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INDEX
CHAPTERS PAGE
NO.
1. BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY 1

2. GEOMORPHOLOGY 17
3. GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS 37
4. GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENON 79
5. OCEANOGRPAHY 99
6. CLIMATOLOGY 125
7. CLIMATIC REGIONS 176

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CH-1 BASICS OF GEOGRAPHY

TOPICS COVERED
1. Origin of universe
2. Stars and constellations
3. Solar system
3.1. Asteroids
3.2. Meteor, meteoroid and meteorite
3.3. Sun
3.4. Comet
3.5. Planets
3.6. Dwarf planets
3.7. Theories of planet formation
4. Evolution of earth
5. Formation of moon
6. Geological time scale
7. Latitude and Longitude
7.1. Important parallels of latitudes
7.2. Heat zones of the earth
7.3. Greenwich Meridian Time
7.4. Time Zone
8. Motion of the earth
8.1. Rotation and revolution
8.2. Axial tilt
8.3. Seasons (Solstice and Equinox)

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ORIGIN OF UNIVERSE
• Scientists believe that though the space between the
galaxies is increasing, observations do not support
the expansion of galaxies.

Formation of Stars and its life cycle

• The formation of stars is believed to have taken

place some 5-6 billion years ago.
o Growing nebula develops localised clumps
of gas that continue to grow into even
denser gaseous bodies, giving rise to
formation of stars.
Big Bang Theory or Expanding Universe Hypothesis • A galaxy contains a large number of stars.
• Galaxies spread over vast distances that are
• Initially, there was a “Tiny Ball” (singular atom) measured in thousands of light-years.
with an unimaginably small volume, infinite o Light year is a measure of distance and not
temperature, and infinite density. of time. It is the distance that light travels in
• Violent explosion of “Tiny Ball” (Big Bang took one Earth year. 1 light year is equal to 9.46
place 13.7 billion years before the present). trillion km.
• Rapid expansion within fractions of a second after
the bang then the expansion has slowed down.

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CONSTELLATIONS sky. But we call the same object by different names,

depending on where it is.

• Meteoroids are objects in space that range in size

from dust grains to small asteroids. Think of them
as “space rocks".
• When meteoroids enter Earth’s atmosphere (or that
of another planet, like Mars) at high speed and burn
up, the fireballs or “shooting stars” are called
meteors.
• When a meteoroid survives a trip through the
atmosphere and hits the ground, it’s called a
meteorite.

• Constellations are the various patterns formed by

different groups of stars.
o Example: Ursa Major or Big Bear
o Small bear or Saptarishi is a group of seven
stars that forms a part of the large Ursa
Major Constellation
• In ancient times, people used to determine
directions during the night with the help of stars.
• The North star
o Indicates the north direction.
o It is also called the Pole Star.
o It always remains in the same position in
the sky.
o We can locate the position of the Pole Star
with the help of the Saptarishi. SUN

SOLAR SYSTEM

ASTEROIDS

• Asteroids are
a class of
small rocky
object of Solar
System
orbiting
around the
Sun.
• They have also been called planetoids, especially
the larger ones.
• They are found between the orbits of Mars and
Jupiter.
• The largest asteroid is the Ceres.
• Scientists are of the view that asteroids are parts of
a planet which exploded many years back.
• Sun is star at the centre of the solar system.
Difference between meteor, meteoroid and • Primarily made up of hot gases.
meteorite? • Important sources of energy for life on Earth are
They’re all related to the flashes of light called produced from nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei.
“shooting stars” sometimes seen streaking across the • Solar Winds: Ejections of plasma (extremely hot
charged particles) that originate in the layer of the

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Sun known as the corona (outer most layer, hidden earth climate (Aditya L-1 Mission
due to sun's light, visible in solar eclipse). Objective).
• Solar/Stellar Flare
o It is a dramatic increase in brightness of a COMET
star (Due to the magnetic energy stored in
the star's atmosphere).
o Occur in active regions around sunspots.
o Often accompanied by coronal mass
ejection.
o Solar flare ejects clouds of electrons, ions
and atoms along with electromagnetic
radiations.
o Bombardment with such huge amount of
energy (as observed in Proxima centauri)
can strip water from the atmosphere or
Oceans and sterilise the ground.
o Impact
▪ When flare is ejected in the direction of
the earth, the particles hitting the upper • Cosmic snowballs of frozen gases, rock and dust
earth's atmosphere may cause that orbit the Sun.
AURORA/Polar-light (Aurora- • When frozen, they are the size of a small town.
Borealis/Northern-light and Aurora- • When a comet's orbit brings it close to the Sun, it
Australis/Southern-Light) heats up and spews dust and gases into a giant
▪ X-rays and UV rays may affect glowing head larger than most planets.
ionosphere and disrupt long range radio • The dust and gases form a tail that stretches away
communication from the Sun for millions of miles.
▪ Radiation risks posed by flares are one • There are likely billions of comets orbiting our Sun
of the major hurdles in manned space in the Kuiper Belt and even more distant Oort cloud.
missions
• Sun-spot Cycle PLANET
o Amount of magnetic flux that rises up to the According to the International Astronomical Union in
Sun's surface varies with time in a cycle 2006, a planet must do 3 things:
called the solar cycle.
o This cycle lasts 11 years on average cycle 1. It must orbit a star (in our cosmic neighborhood, the
and is sometime referred as the sunspot Sun).
cycle 2. It must have sufficient mass for its self-gravity to
o Sun spots are darker, magnetically strong, overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a
cooler areas on the surface of the sun hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly spherical) shape.
(photosphere) 3. It must be big enough that its gravity clears away
o Not pesent all over the sun, present between any other objects of a similar size near its orbit
25°-30° latitude. around the Sun.
o It will help in understanding of the long-
term variations of the Sun and its impact on

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Planets o Only place we know of so far that’s inhabited

by living things.
1. Mercury o It's also the only planet in our solar system with
liquid water on the surface.
o The smallest planet in our solar system and o Ozone Layer protects it from harmful solar
closest to the Sun. radiation.
o Second densest planet. o The moon (no atmosphere, only one face is ever
o No moons or rings. seen from earth and this condition is known as
o Second hottest planet (Venus hottest). Tidal Locking).
o Lack of seasons on its surface due to the
smallest tilt than all other planets. 4. Mars
o Only slightly larger than Earth's Moon.
o Fastest planet, zipping around the Sun every 88 o Mars is a dusty, cold, desert world with a very
Earth days. thin atmosphere.
o There is strong evidence Mars was—billions of
2. Venus years ago—wetter and warmer, with a thicker
atmosphere.
o Sister of Earth due to proximity, mass and size. o Mars is the only other planet besides Earth that
o Surface of Venus is hidden by an opaque layer has polar ice caps.
of clouds which are formed from sulphuric acid. o Seasons like Earth, but they last twice as long.
o A thick atmosphere traps heat in a runaway o Red Planet without magnetic field.
greenhouse effect, making it the hottest planet o Olympus Mons: The tallest mountain known in
in our solar system. the terrestrial planets system
o Venus spins slowly in the opposite direction o Notable Moons: Phobos and Deimos
from most planets.
▪ Rotate clockwise (other planets - counter 5. Jupiter
clockwise)
o Referred as “morning star”, “evening star” (due o Jupiter is more than twice as massive as the
to brightness). other planets of our solar system combined.
o Named after a female figure. o Giant planet's Great Red spot is a centuries-old
storm bigger than Earth. Shortest day and
3. Earth highest gravity among the eight planets .
o Atmosphere: 90% hydrogen and 10% helium,
o Largest of all the terrestrial planets. nearly the same as the Sun’s.
o Most dense planet in the solar system.

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o Notable moons: Europa, Ganyemede (largest • While the terrestrial planets are made of solid
moon in the solar system), Callisto surfaces, the Jovian planets are made of gaseous
surfaces.
6. Saturn o The terrestrial planets were formed in the
close vicinity of the parent star where it was
o “The Ringed Planet’’: The other giant planets too warm for gases to condense to solid
have rings, but none are as spectacular as particles. Jovian planets were formed at
Saturn's. quite a distant location.
o Second largest planet (diameter and mass). o As terrestrial planets were closer to the sun,
o Gives off more energy than it receives from the the intense solar winds blew off lots of gas
Sun. and dust. Solar winds were not
o Saturn appears pale yellow in colour because intense/strong enough at the location of
upper atmosphere contains ammonia crystals. Jovian planets to cause similar removal of
o Least density in solar system. gases.
o Notable moons: Titan, Rhea, and Enceladus o Terrestrial planets are smaller and their low
gravity could not hold escaping gases.
7. Uranus • When comparing the size, the Jovian planets are
much larger than the terrestrial planets.
• While the atmosphere of terrestrial planets is
o It rotates at a nearly 90-degree angle from the
plane of its orbit. This unique tilt makes Uranus composed mainly of carbon dioxide and nitrogen,
appear to spin on its side. hydrogen and helium are found in abundance in the
o Coldest planet in the solar system. atmosphere of Jovian planets.
• The core of the Jovian planets is denser than the
o Lightest of giant in outer solar system.
o Uranium (discovered in 1789) was named after terrestrial planets.
• The terrestrial planets spin less, and are therefore
it.
o Voyager 2: only spacecraft to have flown by it less flattened at the poles.
• The Jovian planets have more moons when
o Notable moons: Oberon, Titania, Miranda,
Ariel, and Umbriel compared to terrestrial ones.

8. Neptune THEORIES OF FORMATION OF PLANETS

NEBULAR HYPOTHESIS
o Second largest gravity of any planet.
o It was the first planet located through • Given by Immanuel Kant and re-examined by
mathematical calculations. Pierre-Simon Laplace.
• Nebula (Accumulation of hydrogen gas in the form
DWARF PLANET of a very large cloud)
It is a celestial body that • Pockets of dust and gas began to collect into denser
regions due to the gravitational collapse at the
1. Is in orbit around the Sun. center of the cloud (Result of a passing star or shock
2. Has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome waves from a supernova).
• Denser regions pulled in more and more
rigid body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic
equilibrium (nearly round) shape. matter (Conservation of momentum caused it to
3. Has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit. begin rotating, while increasing pressure caused it
4. Is not a satellite. to heat up).
• Most of the material ended up in a ball at the center
while the rest of the matter flattened out into disk
Some prominent dwarf planets
that circled around it.
• While the ball at the center formed the Sun, the rest
1. Pluto of the material would form into the protoplanetary
2. Ceres disc.
3. Makemake • Planets were formed out of a cloud of material
4. Haumea associated with a youthful sun, which was slowly
5. Eris rotating.
• Accretion from this disc led to the formation of
Terrestrial and Jovian Planets planets.

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• Leftover debris that never became planets

congregated in regions such as the Asteroid Belt,
Kuiper Belt, and Oort cloud.

Development of Lithosphere

BINARY THEORIES • Volatile state during primordial stage →

Temperature inside has increased (Due to gradual
• According to these theories, the sun had a increase in density) → Material inside started
companion. getting separated depending on densities (Heavier
• Chamberlain and Moulton considered that a materials like iron sunk towards the centre) → It
wandering star approached the sun resulting in cooled further and solidified and condensed with
separation of a cigar-shaped extension of material passage of time
from the solar surface. • The gases and water vapor were released from the
• As the passing star moved away, the separated interior as the earth cooled down.
material of solar surface continued to revolve o The process through which the gases were
around the sun and slowly condensed into planets. outpoured from the interior is called
degassing.
EVOLUTION OF EARTH o Continuous volcanic eruptions contributed
water vapor and gases to the atmosphere.
• Earth initially was a Barren, rocky and hot object
with a thin atmosphere of hydrogen and helium. Evolution of Hydrosphere
• Evolution of life on the surface of the planet
(between the 4,600 million years and the present). • As the earth cooled, the released water vapor started
• The earth has a layered structure with non-uniform getting condensed.
materials from the outermost end of the atmosphere • The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere got dissolved
to the centre of the earth. in rainwater. This further decreased temperature
• The atmospheric matter has the least density. causing more condensation and more rain.
• The earth’s interior has different zones from the • The rainwater falling onto the surface got collected
surface to deeper depths. Each of these contains in the depressions to give rise to oceans.
materials with different characteristics. • The earth’s oceans were formed within 500 million
years from the formation of the earth.

