Power System Quality and Reliability

Lecture 1: Introduction

SORN Darong

Dept. of Electrical and Energy Engineering

Institute of Technology of Cambodia

2022-2023
1

ITC GEE
 What is Reliability?

❑ Reliability
▪ Interruption related, the amount of time end-users are totally without power
(loss of electrical power, service)
❑ Reliability Indices
▪ What indices are you using to track and benchmark?
▪ SAIDI > 80%
▪ SAIFI  80%
▪ CAIDI  70%
▪ ASAI  60%
▪ MAIFI  20%
▪ Others  20%
(CAIFI, CTAIDI, CEMI, CEMSMI)

ITC GEE 2
 Reliability Indices

❑ SAIDI - System Average Interruption Duration Index

▪ Total duration of interruption for the average customer

SAIDI =
 Customer Interruption Durations
Total number of customers served
❑ Example
▪ 100 customers on the system
▪ 14 customers experienced a 3-hour outage
▪ SAIDI = ?

▪ 14 x 3 = 42 hours or 2520 minutes

▪ SAIDI = 2520/100 = 25.2
▪ Average of 25.2 minutes

ITC GEE 3
 Reliability Indices

❑ SAIFI - System Average Interruption Frequency Index

▪ How often the average customer experiences a sustained interruption

SAIFI =
 Total Number of Customers Interruption
Total number of customers served
❑ Example
▪ 100 customers on the system
▪ 60 customers had a sustained interruption
▪ SAIFI = ?

SAIDI = 60/100 = 0.6

ITC GEE 4
 Reliability Indices

❑ CAIDI -Customer Average Interruption Duration Index

▪ The average duration of interruptions per customer that had an interruption

CAIDI =
 Customer Interruption Durations
Total number of customers interrupted
❑ Example
▪ 100 customers on the system
▪ Customers experienced a 40-minute outage
▪ CAIDI = ?

▪ Total interrupt duration = 4000

▪ CAIDI = 4000/100 = 40
▪ Average of 40 minutes per customer

ITC GEE 5
 Reliability Indices

❑ ASAI -Average Service Availability Index

▪ The fraction of time (percentage) that a customer has received power during
the reporting period.
Customer Hours Service Availability
ASAI =
Customer Hours Service Demand
❑ Example
▪ 100 customers on the system
▪ 44 customers experience a 60-minute outage
▪ ASAI = ?

▪ 100 x 365 days x 24 hours/day = 876000 hours per year

▪ ASAI = (876000 – 44)/ 876000 = 0.9995 = 99.95%

ITC GEE 6
 Reliability Indices

❑ MAIFI - Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index

▪ The average frequency of momentary interruptions.

MAIFI =
 Total No. ofcust. momentary interruptions
Total number of customers served
❑ Example
▪ 100 customers on the system (2 feeders, 50 customers each)
▪ 50 customers had 12 momentary interruptions; the other 50 customers had 8
momentary interruptions. (1 breaker had 12 operations; 1 breaker had 8)
▪ MAIFI = ?

▪ (50 x 12) + (50 x 8) = 600 + 400 = 1000

▪ MAFAI = 1000/100 = 10

ITC GEE 7
 Reliability Indices

❑ What is the relationship between CAIDI, SAIDI and SAIFI ?

SAIDI =
 Customer Interruption Durations
Total number of customers served

SAIFI =
 Total Number of Customers Interruption
Total number of customers served

CAIDI =
 Customer Interruption Durations
Total number of customers interrupted

SAIDI
CAIDI =
SAIFI

ITC GEE 8
 What is Power Quality ?

❑ Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC)

▪ Work successfully within a given operating environment
software and operating system.
❑ Are the power system characteristics compatible with my
loads?
▪ Characteristics of the power supply system that enable the equipment to work
properly.

