
Design Speeds - Between MCRIT and MDET the aircraft is transonic
- VS – Stall Speed – First speed where lift = weight Forces in Transonic and sonic flight
- VA – Design Manoeuvre Speed - Effect on lift
-Max speed where full sudden deflection of elevators
does not result in a load factor greater than DLL
-VB – Max gust intensity: 66fps @ 20,000ft
-VC – Design Cruise Speed: Gust of 50fps
-VD – Design Dive Speed: Gust 25fps

Gust Load Factor

Increase = Increase factor Increase = decrease - The CP moves aft as the aircraft goes supersonic
Speed Sweepback causing a pitch down (Mach tuck)
Aspect Ratio Altitude Supercritical wing
Wing Area Weight
Wing Loading

- Delays MCRIT and when formed is less intense

Swept wings
- Increases MCRIT
- Drag is reduced in the onset of drag rise delayed
Reducing Wave drag
- Vortex generators
High speed flight - Area Ruling
- Mach number = TAS / LSS
- LSS reduces with decreasing temperature Forces on a propeller
- In a shockwave Total pressure decreases as some is
converted to heat rising the LSS so Mach at the front of
the shockwave decreases below M1.0
- Shockwaves are Normal or Oblique
- At M1.3 the speed overcomes the temp rise and the
shock wave attaches to the nose (M DET) and the
shockwave becomes oblique

Venturi

Undisturbed In the Throat

Total Pressure Same Same
- Oblique shockwave – Change of direction, velocity, Static Pressure Higher Lower
Mach No and Dynamic and total pressure decrease. Dynamic Lower Higher
Static Pressure and density increase Pressure
- Shockwaves become more oblique as speed increases Velocity Slower Faster
- To calculate the angle Sine μ = 1/MFS
MCRIT