Development of Atmosphere

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• The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and helium, is • Single rapidly rotating body possessing the Earth
supposed to have been stripped off as a result of the and the Moon → Whole mass became a dumbbell-
solar winds. shaped body → Separation
• The present composition of earth’s atmosphere is o Material forming the moon was separated
chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen. from what we have at present the
• There are three stages in the evolution of the present depression occupied by the Pacific Ocean
atmosphere.
1. Loss of primordial atmosphere. Giant Impact Hypothesis
2. Evolution of the atmosphere by hot interior
of the earth. • Earth struck by Theia (Mars size object) → Huge
3. Modification of atmospheric composition amount of debris → Debris coalesces during
by the living world through the process of orbiting the Earth → Moon created
photosynthesis.

FORMATION OF MOON
Fission Theory

GEOLOGICAL TIME SCALE

PERIODS
EONS
• Just as eons are subdivided into eras, eras are
• Broadest category of geological time. subdivided into units of time called periods.
• Earth's history is characterized by four eons; the • The most well-known of all geological periods is
Hadeon, Archean, Proterozoic, and Phanerozoic (in the Jurassic period of the Mesozoic era.
order from oldest to youngest).
• Collectively, the Hadean, Archean, and Proterozoic EPOCHS AND AGES
are sometimes informally referred to as the
"Precambrian."
• Periods of geological time are subdivided into
• We live during the Phanerozoic, which means
epochs.
"visible life." • In turn, epochs are divided into even narrower units
of time called ages.
ERAS

• Eons of geological time are subdivided into eras, DECREASING ORDER

which are the second-longest units of geological Supereon > Eon > Era > Period > Epoch
time.
• The Phanerozoic eon is divided into three eras: the
Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic.

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mya = Million years Ago

EONS
• No oxygen in atmosphere.
HADEON EON • Formation of continents due to the cooling of
Earth's crust.
• Indicates the time before a reliable (fossil) evidence • Higher volcanic activity than today with multiple
of life. lava eruptions.
• Extremely hot temperature.
o Much of the Earth was molten (extreme PROTEROZOIC EON
volcanism) leading to formation of crust
after cooling. • Last eon of the Precambrian "supereon".
• Volcanic outgassing probably created the • Oxygen production started by Bacteria leading to
primordial atmosphere (No oxygen) and then the the sudden rise of life forms.
ocean. • Eukaryotes (have a nucleus) emerged.
• Heavy CO2 atmosphere with water vapor and • The early and late phases of this eon may have
hydrogen. undergone Snowball Earth periods (the planet gone
through extensive glaciation resulting drop in sea
ARCHEAN EON levels).
• Very tectonically active period.
• Beginning of life on Earth (Evidence of
cyanobacteria date to 3500 mya). PHANEROZOIC EON
• Life was limited to Prokaryota (simple single-celled
organisms lacking nuclei). • Complex multicellular life arose.

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• Plant life on land emerged in the early Phanerozoic 1. Palaeozoic = An era of ancient life (arthropods,
eon. amphibians, fishes)
• Pangaea forms and later disassociated into Laurasia 2. Mesozoic = Age of reptiles and gymnosperms
and Gondwana. (climatic extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs)

This Eon is divided into 3 eras: 3. Cenozoic = Age of mammals and angiosperm

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LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE

• Unlike parallels of latitude, all meridians are of equal
LATITUDES length.

• Latitude is the angular

distance of a place
north or south of the
earth's equator.
• Latitude tells you
where you are between
the North Pole and the
South Pole.
• These are measured
in degrees.
• Parallels or latitude lines
o Lines that run across the Earth from east to
west at a constant latitude.
o Everywhere on a parallel must have the same
latitude.
o An example is the equator, which is at zero
degrees of latitude.
• A circle of latitude is an imaginary ring linking all
points sharing a parallel.

LONGITUDES IMPORTANT PARALLELS OF LATITUDES

• Longitude is
measured by
imaginary lines
that run around the
Earth vertically
(up and down) and
meet at the North
and South Poles.
• These lines are
known as
meridians.
• The line which Equator (0° latitude)
runs through Greenwich in London is called the
Greenwich Meridian or Prime Meridian. The Prime • Imaginary circular line running on the globe and
Meridian is 0° longitude. divides it into two equal parts.
• The Earth is then divided into 180° east and 180° • These are measured in degrees.
west. o Important reference point to locate places on
o Longitude is the measurement east or west of the earth.
the prime meridian. • All parallel circles from the equator up to the poles
o Half of the world (the Eastern Hemisphere) is are called parallels of latitudes.
measured in degrees east of the prime • All parallels north/south of the equator are called
meridian. The other half (the Western 'north latitudes'/'south latitudes'. It is indicated by the
Hemisphere) in degrees west of the prime letter ‘N’ or ‘S’.
meridian. • The size of the parallels of latitude decreases as we
• The anti-meridian is halfway around the world, at move away from the equator.
180°. It is the basis for the International Date Line.

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Tropic of Cancer (23½° N) in the Northern Heat zones of the earth

Hemisphere

• It is the farthest northern latitude at which the sun

can appear directly overhead.
• It occurs on the June-solstice (marked between June
20 and June 22).
• North of this line is the subtropics and Northern
Temperate Zone.

Tropic of Capricorn (23½° S) in the Southern

Hemisphere

• It is the farthest southern latitude at which the sun

can appear directly overhead.
• It occurs on the December-solstice (marked between
December 20 and December 23).
• South of this line is the subtropics and Southern
Temperate Zone.

Arctic/Antarctic Circle at 66½° north/south of the

equator
Torrid Zone
• Parallel of latitude around the Earth at approximately
66.5° N/S • Areas lying between the Tropic of Cancer and the
• Because of the Earth’s inclination of about 23½° to Tropic of Capricorn.
the vertical, It marks the southern/northern limit of • This area receives the maximum heat and is called the
the area within which, for one day or more each year, Torrid Zone.
the Sun does not set (about June 21) or rise (about • The mid-day sun is exactly overhead at least once a
December 21). year on all latitudes in between the Tropic of Cancer
and the Tropic of Capricorn.
North Pole (90°N) and South Pole (90° S) • The tropics are known for their lush green vegetation
and moist climate.
• The North/South Pole is the • Average temperatures range from warm to hot year
northernmost/southernmost point on Earth. round.
• It is the precise point of the intersection of the • Many places in the tropics experience rainy seasons
Earth's rotational axis and the Earth's surface. which range from one to several months of consistent
• Polaris (the current North Star) sits almost motionless rainfall.
in the sky above the North Pole, making it an
excellent fixed point to use in celestial navigation in Frigid Zone
the Northern Hemisphere.
• All lines of longitude meet at the North and the South • Areas lying between the Arctic Circle and the North
Pole. Pole in the Northern Hemisphere and the Antarctic
Circle and the South Pole in the Southern
India Hemisphere called Frigid Zones.
• The mid-day sun never shines overhead on any
• India is a vast country and lying entirely in the latitude beyond the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic
Northern hemisphere. of Capricorn.
• The main land extends between latitudes 8°4'N and • The angle of the sun’s rays goes on decreasing
37°6'N and longitudes 68°7'E and 97°25'E. towards the poles.
• The Tropic of Cancer (23°30'N) divides the country • Area is very cold because here the sun does not rise
into almost two equal parts. much above the horizon. Therefore, its rays are
always slanting and provide less heat.

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Temperate Zones • Places east of Greenwich see the sun earlier and gain
• The areas lying between the Torrid Zone and Frigid time (East-Gain-Add).
Zone and have moderate temperatures. • Places west of Greenwich see the sun later and lose
time (West-Lose-Subtract).
Greenwich Meridian Time (GMT)

Countries through which Prime Meridian passes

TIME ZONE
• A time zone is a region of the Earth that has adopted o The earth has been divided into twenty-four
the same standard time, usually referred to as time zones of one hour each (24 hours x 15°
the local time. rotation = 360° rotation in a day)
• Most adjacent time zones are exactly one hour apart,
and by convention compute their local time as an Indian Standard Time (IST)
offset from Greenwich Mean Time (GMT).
• Standard time zones can be defined by geometrically • Time along the Standard Meridian of India (82°30'E)
subdividing the Earth's spheroid into 24 lunes passing through Mirzapur (in Uttar Pradesh) is taken
(wedge-shaped sections), bordered by meridians each as the standard time for the whole country.
15° of longitude apart. The local time in neighboring • IST at 82°30'E is 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of
zones is then exactly one hour different. GMT.
o However, political and geographical o Indicates 05:30 hours early sunrise in India
practicalities can result in irregularly-shaped than the countries taking GMT as a standard
zones that follow political boundaries or that time.
change their time seasonally (as with daylight • It goes through following states
saving time), as well as being subject to o Uttar Pradesh
occasional redefinition as political conditions o Madhya Pradesh
change. o Chhattisgarh
o Orissa
The earth rotates 360° in about 24 hours, which o Andhra Pradesh
means 15° an hour or 1° in four minutes.
International Date Line

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• It serves as the "line of demarcation" between two o Movement of the earth around the sun in a fixed
consecutive calendar dates. path or orbit.
• It passes through the mid-Pacific Ocean and roughly o It takes 365¼ days (one year) to revolve around
follows a 180° (located halfway round the world from the sun. Six hours saved every year are added to
the prime meridian). make one day (24 hours) over a span of four
• It bends and goes zig zag at the Bering Strait between years.
Siberia and Alaska, Fiji, Tonga and in some other ▪ This surplus day is added to the month of
islands. February. Such a year with 366 days is called
• It follows zig-zag pattern to avoid the confusion of a leap year.
having different dates in the same country. o The earth is going around the sun in an elliptical
• The date changes by exactly one day while crossing orbit.
it.
o A traveller crossing the date line from east to AXIAL TILT
west loses a day and while crossing the
dateline from west to east gains a day. • Axial tilt is the angle between the planet's rotational
axis and its orbital axis.
Daylight saving time (DST) • A planet's orbital axis is perpendicular to the ecliptic
or orbital plane, the thin disk surrounding the sun and
• Daylight saving time (DST) or summer time is the extending to the edge of the solar system.
practice of advancing clocks during summer months • Earth's axis is not perpendicular. It has an axial tilt or
by one hour. obliquity.
• It is done so that evening daylight lasts an hour longer o The axis of the earth which is an imaginary
i.e. fully utilizing the surplus sunlight in summers line makes an angle of 66½° with its orbital
while compensating the short day length in winters. plane.
• Typically, regions with summer time adjust clocks • Some planets, such as Mercury, Venus, and Jupiter,
forward one hour close to the start of spring (terms have axes that are almost completely perpendicular,
"spring forward") and adjust them backward in the or straight up-and-down.
autumn to standard time (terms "fall back"). • Uranus has the largest axial tilt in the solar system. Its
• Daylight saving time practice is prevalent in many axis is tilted about 98 degrees, so its north pole is
temperate countries nearly on its equator.
o To conserve energy by utilizing the day light
and reduce evening use of incandescent Axial Precession
lighting.
o To compensate variation in day length
experienced from season to season.