ITC GEE 9
 Concept of Power Quality

❑ Reliability
▪ Capability of a system to perform its purpose adequately at designed levels within its
operating environment for a specified period of time.
▪ It is measured in terms of probability that the system will perform successfully without
failure: probability of survival.
▪ From the reliability perspective, the utility power system performs its purpose
successfully as designed. The recloser is capable of clearing the short-circuit condition,
and as a result nothing fails and no customer is interrupted.
▪ Case:
A thunderstorm occurs, tree branches come in contact with line conductors causing a short
circuit and a voltage sag. Overcurrent protective devices responds by opening a line
recloser to clear the short-circuit condition. Because the recloser is tripped, customers
downline from the recloser experience a momentary interruption. As soon as the short-
circuit condition clears and the recloser recloses, power returns to normal.
From the reliability perspective, the utility power system performs its purpose successfully
as designed. The recloser is capable of clearing the short-circuit condition, and as a result
nothing fall and no customer interrupted.

ITC GEE 10
 Concept of Power Quality
❑ Electromagnetic Compatibility
▪ Capability of a device or equipment to perform its purpose adequately in the
presence of electrical noise (immunity) and without introducing intolerable
electromagnetic disturbances to the environment in which the system operates
(emission).
▪ Case:
A thunderstorm occurs, tree branches come in contact with line conductors
causing a short circuit and a voltage sag. Overcurrent protective devices responds
by opening a line recloser to clear the short-circuit condition. Because the recloser
is tripped, customers downline from the recloser experience a momentary
interruption. Sensitive equipment (PCs, TVs) will power off resulting in service
disruption. As soon as the short-circuit condition clears and the recloser recloses,
power returns to normal.
▪ From the EMC perspective, sensitive equipment are not immune to the presence of electrical
noise (voltage sag or momentary interruption).
▪ EMC looks at how well equipment or customer loads perform its purpose in the electrical
environment provided by a utility power system.
▪ Reliability looks at how well a utility power system provides the electrical and
electromagnetic environment that enable loads/customer equipment to perform their
purposes adequately.
ITC GEE 11
 What is Power Quality ?

❑ ANSI/IEEE Std. 1021-1988: (IEEE

Recommended Practice for Utility
Interconnection of Small Wind Energy
Conversion Systems)
▪ The quality of power is governed by
established practices that cover voltage,
flicker, frequency, power factor, and
harmonics. Deviation from these practices
represents out-of-bounds conditions and may
require disconnection of SWECS from the
utility. (SWECS – small wind energy
conversion systems)
❑ ANSI Standards
❑ IEEE SCC 23, Dispersed Storage and
Generation
ITC GEE 12
 What is Power Quality ?

❑ IEEE Std 1100-1992 Recommended Practice for Powering and

Grounding Electronic Equipment (Emerald Book):
▪ The concept of powering and grounding sensitive electronic equipment in a
manner that is suitable to the operation of that equipment.

“end-user’s equipment takes precedence”

❑ Who develops IEEE Std 1100-1992?

▪ Power Systems Engineering Committee of the
▪ Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Department of the
▪ IEEE Industry Applications Society.

❑ Latest revision: IEEE Std 1100 - 2005

ITC GEE 13
 What is Power Quality ?

❑ IEEE Std. 1159 – 1995: IEEE Recommended Practice for

Monitoring Electric Power Quality

❑ Who developed IEEE Std. 1159-1995?

▪ IEEE Standards Coordinating Committee 22 on Power Quality

❑ Latest revision: IEEE Std. 1159 - 2009

ITC GEE 14
 What is Power Quality ?

❑ IEEE Std 1100-1999 Recommended Practice for Powering and

Grounding Electronic Equipment:
▪ The concept of powering and grounding electronic equipment in a manner that
is suitable to the operation of that equipment and compatible with the premise
wiring system and other connected equipment.

❑ Who develops IEEE Std 1100-1999?

▪ Power Systems Engineering Committee of the
▪ Industrial and Commercial Power Systems Department of the
▪ IEEE Industry Applications Society. (1999)

❑ Latest update: IEEE Std 1100-2005

ITC GEE 15
 What is Power Quality ?