MOTIONS OF THE EARTH

MOTION TYPES
2 types of motion

1. Rotation

o Movement of the earth on its axis. • Earth's axis appears stable but it actually wobbles
o As the Earth rotates, each area of its surface gets a very slowly like a spinning top.
turn to face and be warmed by the sun. This is • This wobble is called axial precession.
important to all life on Earth. • Earth’s axis helps determine the North Star.
o If the Earth did not rotate, one half of the Earth would o Currently, Earth's axis points toward a star
always be hot and bright, and the other part would be called Polaris (current North Star due to its
frozen and dark. Life would not have been possible in position almost directly above the North
such extreme conditions. Pole).
• Polaris will not always be the North Star, however.
2. Revolution The Earth's axis is slowly wobbling away from

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Polaris. In another 13,000 years, it will point toward • Due to the spherical shape of the earth, only half of it
the new North Star, a star called Vega. gets light from the sun at a time and experiences day.
• The circle that divides the day from night on the globe
Circle of illumination is called the circle of illumination.
• This circle does not coincide with the axis

SOLSTICES • 21st March = Spring in the northern hemisphere and

• Solstice means that either the Northern or Southern autumn in the southern hemisphere.
Hemisphere is tilted toward the sun and receives the
maximum intensity of the sun’s rays throughout the PERIHELION AND APHELION
year.
• Solstices and shifting solar declination are a result of • Perihelion
Earth’s 23.5° axial tilt as it orbits the sun. o It is the point when Earth is closest to Sun.
• From the North Pole, the sun is always above o It occurs around 3rd January.
the horizon in the summer and below the horizon in o The distance is 147.5 million kms.
the winter. • Aphelion
o This means the region experiences up to 24 o It is the point when Earth is farthest from the
hours of sunlight in the summer and 24 hours Sun.
of darkness in the winter. o It occurs on July 4.
o The distance is 152.5 million kms.
EQUINOX • Speed of Earth is fastest at Perihelion and slowest at
Aphelion (Kepler’s Second Law).
• There are only two times of the year when the Earth's
axis is tilted neither toward nor away from the sun. UTTARAYAN
• On 21st March and September 23rd, direct rays of the
sun fall on the equator. This results in a "nearly" equal • For 6 months of the year, the Sun appears to be
amount of daylight and darkness at all latitudes. It is moving north.
known as equinox. • The Northward migration of Sun appears to begin
• 23rd September = Autumn season (season after after December 22 and is completed on June 21, when
summer and before the beginning of winter) in the the Sun is directly overhead 23.½° North.
northern hemisphere and spring season (season after • In India, we call this apparent migration Uttarayan.
winter and before the beginning of summer) in the
southern hemisphere.

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DAKSHINAYAN • In India, we call this apparent migration

Dakshinayan.
• After June 21, Sun appears to be moving South for
the next 6 months. EFFECT OF EARTH MOTION
• This southward migration appears to get finished
when Sun is directly overhead the 23.½° South. Reasons for day and night as well as seasons

• Days and Nights → Rotation

• Seasons → Revolution

The schematic representation of seasonal variation is

given below. The diagram depicts the four different
seasons on the earth according to its position in the space
at that time.

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CH-2 GEOMORPHOLOGY

TOPIC COVERED
1. Interior of the Earth
o Direct & Indirect Methods
o Earthquakes & Seismic Waves
o Layered Structure
2. Minerals & Rock System- Igneous, Sedimentary
& Metamorphic
3. Continental Drift Theory
4. Convection Current Theory
5. Ocean Floor Mapping & Sea Floor Spreading
Theory
6. Plate Tectonics Theory
7. Plate Interactions
o Divergence
▪ O/O (MOR)
▪ C/C (Rift Valley)
o Transverse (Fault)
o Convergence-
▪ O/O (Island Arc)
▪ C/C (Fold Mountains)
▪ O/C (Volcanic Mountains)

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information about the materials in the earth’s

interior).
4. Magnetic field study gives information about
magnetic material distribution in crustal portion.

SEISMIC WAVES

• Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the

sudden breaking of rock within the earth or an
explosion. These are mechanical waves and requires
medium to propagate.
o These are the energy that travels through the
earth and is recorded on seismographs.
• Seismology = Study of earthquakes and seismic
waves that move through and around the earth.
• Seismologist = Scientist who studies earthquakes and
seismic waves.

Types of Seismic Waves

INTERIOR OF THE EARTH
• Two main types —
1. Body Waves
2. Surface Waves
• Body waves can travel through the earth's inner
layers, but surface waves can only move along the
surface of the planet like ripples on water.
• Earthquakes radiate seismic energy as both body and
surface waves.

Body waves

• Generated due to the release of energy at the focus. It

moves in all directions travelling through the body of
the earth.
• The velocity of waves changes as they travel through
materials with different densities. The denser the
The knowledge of earth's interior is very important to material, the higher is the velocity.
understand the various geophysical phenomenons like • Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract
earthquake, volcanism, etc. It also helps in mineral when coming across materials with different
exploration. Geologists have used two main types of densities.
evidence to learn about Earth’s interior • There are two types of body waves
1. Direct evidence 1. P-Wave
1. samples drilled from deep inside Earth help in 2. S-Wave
making inferences.
▪ Deepest drill at Kola (in Arctic Ocean) has so
P wave or Primary wave
far reached a depth of 12 km
2. Volcanic eruptions
• Fastest kind of seismic wave.
2. Indirect evidence
• First to 'arrive' at a seismic station.
1. Seismic waves produced by earthquakes.
• Can move through solid rock and fluids.
2. Meteors are likely to have a similar internal
• Velocity = Solids > Liquids > Gases
structure as of Earth (Both are solar objects and
• It pushes and pulls the rock as it moves through, just
born from the same nebular cloud).
3. Gravity anomalies due to uneven distribution of like sound waves push and pull the air.
mass of material within the earth (Provide

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Surface wave

• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and

generate new set of waves called surface waves.
• It travels only through the crust and have lower
frequency than body waves.
• Arrive after body waves.
• Also known as long period waves.
• Almost entirely responsible for the damage and
destruction associated with earthquakes.
• This damage and the strength of the surface waves are
reduced in deeper earthquakes.
• There are two types of surface waves
o Hence, it is also known as compressional 1. Love Waves = Zig-Zag movement
waves because of the pushing and pulling 2. Rayleigh Waves = Elliptical movement
they do.
• Particles move in the same direction of wave How the properties of ‘P’ and ‘S’ waves help in
propagation. determining the earth’s interior?

• Change of density in different layers of the Earth

greatly varies the wave velocity.
The windows during the thunder rattle because the • The density of the earth as a whole can be estimated
sound waves push and pull on the window glass much by observing the changes in velocity of waves.
like P waves push and pull on rock. • By the observing the changes in direction of the P and
S waves (emergence of shadow zones), different
S wave or Secondary wave layers can be estimated.

• Second wave felt in an earthquake. Emergence of Shadow Zone

• The S wave is slower than a P wave.
• It can only move through solid rock (not through any • Shadow zone is the area of Earth's surface where
liquid medium). seismographs cannot detect an earthquake after the
o Property helped seismologists to conclude waves have passed through the earth.
that the Earth's outer core is a liquid. • P-waves are refracted by the liquid outer core and are
• S waves move rock particles up and down (or side-to- not detected between 104° and 140°.
side), perpendicular to the direction of wave • S-waves cannot pass through the liquid outer core and
propagation. are not detected beyond 104°.
• This information led scientists to deduce a liquid
outer core.

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CONCENTRIC LAYERS OF EARTH'S Temperature

INTERIOR
• @ 48 Km = 1100 °C
• @ oceanic crust – (upper part- 0 °C; lower part- 1200
°C)
• @ 400-700 Km = 1500-1900 °C
• @ Junction of the mantle and outer core = 2900-3700
°C
• @ Outer and inner Core = 4300 °C

Density

• Outer thinner part is sedimentary rocks (0.8 to 1.6

km).
• Below this there are crystalline rocks up to 3 km.
• Average density of the earth is 5.5 g/cm3.
• Layers distinct in terms of temperature, composition, o Outer layer (continents) = SIAL or granitic
and density rocks- 2.7 g/cm3
• Heat radiation → Conduction mainly and convection o Mantle and Oceanic crust = SIMA or
in the magma chamber Basaltic- 4.3 g/cm3
• Temperature increases with depth = 1 °C/32 meters o Core = NiFe- 11.0 g/cm3
(at 48 km @ 1200-1300 °C)
• This rate is mainly due to presence of radioactive Crust
materials in the crust (up to 100kms)
• Layer of solid rock that forms Earth’s outer “skin”

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• Above mohorovic discontinuity • Movement of liquid outer core creates Earth’s

• Less than 1% of volume magnetic field
• It includes both dry land (Continental) and ocean
floor (Oceanic)
• Oceanic crust consists mostly of basalt
• Continental crust consists mainly of granite

Mantle

• Layer of solid, hot rock 40 kilometers beneath the

surface- Largest layer

Earth's chemical composition

•
Between Mohovoric and Gutenberg discontinuity
• Density = 3.3 g/cm3 at mohovoric and 5.7 g/cm3 at
Gutenberg
• Divided into layers
1. Lithosphere – Uppermost part of mantle and MINERALS
the crust for a ridge layer about 100
kilometers thick • A mineral is a naturally occurring organic and
2. Asthenosphere – Softer part of mantle below inorganic substance, having an orderly atomic
the lithosphere which is hotter and under structure and a definite chemical composition and
increased pressure physical properties.
3. Lower Mantle – Solid material extending all • A mineral is generally composed of two or more
the way to Earth’s core elements but sometimes single element minerals like
sulphur, copper, silver, gold, graphite etc. are also
Core found.
• These are usually solid and inorganic, and have a
• Made mostly of the metals Iron and Nickel (NiFe) crystal structure.
• Consists of two parts o Exceptions- Minerals such as coal,
o Outer core – Layer of molten metal that petroleum, and natural gas are organic
surrounds inner core (P waves slow down, substances found in solid, liquid, and gaseous
while S waves stop) forms respectively.
o Inner core - Dense ball of solid metal • The basic source of all minerals is the hot magma in
the interior of the earth.

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• Feldspar and quartz are the most common minerals • Denudation: An erosive process of breaking and
found in rocks. removing the rocks from the surface of the earth.
o It is the wearing away of the terrestrial land
Some major minerals and their characteristics by weathering, erosion, moving water, ice
Feldspar waves.
• Lithification: Process of compaction that turns
• Silicon and oxygen are common elements. denuded sediments into the sedimentary rock.
• Half of the earth’s crust is composed of feldspar. o e.g. sandstone, limestone, shale, chert
• It is used in ceramics and glass making.
Types of rocks
Quartz
1. Igneous Rocks — Solidified from magma and lava
• It is one of the most important components of sand 2. Sedimentary Rocks — Result of deposition of
and granite. fragments of rocks
• It consists of silica. 3. Metamorphic Rocks — Formed out of existing rocks
• It is a hard mineral virtually insoluble in water. undergoing recrystallization
• It is white or colourless and used in radio and radar.
Most Abundant = Igneous Rocks > Metamorphic Rocks
Pyroxene > Sedimentary Rocks

• Pyroxene forms 10 per cent of the earth’s crust. Igneous Rocks

• Commonly found in meteorites.
• It is in green or black colour.

Amphibole

• Used in asbestos industry.

• Hornblende is another form of amphiboles.

Mica

• Found in igneous and metamorphic rocks. It is used

in electrical instruments.
• Formed out of magma and lava from the interior of
Olivine the earth.
• They are known as primary rocks.
• Used in jewellery. • Granite, gabbro, pegmatite, basalt, volcanic breccia
• Found in basaltic rocks. and tuff are some of the examples of igneous rocks.
• Based on the presence of acid forming radical
Bauxite (silicon), igneous rocks are divided into Acid Rocks
and Basic Rocks.
• It is the ore of aluminium (hydrous oxide of • 2 types
aluminium).
• It is non-crystalline. 1. Intrusive rocks (Granite)

ROCKS

• A rock is an aggregate of one or more minerals.

o Do not have definite composition of mineral
constituents.
• Petrology is the scientific study of rocks.

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▪ Plutonic rocks • Till/Tillite → Ice deposited sedimentary rocks

▪ Slow cooling (at great depths) of molten • Loess → Wind deposited sediments
material allows big-sized crystal. It results in
large mineral grains. Depending upon the mode of formation, they are
▪ Less dense and are lighter in color than basic classified into
rocks.
1. Mechanically formed - sandstone, conglomerate,
2. Extrusive rocks (Basalt- Deccan Traps) limestone, shale, loess etc.

▪ Volcanic rocks o Formed by mechanical agents like running

▪ Rapid cooling (at the surface) molten water, wind, ocean currents, ice, etc.
material prevents crystallization. It results in o Arenaceous rocks: More sand and big sized
small and smooth grains. particles. They are porous and hard. E.g.
▪ Denser and darker in color. sandstone.
o Argillaceous rocks: More clay and are fine-
• Their origin under conditions of high temperatures grained. They are softer, impermeable and
makes them Unfossiliferous. non-porous. They are easily weathered and
eroded. E.g. shale.
Sedimentary or Detrital Rocks 2. Organically formed — geyserite, chalk, limestone,
coal etc.
• Formed as a result of lithification of denuded
rocks (Exogenic agents lead to weathering and
erosion of rocks exposed to it).
o Deposits through compaction turn into
rocks.
o They are layered or stratified of varying
thickness.

o The remains of plants and animals buried

under sediments undergo a transformation
due to the heat and pressure from overlying
layers.
o Marine animals like corals and algae extract
CaCO3 form sea water and deposit it in their
skeletons. When they die, their skeletons
▪ Sometimes, the deposits layers retain together form limestone.
their characteristics even after 3. Chemically formed — chert, limestone, halite,
lithification. potash etc.
• It possesses 75% of the earth’s crust but occupy
only 5% on volume basis.

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2. Clay, Shale → Schist

2. Thermal Metamorphism
▪ Minerals of sedimentary and igneous
rocks re-crystallize under the
influence of high temperatures.
▪ Examples

1. Sandstone → Quartzite
2. Clay, Shale → Slate →
Phyllit
3. Coal → Anthracite, Graphite
o Such rocks are precipitated chemically from 4. Limestone → Marble
solutions of one kind or another.
o Example: Gypsum 2 types of thermal metamorphism
o Water containing minerals in caves evaporate 1. Contact meta-morphism
and give rise to Stalactites and stalagmites. ▪ Rocks come in contact with
hot intruding magma and
lava and the rock materials
recrystallise under high
temperatures.
▪ Quite often new materials
form out of magma or lava
are added to the rocks.
2. Regional metamorphism
▪ Rocks undergo
recrystallisation due to
deformation caused by
tectonic shearing together
Chief Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks with high temperature or
pressure or both.
• These rocks consist of a number of layers or strata.
• Marks of left behind water currents and waves etc.
• Have fossils of plants and animals.
• Generally porous (allow water to percolate through
them).

Metamorphic Rocks

• Metamorphic means ‘change of form’.

• Metamorphism is a process by which already
consolidated materials within the original rocks
undergo recrystallization and reorganization.
• These rocks form under the action of pressure,
volume and temperature (PVT) changes.
• Metamorphism occurs mainly by two processes
1. Dynamic Metamorphism
▪ Rocks are forced down to lower Foliation or Lineation
levels by tectonic processes.
▪ The minerals of sedimentary and • Arrangement of rocks grains during the process of
igneous rocks re-crystallize under metamorphism.
the influence of pressure without any
appreciable chemical changes. Banding
▪ Examples
1. Granite → Gneiss

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• Structure in metamorphic rocks in which minerals or OCEANS AND CONTINENTS DISTRIBUTION

materials of different groups are arranged into
alternating thin to thick layers appearing in light and To explain the present
dark shades. distribution of oceans and
continents, various theories have
Rock cycle been proposed.

• A continuous process through which old rocks are

transformed into new ones. Continental Drift Theory
• Igneous rocks are primary rocks and other rocks form
from these rocks. • By Alfred Wegener.
• According to the continental drift theory, the world
was made up of a single continent called Pangaea
surrounded by ocean called Panthalassa through most
of geologic time.
• A sea called Tethys divided the Pangaea into two
huge landmasses
1. Laurentia (Laurasia) to the north
2. Gondwanaland to the south
• Drift started around 200 million years ago (Mesozoic
Era). The continents began to break up and drift away
from one another.
• The continent eventually separated and drifted apart
and the seven continents emerged that exist today

Force for Continental Drift 2. Buoyant force (Object floats in the fluid due to this
property)
1. Pole-fleeing force (Rotation of the earth causes 3. Tidal force (Due to the attraction of the moon and the
centrifugal effect) sun that develops tides in oceanic waters)
4. Gravitational force

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Wegener believed that these forces would become 1. Ranges in Canada match Norway and
effective when applied over many million years and the Sweden.
drift is still continuing. 2. Appalachian Mountains match UK
Mountains.
4. Fossil evidence for ancient climates
Bouyancy = Buoyancy is an upward force exerted by a
fluid on an immersed object in a gravity field.

Archimedes' principle = Buoyant force on an object is

equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the object.

The drift was in two directions

• Equator wards due to the interaction of forces of

1. Gravitational force
2. Pole-fleeing force
3. Buoyant force
• Westwards due to tidal currents caused by earth’s
rotation form west to east (Tidal currents act from east
to west) o Plant and animal fossils on very different
continents
Evidence in support of Continental Drift ▪ Mesosaurus, which was a freshwater
reptile.
1. Geomorphologic and geological similarities along the ▪ Glossopteris, which was a tropical
coasts of South America-Africa and Europe-North fern.
America. o Same plants and animals on such
different land masses indicates oneness
of continents.

Drawbacks of Continental Drift Theory

1. Too general with silly and sometimes illogical

evidences.
o Buoyancy and Gravity act in opposite
directions.
1. The Jig-Saw-Fit of Continents. o The Earth would have stopped rotation if the
2. Placer Deposits of gold in the Ghana coast tidal force exerted by sun and moon is strong
without any source rock in nearby region. enough to rift the continents.
2. Tillite 2. It doesn't explain why drift initiated only in Mesozoic
1. It is the sedimentary rock formed by glacier era and not before.
deposits.
2. The Gondawana systems of sediments from The continental drift theory was unable to provide the
India have counter parts in six different strong reason for continent movement. This issue was
landmasses of the Southern Hemisphere. eliminated by the later studies.
3. Same Age of rocks across the Oceans. For example

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Gyanbazi (Something Extra)

Density – Measure of how much mass there is in a volume of a substance.
3 types of heat transfer
1. Radiation – The transfer of energy through empty space. There is no direct contact between heat source and an object.
• Sunlight warming Earth’s surface
2. Conduction – Conduction takes place when two bodies of unequal temperature are in contact with one another, there
is a flow of energy from the warmer to cooler body. The transfer of heat continues until both the bodies attain the
same temperature or the contact is broken. Hence, it is a process of heat transfer by direct contact of particles of
matter.
• Metal spoon heating up in a pot of hot soup.
3. Convection – Transfer of heat by the movement of a heated fluid (includes liquids and gases). Heat transfer by
convection is caused by differences in temperature and density within a fluid

CONVECTIONAL CURRENT THEORY

• Given by Arthur Holme. o Falling (descending) limbs of these currents
• Heat generated due to the = Trenches are formed (Due to the
decay of radioactive convergence of the lithospheric plate)
elements creates thermal • The movement of the lithospheric plate is driven by
differences in the mantle movement of magma in the mantle (Driven by
portion. convective process).
• To vent out, the thermal
differences builds a convection current cycle in the This system of currents exists in the entire mantle portion.
mantle.
o Rising (ascending) limbs of these currents =
Oceanic ridges are formed (Due to the
divergence of the lithospheric plate)

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Mapping of the Ocean Floor 4. Abyssal plains (Deep Sea Plain): Undulating plain
lies 2-3 miles below sea level and cover 2/3rd of
• During the World War II, mankind reached to the ocean floor. Lying generally between the foot of a
bottom of ocean floor through the usage of continental rise and a mid-ocean ridge, abyssal
submarines. plains cover more than 50% of the Earth's surface.
• Detailed studies of bottom of ocean revealed that the 5. Oceanic Ridges: The oceanic ridge system is a
floor is full of relief with mountain ranges, deep continuous underwater mountain range. It is created
trenches etc. when magma rising between diverging plates of the
lithosphere cools and forms a new layer of crust.
Ocean Floor 6. Abyssal hills: Sea hills on abyssal plains rising less
than 1000 meters from the floor are called Abyssal
1. Continental shelf: Angle is 1º, depth is 120-150 hills.
meter, and it extends generally 70 km into the sea. But 7. Sea mounts: Sea hills on abyssal plains rising above
this varies a lot 1000 meters from the floor are called sea mounts.
o The continental shelf is virtually absent in 8. Guyots: Guyots are seamounts which have flat tops.
west coast of South America. All of them are generally of volcanic origin.
o It is 120 km wide in east coast of North 9. Submarine trenches/deeps: Long narrow and steep
America. In Bay of Bengal, it is very wide as depression on abyssal plain is called a trench. The
well. deeper trenches (> 5500 meters) are called deeps.
2. Continental slope: At the end of continental shelf 10. Canyons: Canyons are deep concave gorges on
slope steepens abruptly. Its end marks the end of continental shelf, slope or rise.
continental blocks. 11. Strait, sound / channel: Both straits and channels are
3. Continental rise: At the end of continental slope, narrow pieces of water connecting two larger bodies
slope becomes gentle again to 0.5º to 1º. Its end marks of water. Straits are narrower than a channel or sound.
the end of continental margin.

PALEOMAGNETISM

• The word paleomagnetism literally means ancient

magnetism.
• Studies of different-aged rock give information about
past strength and orientation of the Earth’s magnetic
properties.
• Minerals of rocks assumed the direction of magnetic
field polarity when they were formed and preserved
their property after the solidification.

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▪ Normal Polarity = North-seeking end of the To answer the above questions, Harry Hess utilised the
compass needle points toward the present north study of convection current and
magnetic pole. paleomganetism and proposed
▪ Reversed Polarity = North-seeking end of the the theory of Sea Floor Spreading.
compass needle points toward the present south
magnetic pole • The younger age of the oceanic
crust and the fact that the
Features of ocean floor spreading of one ocean does not
cause the shrinking of the other
• The mapping of the ocean floor and Paleomagnetic indicates the consumption of the
studies of rocks from oceanic regions reveals: oceanic crust.
o Volcanic eruptions are common all along the • Hot magma from Earth’s mantle rises up through the
mid-oceanic ridges and they bring huge mid-oceanic ridges and constantly produces new
amounts of lava to the surface. oceanic crust.
o Remarkable similarities of rocks at • Crust cools and flows sideways forming new
equidistant locations on either side of the seafloor. It is recycled millions of years later when it
crest in terms of constituents and age. returns to the mantle by descending into the deep
o Rocks closer to the mid-oceanic ridges are ocean trenches.
normal polarity and are the youngest. The age o This indicates that the crust near the oceanic
of the rocks increases as one move away from ridge would be youngest (due to its recent
the crest. creation by outpour of basaltic lava from the
o Rocks on the oceanic crust are much younger interior of the earth) and near the trenches
than those on the continents. would be oldest.
o The deep trenches have deep-seated o Rate of sea floor spreading is decided by age
earthquake occurrences while in the mid- and distance between two equal magnetic
oceanic ridge areas, the quake foci have strips.
shallow depths. • This indicates the formation and consumption of the
oceanic crust is a cyclical process driven by
convection currents in the mantle.
SEA FLOOR SPREADING • Seafloor spreading theory helps in providing

The features of oceanic relief provided many insights but

following questions remained unanswered

1. Why there is no oceanic crust before the mid explanation of continental drift in the theory of plate
Mesozoic era? tectonics.
2. Why the age of crust increases while going away
from mid oceanic ridge?
3. Why the continuous creation of crust is not PLATE TECTONIC THEORY
causing the increase of oceanic floor?