❑ IEC 61000-1-1 (1992)

▪ Define PQ in terms of EMC, electromagnetic compatibility, between
equipment and supply system serving the equipment.
▪ EMC – the ability of an equipment or system to function satisfactorily in its
electromagnetic environment without introducing intolerable electromagnetic
disturbances to anything in that environment.
▪ Emission: electromagnetic pollution produced by a device.
▪ Immunity: the device’s ability to withstand the electromagnetic pollution.
❑ Developer: International Electrotechnical Commission

ITC GEE 16
 What is Power Quality ?

❑ A consumer-driven issue, and the customer point of reference takes

precedence.

❑ PQ problems:

Any occurrence manifested in voltage, current, or frequency

deviation which results in failure or mis operation of
customer equipment

Any electric power related problem which results in failure or mis

operation of customer equipment

ITC GEE 17
 PQ in Distribution Systems

❑ PQ disturbances generally take place in distribution systems rather

than in transmission systems
▪ More loads are served at the distribution level
▪ Distribution systems are generally radial and remote from generation sources
making them electrically weaker

ITC GEE 18
 Where do PQ disturbances usually happen?

❑ Characteristics of T & D
Each level feeds one below it.
❑ Each level has more pieces of
equipment in it than the one
above.
❑ A power system serving
300,000 households
▪ 50 transmission lines
(e.g.,138 kV or 230 kV)
▪ 100 substations
(e.g. 138/24 kV, 69/13.8 kV)
▪ 600 feeders (e.g.,24, 13.8, 7.2,
4.16 kV)
▪ 60,000 service xfmr
(7.2kV/120V/240V)

ITC GEE 19
 Importance of Current and Impedance

❑ Equipment failures or mis operations are caused by significant

deviations in the voltage waveshape.
❑ Voltage is influenced by the current flowing through the system
impedance
▪ When the current waveshape passing through the system impedance deviates
significantly, the quality of the voltage will be impacted
❑ System impedance in a power system comes from overhead lines
and transformers, thus utilities have control over impedance
❑ End-users have control over the currents since their equipment
draws current from the system

ITC GEE 20
 Root Causes of Power Quality Disturbances

ITC GEE 21
 Root causes: Current and Impedance

❑ Equipment failures or mis operations are caused by significant

deviations in the voltage waveshape
❑ Voltage is influenced by the current flowing through the system
impedance
▪ When the current waveshape passing through the system impedance deviates
significantly, the quality of the voltage will be impacted.

ITC GEE 22
 Root causes: Current and Impedance

ITC GEE 23
 Root causes: Current and Impedance

ITC GEE 24
 Current and Impedance

❑ Who has control over currents:

▪ Harmonics: End-users have control over the currents since their equipment
draw currents from the system.
▪ Short-circuit currents: faults in the system causes sags or interruptions
▪ Lightning: currents cause high-impulse voltage -> flashover ++
❑ Who has control over impedances:
▪ Utilities: overhead lines, underground lines, transformers

Got ideal solutions to all PQ problems ?

Get rid of offending currents and the system impedances

ITC GEE 25
 Absolute PQ Solutions ??

Got holistic solutions to all PQ problems ?

Technologies to get rid of offending currents

Technologies to get rid of system impedances

ITC GEE 26
 Cost of PQ Disturbances

ITC GEE 27
 Cost of PQ Disturbances

❑ Power outages (momentary and

sustained interruptions):
▪ $104 billion to $164 billion a year
❑ Power quality phenomena:
(transients, sags, harmonics)
▪ $15 billion to $24 billion

ITC GEE 28
 Grid 2030 Vision for PQ

ITC GEE 29
 Distribution Substations

❑ A utility distribution system is typically fed by one or more

transmission or sub-transmission lines with voltages of 69-kV or
above.
❑ Typical distribution substation contains
▪ Transformers
▪ Switchgear
▪ Circuit breakers
▪ Fuses
▪ Electrical disconnects