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The sea floor spreading theory Major tectonic plates

explained the oceanic crust movement
effectively but it did not explain the 1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate
reason of continental plate movement. 2. North American plate
To remove this drawback, plate tectonic 3. South American plate
theory is given by McKenzie and 4. Pacific plate
Parker. 5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate
6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate
• Tectonic plates are pieces of 7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate
Earth's crust and uppermost mantle, together referred
to as the lithosphere. Minor tectonic plates
• The earth’s lithosphere is broken into distinct plates.
These plates float on a ductile layer of 1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and
asthenosphere (upper mantle) as a rigid unit. Pacific plate
• Lithospheric plates (or crustal plates or tectonic 2. Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific
plates) can be differentiated as plate
1. Minor plates or major plates 3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian
2. Continental plates (Arabian plate) or oceanic landmass
plates (Pacific plate) 4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific
▪ Sometime a combination of both plate
(Indo-Australian plate) 5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and
▪ A plate may be referred to as the Indian plate (North of New Guinea)
continental plate or oceanic plate 6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia.
depending on which of the two 7. Turkish plate
occupy a larger portion of the plate. 8. Aegean plate (Mediterranean region)
▪ Oceanic plates = Simatic and 9. Caribbean plate
relatively thinner 10. Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific and North
▪ Continental plates = Sialic and American plates)
relatively thicker 11. Iranian plate
• Plate density (Denser plate goes for the subduction)
o Oceanic Plate > Continental Plate There are lots of other minor plates than the above
o Bigger Plate > Smaller Plate mentioned one. Most of these minor plates were formed
due to stress generated by converging major plates. For
Types of Tectonics Plates example, the Mediterranean Sea is divided into numerous
The earth’s lithosphere is divided into seven major and minor plates because of the compressive force exerted by
some minor plates. Eurasian and African plates.

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Force for the Plate Movement 1. Divergence or Divergent Edge or the Constructive
• Convection current cycle Edge
2. Convergence or Convergent Edge or Destructive
Types of Plate boundaries interaction Edge
3. Transcurrent Edge or Conservative Edge or
Transform Fault.

Divergence forming or Divergent Edge or the • Formation of Mid-oceanic ridges through which
Constructive Edge Basaltic magma erupts and moves apart (sea floor
spreading).
• Such edges are sites of earth crust formation (hence
constructive) and volcanic earth forms are common At Continents
along such edges. • Formation of Rift Valley (East African Rift Valley
• Earthquakes (shallow focus) are common along on African and Somali plates).
divergent edges. • Rifts are the initial stage of a continental break-up.
• The sites where the plates move away from each other • The continuous diverging force below the rifts can
are called spreading sites. lead to the formation of a new ocean basin.
• The best-known example of divergent boundaries is
the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.

At Ocean

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New Ocean Formation from Rift Valley

A huge rift forming in the Ethiopian Afar desert is expected to become the world's newest ocean. When this happens, the
Afar Rift will turn into a new ocean that will split the African continent and release the Horn of Africa from its land mass.

(a) Divergence at Convergence or Convergent Edge or Destructive Edge

continental plate

(b) Creation of Rift Valley

(c) Formation of nascent

sea

(d) Nascent sea gets

converted into the ocean

There are mainly 3 ways in which convergence can occur • When two oceanic plates collide, the denser plate
Oceanic-Oceanic Boundaries sinks below the lighter plate.

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o Normally the older plate will subduct • The Cascade Mountains of western North America
because of its higher density. and the Andes of western South America feature such
• It forms trench along the boundary. active volcanoes.
• The rocks in the subduction zone become
metamorphosed. Continental-Continental Boundaries
o Low density and high pressure magma forms
that rises upward due to the buoyant force.
• A continuous upward movement of magma
creates volcanic islands on the ocean floor.
• Earthquake and Volcanism is common.
• The deepest oceanic trench, the Mariana Trench, is
the result of the Pacific Plate moving beneath the
Mariana Plate.
• Example = Indonesian Archipelago, Philippine Island
Arc

Oceanic-Continental Boundaries

• Continental-continental convergent boundaries pit

large slabs of crust against each other.
• There is very little subduction as most of the rock is
too light to be carried very far down into the dense
mantle.
o The zone of collision may undergo crumpling
and folding and folded mountains may
emerge.
• Magma cannot penetrate this thick crust; instead, it
cools intrusively and forms granite. Highly
metamorphosed rock, like gneiss, is also common.
o Earthquake is frequent but no volcanic
activity occurs.
• When oceanic and continental plates collide, the • The ocean basin or a sedimentary basin (geosynclinal
oceanic plate undergoes subduction. sediments found along the continental margins) is
o Oceanic plates are denser than continental squeezed between the two converging plates.
plates, which mean they have a higher o Himalayan mountains have come out of
subduction potential. a great geosyncline called the Tethys Sea.
o They are constantly being pulled into the • This is an orogenic collision. Himalayan Boundary
mantle, where they are melted and recycled Fault is one such example.
into new magma.
o It forms trench along the boundary. The Geosyncline theory of mountain building
trenches formed here are less deep than • Geosyncline: A large-scale depression in the
formed in ocean-ocean convergence. earth's crust containing very thick deposits.
• The rocks in the subduction zone become
metamorphosed.
o Low density and high pressure magma forms
that rises upward due to the buoyant force.
• Earthquake and Volcanism is common.
• A continuous upward movement of magma creates
constant volcanic eruptions at the surface of the
continental plate along the margin.

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Phases of formation

• Continent → Oceanic Crust  Continent

o Creation of depression between continental
plates
o Sediments deposit in this depression
o Depression also contain marine origin
sediments due to the presence of erstwhile
ocean
• There are evidences of marine origin sediments have
been found in Karakoram range of Trans-Himalayas.
This shows the presence of ocean in between of
Indian and Eurasian plate before the collision that had
been ultimately transformed into the geosyncline due
to the compressive forces of two plates.

Ocean-Ocean Convergence Ocean-Continent Convergence Continent-Continent Convergence

(Island-Arc Convergence) (Cordilleran Convergence) (Himalayan Convergence)
Denser plate subduction and Oceanic plate subduction and Neither plate subduct or shallow subduction
trench formation trench formation leading crumpling and folding of plate
Earthquake and Volcanism Earthquake and Volcanism Earthquake
Low density high pressure Magma (matamorphosed Fragments of oceanic crust get plastered leading
Magma (matamorphosed rocks) rocks) rises upward leading welding of two plates (known as Suture Zone)
formation that rises upward volcanic eruptions all along the
leading volcanic eruptions boundaries

Chain of volcanic islands Extensive volcanic mountain Fold mountain formation

formation known as Island Arc formation known as Continental
Arc
Examples = Indonesian Examples = Rockies (North Examples = Himalayas, Alps, Urals,
Archipelago, Philippine Island America) and Andes (South Appalachians
Arc America) Mountains

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Erosional material
Continental plates Creation of Upliftment of
is deposited in the Folding of the
movement geosynclines sediments in
geosyncline geosynclinal
towards one due to the geosyncline due to
causing sediments to form
another force of horizontal
sedimentation and mountain ranges
contraction compressional force
subsidence

ranscurrent Edge or Conservative Edge or Transform Fault

• Formed when two plates passes each other and

grind against each other.
• There is only deformation of the existing landform
(no creation or destruction).
o Neither creation of crust (no basaltic lava
eruption) nor destruction of crust (no
subduction)
• Seismic activity occurs during grinding of passing
plates.
• Example = San Andreas Fault @ western coast of
USA

Ring of Fire

• The Ring of Fire is also known as the Circum-Pacific Belt.

• It is a path along the Pacific Ocean characterized by active volcanoes and frequent earthquakes.
• Along much of the Ring of Fire, plates overlap at convergent boundaries (falling limbs creating trenches) called
subduction zones.
o Plate that is underneath is pushed down (subducted) by the plate above, melts and becomes magma.
• The abundance of magma so near to Earth’s surface gives rise to conditions ripe for volcanic activity.

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Rates of Plate Movement and its significance o This slowdown is interpreted to mark the
beginning of the collision between the
• The strips of normal and reverse magnetic field that Eurasian and Indian continental plates, the
parallel the mid-oceanic ridges help scientists closing of the former Tethys Ocean, and the
determine the rates of plate movement. initiation of Himalayan uplift.
• These rates of movement for these plates vary • The Eurasian plate was partly crumpled and
considerably. buckled up above the Indian plate but due to their
• The Arctic Ridge has the slowest rate (less than 2.5 low density/high buoyancy neither continental plate
cm/yr), and the East Pacific Rise near Easter Island, could be subducted.
in the South Pacific about 3,400 km west of Chile, • This caused the continental crust to thicken due to
has the fastest rate (more than 15 cm/yr). folding and faulting by compressional forces
pushing up the Himalaya and the Tibetan Plateau.
Importance of plate tectonic • The Himalayas are still rising by more than 1 cm
per year as India continues to move northwards into
• It helps in understanding of large-scale geological Asia, which explains the occurrence of shallow
phenomena, such as earthquakes, volcanoes, and focus earthquakes in the region today.
the existence of ocean basins and continents.
• It aids in the interpretation of landforms.
• The concept of plate tectonics explains mineralogy.
New minerals pour up from the mantle and deposits
on lithosphere. These rocks are the source of many
minerals.
o The famous Pacific Ring of fire known for
its violent volcanic activity is also a ring of
mineral deposits.

FORMATION OF HIMALAYAS

• 225 million years ago (mya) India was a large island

situated off the Australian coast and separated from
Asia by the Tethys Ocean.
• The supercontinent Pangea began to break up 200
Ma and India started a northward drift towards Asia.
• 80 Ma India was 6,400 km south of the Asian
continent but moving towards it at a rate of between
9 and 16 cm per year.
o At this time Tethys Ocean floor would have
been subducting northwards beneath Asia
and the plate margin would have been a
Convergent oceanic-continental one just
like the Andes today.
• From about 50-40 Ma the rate of northward drift of
the Indian continental plate slowed to around 4-6
cm per year.

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CH-3 GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES AND LANDFORMS

WE ARE GOING TO COVER

1. Geomorphic processes
2. Endogenic process
1. Sudden movement
2. Diastrophic movement
1. Epeirigenic movement
2. Orogenic movement
▪ Crustal deformation
processes
▪ Fold
▪ Fault
▪ Types of mountains
▪ Fold
▪ Block
▪ Volcanic
▪ Residual
▪ Significance of
mountains
▪ Some relevant
definitions related to
mountains
▪ Some details of
important mountain
ranges
3. Exogenic process
1. Weathering
▪ Chemical
▪ Physical
▪ Biological
Mass movement
▪ Slow and Rapid
Erosion and deposition
Geographical Landforms
o Glacial
o Riverine
o Karst (Chalkland)
o Marine
o Arid
▪ Water
▪ Wind
o Plateaus
o Plains

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After learning about the earth formation, the evolution of andbring changes in the configurationof the surface
its crust and other inner layers, the rocks and minerals the of the earth are known as geomorphic processes.
crust is composed of, the crustal plates movement, it is • In general terms, the endogenic forces are mainly land
time to know in detail about the surface of the earth on building forces and the exogenic processes are mainly
which we live. land wearing forces.
• The actions of exogenic forces result in wearing down
GEOMORPHIC PROCESSES (degradation) of relief/elevations and filling up
(aggradation) of basins/ depressions, on the earth’s
surface.
• Force responsible for features on the earth surface
• The phenomenon of wearing down of relief variations
comes from within (Endogenetic Forces) and above
of the surface of the earth through erosion is known
(Exogenetic Forces) the earth’s surface.
as gradation.
• The endogenic and exogenic forces cause physical
• The exogenic processes fail to even out the relief
stresses and chemical actions on earth materials
variations of the surface of the earth due to the
endogenic forces that continuously elevate or build up
parts of the earth’s surface.

ENDOGENIC PROCESSES
• These are extreme events and become disaster when
they occur in densely populated areas.
• It is a result of long period preparation deep within
the earth; but the effects on the earth surface were
quick and sudden.
• Geologically, they are known as ‘Constructive forces’
as they create relief features on the Earth’s surface.
• The two main phenomenon for sudden movement are
• Volcanism = It includes the movement of molten rock
(magma) onto or towards the earth’s surface through
narrow volcanic vents or fissures.
• The energy emanating from within the earth is the • Earthquake =It is a sudden motion or trembling in
main force behind endogenic geomorphic processes. the earth caused by the abrupt release of slowly
• This energy is mostly generated by radioactivity, accumulated energy.
rotational and tidal frictionand primordial heat from
the origin of the earth. We will read about volcanism and earthquake in detail in
• Due to variations in geothermal gradients and heat the geographical phenomenon topic.
flow from within, the action of endogenic forces are
not uniform. Hence the tectonically controlled DIASTROPHIC MOVEMENTS
original crustal surface is uneven.
• Endogenetic forces are of 2 types based on direction • All processes that move, lift or build up portions of
1. Horizontal
the crust of Earth come under diastrophism.
2. Vertical
• Very slow and effects become discernable after
• Endogenetic Forces are of 2 types based on intensity thousands and millions of years.
1. Sudden forces
• Constructive forces- Affect larger areas of the globe
2. Diastrophic forces
and produce meso-level reliefs.
o Example: mountains, plateaus and plains
SUDDEN MOVEMENTS • Diastrophic movements are further divided
1. Epeirogenic movements
• It is due to sudden forces from deep inside the earth. 2. Orogenic movements
• It can cause huge damage both at the surface and
below the surface. EPEIROGENIC MOVEMENTS

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• Epeirogenic-or-continent • Coramandal coast (Tamil Nadu Coast)

forming movements are radial movements • Malabar coast (Kerala Coast)
(act along the radius of the earth). • Konkan coast (Maharashtra and Goa Coast)
• It causes upliftment and subsidence of continental
masses through upward and downward movements. Downward movement or subsidence
• Movements are vertical and they affect larger part.
• Vertical movements are mainly associated with the • Of whole continent or part there of
formation of continents and plateaus (continental • Of coastal land near the coast called submergence
building process). • Features = Ria, fjord, Dalmatian and drowned
• Upward movement can be of two types- lowlands
• The Andamans and Nicobars is the visible part of the
Upward movement or upliftment submerged Arakan range.
• A part of the Rann of Kachchh was submerged as a
• Of whole continent or part there of result of an earthquake in 1819.
• Of coastal land of the continents called as emergence

OROGENIC MOVEMENTS

• Horizontal movement or tangential force.

• Either move towardseach other or away from each
other.
• They move in opposite directions due to the
‘tensional forces’ or ‘divergent forces’ (create
rupture, cracks, fracture and faults).
• They move towards each other due to the
‘compressional forces or convergent force’ (create

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crustal deformation leading to formation of folds or

subsidence of crustal parts).

CRUSTAL DEFORMATION PROCESSES

The understanding of crustal deformation processes is

very vital to effectively grasp the concept of fold and
block mountains formation. These are basically of 3 types

• Compression- shortening (Fold mountain creation)

• Tension- Stretching (Block mountain creation)
• Shearing- stress when two pieces slide past each • Nappe = A sheet of rock that has moved sideways
other (Transverse fault) over neighbouring strata as a result of an overthrust
or folding.
Folds
A fold is an undulating structure (wave-like) that forms
due to the application of compressional stress on rocks or
a part of the earth’s crust. The folds are made up
of multiple strata (rock layers).Some important
terminologies related to folds are

• Anticlines and synclines are the most common up-

and-down folds that result from compression.
• Anticline = ∩-shape with the oldest rocks in the center
of the fold.
• Syncline = U-shape, with the youngest rocks in the
center of the fold.
• OverturnedFold = A highly inclined axial plane such
that the strata on one limb are overturned.
• RecumbentFold = has an essentially horizontal axial
plane.

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Faults • A dip-slip fault in which the upper block, above the

fault plane, moves up and over the lower block.
• A surface along which a rock body has broken and • This type of faulting is common in areas of
been displaced is known as a fault. compression.
• Based on the elasticity of the rocks and the force, • When the dip angle is shallow, a reverse fault is
fractures are seen. often described as a thrust fault.
• Fault plane: The plane along which the rocks are • Occurs where the “hanging wall” moves up or is
displaced by tensional and compressional forces thrust over the “foot wall”.
acting vertically and horizontally is known as a fault
plane. Strike-slip fault
• Fault plane may be vertical, horizontal, inclined,
curved or any other form • A fault on which the two blocks slide past one
another. The San Andreas Fault is an example of a
right lateral fault.

Left-lateral strike-slip fault

Normal Fault

• If you were to stand on the fault and look along its

length, this is a type of strike-slip fault where the
left block moves toward you and the right block
moves away.

Right-lateral strike-slip fault

• A dip-slip fault in which the block above the fault

has moved downward relative to the block below.
• This type of faulting occurs in response to
extension.
• Occurs when the “hanging wall” moves down
relative to the “foot wall”.

Reverse Fault
• If you were to stand on the fault and look along its
length, this is a type of strike-slip fault where the
right block moves toward you and the left block
moves away.

TYPES OF MOUNTAINS
Fold Mountains

• Fold Mountains are created at the converging site of

two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates.
• It is the result of Earth's crustal rocks folding by
compressive forces due to the endogenic or internal
forces.

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• They are considered as the "true mountains". • Mountains which originated before the Tertiary
• The term Orogenesis or mountain building is period.
commonly used for Fold Mountains. • These mountains have been so greatly eroded

• These are extensive mountain chain with lofty that they have become residual fold mountains.
heightswhereas their width is considerablysmall. • Example
• These mountains formed along unstable part of the • Aravalis – 800 km
earth and hence have recurrent seismicity. • Appalachians – 2,414 km
• They also contain rich mineral resources such as tin,
copper, gold etc. 2. Young or New fold mountains

Examples • Fold mountains of the Tertiary period.

• They are further subdivided based on their
1. Rockies (North America) – 4,830 km location
2. Andes (South America)– 7,000 km
3. Alps (Europe)– 1,200 km 1. Andean type
4. Atlas (Africa) – 2,500 km ▪ At the ocean-continental
5. Himalayas (Asia) – 2,400 km convergent boundaries (C-O).
▪ Prone to both earthquakes and
Types of Fold Mountains volcanic activities.
On the basis of Nature of Fold ▪ Example
▪ Rockies
1. Simple folded mountains - Folds are arranged in ▪ Andes
waves like pattern with a well-developed system of 2. Himalayan type
anticline and synclines. ▪ At the continental-continental
2. Complex folded mountains - Folds are complex in convergent boundaries (C-C).
nature due to extreme compressional forces like ▪ No active volcanism here.
overfold, recumbent fold and nappe. Himalayas are ▪ Presence of sedimentary
one such example. deposits of marine origin
because of Geosyncline.
On the basis of the Period of Origin ▪ Example
▪ Great Himalayas
1. Old fold mountains

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BLOCK MOUNTAINS

• Block Mountains are created where two or more of

Earth’s tectonic plates are drifted away.
• Result of rifting of the Earth's crustal rocks by
tensile forces arising from the endogenic or internal
forces.
• Also called fault-block Mountains since they are RESIDUAL OR DISSECTED MOUNTAIN
formed due to faulting as a result of tensile and
compressive forces. • These mountains are evolved by denudation.
• The uplifted blocks are termed as horsts, and the • That is why they are also known as relict mountains
lowered blocks are called graben. or mountains of circumdenudation.
• They have been worn down from previously
existing elevated regions.
• Examples
• Nilgiri Hills
• Parasnath
• Girnar
• Rajmahal
• But Nilgiris got their present height as a result of
subsequent uplift.

• Examples CLASSIFICATION OF MOUNTAINS ON THE

• Great African Rift Valley (valley floor is graben) BASIS OF LOCATION

1. Continental mountains
2. Oceanic mountains

CONTINENTAL MOUNTAINS

1. Coastal mountains
1. the Rockies
2. the Appalachians
3. the Alpine mountain chains
4. the Western Ghats (India)
5. the Eastern Ghats (India)
2. Inland mountains
• Rhine Valley (graben) and Vosges mountain (horst) 1. the Vosges and the Black Forest (Europe)
in Europe 2. the Kunlun, Tienshan, Altai mountains of Asia
3. the Urals of Russia
VOLCANIC MOUNTAIN 4. the Aravallis, the Himalayas, the Satpura, and
the Maikal of India
• A mountain formed due to volcanic activity is
called Volcanic Mountain. OCEANIC MOUNTAINS
• As these are formed by the accumulation of
volcanic material, they are also known as mountains • Found on continental shelves and ocean floors.
of accumulation. • If the height of the mountains is considered from the
• Examples ocean floor,
• Mt. Kilimanjaro (Tanzania) • Mauna Kea (9140 m) is the highest mountain when
• Mt. Fujiyama (Japan) the height of the mountains is considered from the
• Andaman and Nicobar islands in India is the tip of ocean floor.
the volcanic mountains which rise from the ocean
floor.

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• A dormant volcanic mountain in the Hawaii hotspot •

It refers to highlands composed of different types
volcanic chain. of mountains viz., fold, block, or volcanic
mountains although there is a proper arrangement
of the mountains.
5. Cordillera
• Cordillera refers to several mountain groups and
systems.
• Example = the Western Cordillera in the western
part of the USA and in British Columbia of
Canada.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MOUNTAINS

• The mountains are a storehouse of water.

• Many rivers have their source in the glaciers of
mountains.
• Three of the world's major rivers, the Indus, the
Ganges and the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra, all rise near
Mount Kailashand cross and encircle the
Himalayas.
• Water from the mountains is also used for irrigation
and generation of hydro-electricity.

SOME RELEVANT DEFINITIONS RELATED TO

MOUNTAINS

1. Mountain Ridge
• Mountains originated as a result of local folding
and faulting. SOME DETAILS OF IMPORTANT MOUNTAIN
• Generally, the slope of one side of the ridge is RANGES
steep and other side is moderate (In case of The Andes
Himalayas, the southern slope is steeper
compared to the northern slope). • Longest continental mountain range in the world.
• In some cases a ridge may have a symmetrical • World's highest mountain range outside of Asia
slope on both sides. with an average height of 4000 meters.
2. Mountain Range • highest peak is Mount Aconcagua (6,962 m)
• It refers to a series of ridges which originated in • volcanic origin, but now it’s dormant
the same age and underwent the same processes. • World's highest volcanoes are in the Andes.
• The most prominent or characteristic feature of • Ojos del Salado (6,893 m),an active volcano, on the
mountain ranges is their long and narrow Chile-Argentina border is the highest volcano on
extension. earth.
• Example
• Himalayas are a mountain range with Himadri
The Rocky
ridge, Himachal ridge, and Shiwalik ridge.
3. Mountain System
• Mountain range forms a part of the American
• A group of mountain ranges formed in a single
period, similar in their form, structure and Cordillera.
• Formed due to Ocean-Continent collision.
extension, is termed a mountain system.
• The rocks making up the mountains were formed
• Examples are the Basin Range of Nevada (USA),
the Rocky mountain system of North America before the mountains were raised.
• The Rocky Mountains took shape during an intense
and the Appalachian.
4. Mountain Chain period of plate tectonic activity.
• It consists of mountain ranges which differ in size
and periods of formation. The Ural Mountains

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• Their eastern side is usually considered the natural • It is home to the planet's highest peaks, including
boundary between Europe and Asia. the highest, Mount Everest.
• Since the 18th century, the mountains have been a • The Himalayas are bordered on the northwest by the
major mineral base of Russia. Karakoram and Hindu Kush ranges, on the north
by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the
The Atlas Mountains Indo-Gangetic Plain.