ITC GEE 30
 PQ in Distribution Systems

❑ PQ disturbances generally take place in distribution systems rather

than in transmission systems
▪ More loads are served at the distribution level
▪ Distribution systems are generally radial and remote from generation
sources making them electrically weaker

ITC GEE 31
 Distribution Substations

❑ One-line diagram of a small rural distribution substation

ITC GEE 32
 A 4.16-kV rural distribution substation

❑ A 4.16-kV rural distribution substation

ITC GEE 33
 Distribution Substations

❑ One-line diagram of an urban distribution substation

ITC GEE 34
 Primary Distribution Feeder

❑ Overhead lines leaving the

substation through riser poles
are called primary feeders
▪ Normally comprised of three phase
conductors and a neutral conductor
which is grounded periodically at
multiple points along its path
▪ Such a feeder grounding system is
called a four-wire multi-grounded
neutral system
❑ Primary feeder can be tapped to
serve loads or other branch
lines
▪ These branches also called laterals,
taps, lateral taps, or branches

ITC GEE 35
 Primary Distribution Feeder

❑ Four-wire multi-grounded neutral system and its utility pole

configuration

ITC GEE 36
 Primary Distribution Feeder

❑ A typical distribution
circuit and its equipment

ITC GEE 37
 Primary Distribution Feeders

❑ A three-phase lateral with

two single-phase load taps

ITC GEE 38
❑ Three-phase tap for larger loads

ITC GEE 39
 OC Protection of Distribution Circuits

❑ When short-circuit conditions exist on the power system circuit,

overcurrent protective devices must operate to interrupt the short-
circuit current
❑ The devices are installed in series along the feeders or laterals and
coordinated so that only one device clears the fault
❑ In distribution systems, overcurrent protective devices include
▪ Fuses
▪ Automatic reclosers
▪ Sectionalizes
▪ Feeder circuit breakers

ITC GEE 40
 OC Protection of Distribution Circuits

❑ Fuses
▪ The most basic overcurrent protective device and the least expensive
▪ However, for a temporary fault utilizing a fuse to clear a fault would cause
unnecessary interruptions for customers downstream from the fuse
❑ Automatic recloser
▪ Allow temporary faults to clear
▪ Contains a built-in relay and control circuits that can sense and interrupt fault
currents
▪ Sequence of predetermined opening and reclosing operations

ITC GEE 41
 OC Protection of Distribution Circuits

❑ A pole-mounted remote-
controlled three-phase
recloser.

ITC GEE 42
 OC Protection of Distribution Circuits

❑ Sectionalizer
▪ Ease coordination of overcurrent protective devices
▪ Does not have a relay and does not interrupt short-circuit current
▪ Used in conjunction with a recloser by counting the number of recloser
operations
▪ When count reaches a predetermined number, the sectionalizer trips and
isolates the section
❑ Feeder circuit breakers
▪ Breaker operation controlled by an external overcurrent relay

ITC GEE 43
 OC Protection of Distribution Circuits

❑ Last utility pole in an overhead

feeder where an underground
cable begins

ITC GEE 44
 Feeder Voltage Regulation

❑ Voltage drop from one end of a feeder to the other is often a problem
❑ Voltage may be regulated by using a tap-changer on the substation
transformer, step voltage regulators, and capacitor banks
▪ Step voltage regulators mounted either at the substation or along the line
automatically adjust their tap settings to control the output voltage
▪ Capacitor banks increase the power-carrying capability of the feeder as well as
improve the voltage profile of the feeder when installed at substations and
mounted on poles

ITC GEE 45
 Feeder Voltage Regulation

❑ A three-phase voltage regulator and its control cabinet

ITC GEE 46
 Feeder Voltage Regulation

❑ Three-phase distribution capacitor bank

ITC GEE 47
ITC GEE 48