• Mountain range across the north-western stretch of The Alps

Africa extending about 2,500 km through Algeria,
Morocco and Tunisia. • The mountains were formed as the African and
• The highest peak is Toubkal (4,165 metres) in Eurasian tectonic plates collided.
south-western Morocco. • Extreme folding caused by the event resulted in
• These mountains were formed when Africa and marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and
Europe collided. folding into high mountain peaks such as Mont
• The Atlas ranges separate the Mediterranean and Blanc (4,810 m) at French–Italian border.
Atlantic coastlines from the Sahara Desert. • The Alpine region area contains about a hundred
peaks higher than 4,000 meters, known as the four-
The Himalayan range thousanders.

Why world's highest mountains are at the equator

• Mountain height depends more on ice and glacier • At cold locations far from the equator, erosion by
coverage than tectonic forces. snow and ice easily matched any growth due to the
• In colder climates, the snowline on mountains starts Earth's plates crunching together.
lower down causing erosion at lower altitudes. At • Hence, colder climates are better at eroding peaks.
low latitudes, the atmosphere is warm and the
snowline is high.

EXOGENIC PROCESSES

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• ‘Denude’ means to strip off or to uncover.

• Exogenic (Exogenetic) processes are a direct result
• Internal resisting force applied per unit area is
of stress induced in earth materials due to various
called stress. The basic reason that leads to
forces that come into existence due to sun’s heat.
weathering, erosion and deposition is development
• Geomorphic Agent = Any exogenic element of
of stresses in the body of the earth materials.
nature (like water, ice, wind, etc.) capable of
• Forces acting along the faces of earth materials are
acquiring and transporting earth materials (mobile
shear stresses (separating forces). It is this stress
medium)
that breaks rocks and other earth materials.
• The effects of most of the exogenic geomorphic
• Temperature and precipitation are the two
processes are small and slow but it affect the rocks
important climatic elements that control various
severely in the long run due to continued fatigue.
processes by inducing stress in earth materials.
• Earth materials become subjected to molecular
DENUDATION stresses caused due to temperature changes.
• Loosening of bonds between grains caused due to
• All the exogenic geomorphic processes chemical processes.
(Weathering, mass wasting/movements, erosion
and transportation) are included in denudation.

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WEATHERING ▪ A combination of a mineral with

oxygen forms oxides (rusting in
• Mechanical disintegration and chemical case of iron) or hydroxides.
▪ Reduction takes place on
decomposition of rocks through the actions of
various elements of weather and climate. placement of oxidized minerals in
• An in-situ or on-site process (very little or no an oxygen deficient environment.
▪ Such conditions exist usually
motion of materials takes place).
below the water table, in areas
of stagnant water and
3 MAJOR GROUPS OF WEATHERING waterlogged ground.
PROCESSES ▪ Red color of iron upon reduction
turns to greenish or bluish grey.
CHEMICAL • Water and air (oxygen and carbon dioxide) along
with heat speed up all chemical reactions.
• A group of weathering process acts on the rocks to • These weathering processes are interrelated.
decompose, dissolve or reduce them to a fine state. Hydration, carbonation and oxidation go hand
• A group of weathering process acts on the rocks to in hand and hasten the weathering process.
chemically decompose, dissolve or reduce them to
a fine state. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING

1. Solution
• Biological weathering is physical changes (removal
• Something is dissolved in water or acids.
of minerals and ions) due to growth or movement
• This phenomenon is depends upon the
of organisms.
solubility of a mineral in water or weak acids.
• New surfaces for chemical attack is exposed by
• Soluble rock forming minerals like nitrates,
sulfates, and potassium etc. are affected by this • Burrowing and wedging by organisms like
process. earthworms, rodents etc.
• Easily leached out without leaving any residue • Human being by disturbing vegetation, ploughing
in rainy climates and accumulate in dry regions. and cultivating soils.
1. Carbonation
▪ Reaction of carbonate and PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL
bicarbonate with minerals.
▪ Carbonic acid form by absorbing • Depend on some applied forces like
Carbon Dioxide from the 1. Gravitational forces.
atmosphere that acts as a weak acid 2. Expansion forces due to temperature
on various minerals (like changes, crystal growth or animal activity.
limestone). 3. Water pressures controlled by wetting and
2. Hydration drying cycles.
▪ Chemical addition of water.
▪ Minerals take up water and expand
PHYSICAL OR MECHANICAL WEATHERING
causing an increase in the volume PROCESSES
of the material itself or rock.
Unloading and Expansion
▪ This process is reversible and long.
Continued repetition causes fatigue
leading to disintegration of rocks. • Removal of overlying rock load because of
▪ The volume changes in minerals continued erosion releases vertical pressure. It
due to hydration will also help in causes expansion of upper layers of the rock,
physical weathering through resulting in disintegration of rock masses.
exfoliation and granular • In areas of curved ground surface, arched fractures
disintegration. tend to produce massive sheets or exfoliation slabs
3. Oxidation and reduction of rock.
▪ Oxidation is gain of oxygen. • Large, smooth rounded domes called exfoliation
Reduction is loss of oxygen. domes forms due to this process.
▪ Oxidation occurs where there is
ready access to the atmosphere and
water.

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• Due to the diurnal changes in the temperatures, the

surface layers of the rocks tend to expand more than
the rock at depth that leads formation of stress
within the rock.
• Due to this, surface layers undergo from exfoliation
that result in smooth rounded surfaces in rocks
known as exfoliated tors.
• This process is most effective in dry climates and
high elevations where diurnal temperature changes
are drastic.

Exfoliation is the term used to describe the removal of

sheets of rock from a rock's surface due a range of
physical and chemical processes during weathering.

Granular Disintegration

• A form of weathering where the grains of a rock

become loosened and fall out.

Block Separation

Exfoliation due to the Temperature Changes and

Expansion

• This type of disintegration takes place in rocks with

numerous joints acquired by shrinkage due to
cooling or mountain-making pressures.
• This type of disintegration in rocks can be achieved
by comparatively weaker forces.

Shattering

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• A huge rock may undergo disintegration along • Salt crystals in near-surface pores split the
weak zones. This produces highly angular pieces individual grains within rocks which eventually fall
with sharp corners and edges. The process is known off.
as shattering. • This process of falling off of individual grains may
result in granular disintegration or granular
foliation.

EFFECTS OF WEATHERING

Freezing, Thawing and Frost Wedging

• Water penetrates the pore spaces or fractures in • Weathering and erosion tend to level down the
rocks during the warm season. This water freezes irregularities of landforms and create a peneplane
into ice during the cold season and its volume (a more or less level land surface produced by
expands as a result. erosion over a long period, undisturbed by crustal
• This exerts tremendous pressure on rock walls to movement).
tear apart even where the rocks are massive. • The strong wind erosion leaves behind whale-back
• Frost weathering occurs due to growth of ice shaped rocks in arid landscape. These are
within pores and cracks of rocks during repeated calledinselberg(an isolated hill or mountain rising
cycles of freezing and melting. abruptly from a plain)or ruware.

Salt Weathering
• Sometimes, differential weathering of soft strata
• Salts in rocks expand due to thermal action, exposes the domelike hard rock masses, called tors.
hydration and crystallisation. Tors are a common feature of South Indian
• Many salts like calcium, sodium, magnesium, landscape.
potassium and barium have a tendency to expand.
• High temperature ranges in deserts favor such salt WEATHERING AND EROSION
expansion.

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• Weathering is a static process (disintegrated • Landslide

material do not involve any motion except the ▪ Slump
falling down under force of gravity). ▪ Rock slide
• Erosion is a mobile process (involves motion) ▪ Debris Slide

SIGNIFICANCE OF WEATHERING These mass movements occur mainly due to two

reasons
• The initial step of soils formation.
• Weathering helps in soil enrichment (enhancing 1. Slope Failures - a sudden failure of the slope
certain valuable ores of iron, manganese, resulting in transport of debris downhill by sliding,
aluminium, copper etc.) making extraction of the rolling, falling, or slumping.
same valuable material sufficient and economically 2. Sediment Flows - debris flows down hill mixed
viable. with water or air.

MASS MOVEMENT LANDSLIDE

Rock/Debris Falls
• Mass movement, also called Mass Wasting, is
a bulk movement of soil and rock debris down • Rock falls occur when a piece of rock on a steep
slopes under the influence of gravity. slope becomes dislodged and falls down the slope.
• Mass of rock debris moves down the slope under • Debris falls are similar, except they involve a
the direct influence of gravity rather than air, mixture of soil, regolith, vegetation, and rocks.
water, or ice (but mass may carry with it air, water, • The accumulation of rock debris at the base of a
ice). steep slope is called talus.
• Weathering is not pre-requisite for mass movement
though it aid mass movement (mass movement is
more active on weathered slope).
• Mass movement does not come under erosion (no
geomorphic agents participate in the mass
movement process).
• Several activating causes precede mass movements

• Removal of support from below.

• Increase in gradient and height of slopes.
• Overloading through addition of materials.
• Heavy rainfall, saturation and lubrication of
slope materials.
• Removal of material or load from above.
• Occurrence of earthquakes, explosions or
machinery.
• Excessive natural seepage.
• Heavy drawdown of water from lakes,
reservoirs and rivers leading to slow outflow of
water from under the slopes or river banks.
• Indiscriminate removal of natural vegetation.

TYPES OF MASS MOVEMENT PROCESSES

We can use a classification that divides mass movement Slumps (also called Rotational Slides)
processes into two broad categories.
• Types of slides wherein downward rotation of rock
1. Slow mass movements or regolith occurs along a concave-upward curved
• Creep surface (rotational slides).
• Solifluction • The upper surface of each slump block remains
2. Rapid mass movements relatively undisturbed, as do the individual blocks.
• Earth flow • Slumps leave arcuate scars or depressions on the
• Mud flow hill slope.
• Debris avalanche

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• Heavy rains and earthquakes can also trigger ▪ Solifluction - Fntaining water (slow
slumps. process). These occur in areas where
the soil remains saturated with water
for long periods of time.
▪ Debris Flows - These occur at higher
velocities than solifluction and often
result from heavy rains causing
saturation of the soil and regolith with
water.
▪ Mudflows - These are a highly fluid,
high velocity mixture of sediment and
water that has a consistency ranging
between soup-like and wet concrete.
These usually result from heavy rains
in areas where there is an abundance of
unconsolidated sediment that can be
picked up by streams. Volcanic
mudflows are often referred to as
lahars.
Slides (also called Translational Slides) 2. Granular Flows (not saturated with water)
▪ Creep - The very slow, usually
• Rock slides and debris slides result when rocks or continuous movement of regolith down
debris slide down a pre-existing surface. slope. Creep occurs on almost all
• Piles of talus are common at the base of a rock slide slopes, but the rates vary. Evidence for
or debris slide. creep is often seen in bent trees, offsets
• Slides differ from slumps in that there is no rotation in roads and fences, and inclined utility
of the sliding rock mass along a curved surface. poles.
▪ Earthflows - Usually associated with
heavy rains and move at velocities
between several cm/yr and 100s of
m/day. They usually remain active for
long periods of time.
▪ Grain Flows - Usually form in
relatively dry material, such as a sand
dune, on a steep slope. A small
disturbance sends the dry
unconsolidated grains moving rapidly
down slope.
▪ Debris Avalanches - These are very
high velocity flows of large volume
mixtures of rock and regolith that result
from complete collapse of a
mountainous slope. They move down
slope and then can travel for
considerable distances along relatively
gentle slopes. They are often triggered
by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
SEDIMENT FLOWS ▪ Snow Avalanches are similar to debris
avalanches, but involve only snow, and
• A sediment flow is a mixture of rock, and/or are much more common than debris
regolith with some water or air. avalanches.
• It occurs when sufficient force is applied to rocks
and regolith that they begin to flow down slope.
• They can be broken into two types depending on the
amount of water present.
1. Slurry Flows (considered water-saturated
flows)

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• Waves = Location along the interface of litho and

hydro sphere (coastal region) determine the work of

waves
EROSION AND DEPOSION • Ground water = Determined by the lithological
character of the region (karst topography develops
in the permeable and soluble rocks)
• The landforms produced by each of these agents of
erosion.
• Deposition is a consequence of erosion.
• erosional agents loose their velocity The
and hence energy on gentler slopes.
• Due to this, the materials carried by them
start to settle themselves.
• In other words, deposition is not actually
the work of any agent.
• The same erosional agents viz., running water,
glaciers, wind, waves and groundwater act as
aggradational or depositional agents also.

EROSION TYPES
• Erosion involves acquisition and transportation of This erosion of the materials is carried in following
rock debris. ways
• Denudational processes like erosion and
transportation are controlled by kinetic energy. 1. Hydraulic Action: This is the mechanical loosening
• The erosion and transportation of earth materials is that sweeps away the materials by the sheer force or
brought about by wind, running water, glaciers, river water itself. No load or material is involved in
waves and ground water. this process.
• The first three agents are controlled by climatic 2. Corrosion or Solution: This is the chemical or
conditions and represent three states of matter solvent action of water on soluble or partly soluble
• Solid (glacier) rocks while coming in contact with them.
• Liquid (running water) 3. Attrition: A form of fluvial erosion in which the bed
• Gaseous (wind) load is eroded by itself when the transported
• The work of the other two agents of erosion — material rolls and collides into one another. The
waves and ground water — is not controlled by coarser boulders are broken down into smaller
climate. stones and pebbles.

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4. Corrasion or Abration: The rock particles break off 2. Saltation: Some of the fragments of the rocks move
additional rock fragments when they bounce, scrape along the bed of a stream by jumping or bouncing
and drag along the bottom and sides of the river. continuously. This process is called as saltation.
They are two types: 3. Suspension: The holding up of small particles of
sand, silt and mud by the water as the stream flows
is called suspension.
4. Solution: Some parts of the rock fragments
dissolved in the river water and transported. This
type of transportation is called solution
transportation.

GEOGRAPHICAL LANDFORMS

GLACIAL LANDFORMS

1. Vertical corrosion which acts downward

• A glacier is a large mass of ice that is persistently
2. Lateral corrosion which acts on both sides
moving under its own weight over the land or as
linear flows down the slopes of mountains in broad
TRANSPORTATION TYPES trough-like valleys.
• Glaciers move under the influence of the force of
This transportation of eroded materials is carried in four
gravity.
ways:
• It generally gives rise to erosional features in the
1. Traction: The heavier and larger rock fragments highlands and depositional features on lowlands.
like gravels, pebbles etc are forced by the flow of • The movement of glaciers is slow, unlike water
the river to roll along its bed. This process is called flow. Glaciers flow like very slow rivers.
as traction and the load transported in this way are
called traction load. Highland Glaciations

plucked from the ground or rock face as the glacier

• It erodes its valley by two processes viz. plucking moves. This leaves behind a jagged landscape.
& abrasion. • Abrasion→Occurs when rocks and stones become
embedded in the base and sides of the glacier. These
• Plucking→Occurs when rocks and stones become are then rubbed against the bedrock (at the bottom
frozen to the base or sides of the glacier and are of the glacier) and rock faces (at the sides of the
glacier) as the glacier moves.

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Moraine • Cirques (or corrie or cwm) are concave, circular

basins carved by the base of a glacier as it erodes
• Moraines are accumulations of dirt and rocks that the landscape.
have fallen onto the glacier surface or have been • A lake of water can be seen frequently inside the
pushed along by the glacier as it moves. cirques after the glacier vanishes. Such lakes are
• The dirt and rocks composing moraines can range calledCirque or Tarn lakes.
in size from powdery silt to large rocks and
boulders.
• A receding glacier can leave behind moraines that
are visible long after the glacier retreats.
1. Ground moraine = Deposited beneath glaciers,
widespread beneath continental glaciers, very
poorly drained area with many closed
depressions.
2. End or terminal moraine = Deposited as a ridge
along the edge of a stationary glacier.
3. Lateral moraine = Valley-side debris
accumulated along the sides of a mountain
valley glacier.
4. Medial moraine = Formed by the confluence of
two lateral moraines as tributary mountain Bergschrund/Rimaye
glaciers merge.

• At the head of a
glacier, where it begins to leave the snowfield of a
corrie, a deep vertical crack opens up called a
Bergschrund or Rimaye.
• This happens in summer when although the ice
continues to move out of the corrie, there is no new
snow to replace it.

Crevasses U-shape glacier trough

• A crevasse is simply a deep crack in a glacier or ice
sheet caused by changing stresses as ice moves.
Arete/Horn/Cirques

• An arête is a thin, crest of rock left after two

adjacent glaciers have worn a steep ridge into the
rock.
• A horn(pyramidal peak) results when glaciers
erode three or more arêtes, usually forming a sharp-
edged peak.
• Example = The Matterhorn (highest peak in the
Alps) and the Everest (highest peak in the
Himalayas)

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• U-shaped valleys, trough valleys or glacial troughs,

are formed by the process of glaciation.
• They are characteristic of mountain glaciation in
particular.
• They have a characteristic U shape, with steep,
straight sides and a flat or rounded bottom.

Fjord

• A fjord is formed when a glacier retreats, after

carving its typical U-shaped valley, and the sea fills
the resulting valley floor.
• This forms a narrow, steep sided inlet connected to
the sea.

Hanging valley

• A small mountain glacier may join a larger valley

glacier, just as a stream may join a larger river.
• The smaller glacier, however, may not be as deep
as the main one, and its base may be higher in
elevation than the main glacier's base.

Lowland Glaciation
Roche Mountonne

• Crag is a mass of hard rock with a steep slope on

• A Roche moutonnée called as sheepback. the upward side.
• It is a rock formation created by the passing of a
glacier over underlying bedrock.
• Results in asymmetric erosional forms.

Crag and tail

• When a more resistant rock persists in the passage

of glaciers, the upstream side is smoothened by
abrasion and it's downstream side is roughened &
steepened by plucking called Roche moutonnee.
• A tadpole-shaped landform developed by glacial
erosion of rocks on unequal resistance.
• It is a larger rock mass than a Roche moutonnee.

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• The tail is formed in softer rocks. o Steeper slope at upstream & gentle slope
along downstream.
• One end of the drumlins facing the glacier called the
stoss end is blunter and steeper than the other end
called tail.
• Drumlins give an indication of the direction of
glacier movement.
o The stoss end gets blunted due to pushing
by moving ice.

DRUMLINS VS ROCHE MOUNTONNE

• Type of landform
• “Drumlins” are glacial depositional landforms,
whereas “Roche moutonnee”are glacial
erosional landform.
• Place of origin
• “Drumlins” are formed in outwash plains at the
foothills of the mountainous area, whereas
“Roche moutonnee” are formed at a high
altitude compared to drumlins.
• Type of surface
• “Drumlins” have smooth surface at both
upstream and downstream side, whereas
Drumlins “Roche moutonnee” have smooth surface at
upstream side and rough surface at downstream
• Drumlins are elongated, teardrop-shaped hills of side.
rock, sand, and gravel that formed under
moving glacier ice.

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Boulder clay and glacial till • The large quantities of water that flowed from the

• Boulder clay containing many large stones and

boulders, formed by deposition from melting
glaciers and ice sheets.

Erratics

melting ice deposited various kinds of materials, the

most important of which is called glacial outwash.
• Outwash plains made up of outwash deposits are
characteristically flat and consist of layers of sand
and other fine sediments.
• It is also known as called a sandur.
• Such plains with their sandy soils are often used for
specialized kinds of agriculture.

Eskers

• Glaciers melting in summer --> Water flow on the

• Glacial erratics are stones and rocks that were
transported by a glacier, and then left behind after surface of the ice or seeps down along the margins
the glacier melted. or even moves through holes in the ice.
• These waters accumulate beneath the glacier and
• Erratics can be carried for hundreds of kilometers,
and can range in size from pebbles to large flow like streams in a channel beneath the ice.
• Such streams flow over the ground (not in a valley
boulders.
• They are called erratics bucause they are composed cut in the ground) with ice forming its banks.
• Very coarse materials like boulders and blocks
of materials entirely different from those of the
region in which they are found. along with some minor fractions of rock debris
carried into this stream settle in the valley of ice
beneath the glacier.
Outwash Plain
• After the ice melts, these subglacial river deposit
can be found as a sinuous ridge called esker. .

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RIVERINE LANDFORM
• The landforms created as a result of degradational consequence, it loses the velocity, facilitating active
action (erosion) or aggradational work (deposition) deposition.
of running water is called fluvial landforms. Running water effects of landforms: Erosion,
• The fluvial processes may be divided into three Transportation, and Deposition
physical phases – erosion, transportation and
deposition. • Erosion occurs when overland flow moves soil
• Most of the erosional landforms made by running particles and rock materials downslope.
water are associated with vigorous and youthful • These particles and materials carried by erosion is
rivers flowing over steep gradients. With time, The the load of the river.
stream channels over steep gradients turn gentler • This load acts as a grinding tool. It hels in cutting
due to continued erosion with time. As a the bottom and sides of the river bed. This results in
deepening and widening of the river channel.

EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Valleys

• A canyon is wider at its top than at its bottom (a

• A valley is a low area between hills or mountains variant of gorge).
typically with a river running through it.
• Evolution = Rills --> Gully --> Valley
• A rill is a shallow channel in some soil, created by
the erosion of flowing water.
• Rills can generally be easily removed by tilling the
soil. When rills get large enough that they cannot
easily be removed, they're known as gullies.
• There are many types of valleys like V-shaped
valley, gorge, canyon, etc. depending upon
dimensions and shape.
• Valley types depend upon the type and structure of
rocks in which they form. For example, canyons
commonly form in horizontal bedded sedimentary
rocks and gorges form in hard rocks.
• A gorge is almost equal in width at its top as well
as its bottom

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Potholes • When a river runs over alternating layers of hard

and soft rock (creating unequal resistance), rapids
• Potholes are more or less circular depressions over and waterfalls may form.

• The outcrop of a band of hard rocks may cause a

river to jump or fall down stream.

Waterfall

• Waterfalls often form in the upper stages of a river

where it flows over different bands of rock. It
erodes soft rock more quickly than hard rock and
the rocky beds of hills streams. this may lead to the creation of a waterfall.
• The pebbles collected in the small and shallow
depression rotates due to the flowing water causing
growth of a depressions to form potholes.

Plunge Pools

• Plunge pools are nothing but large, deep potholes

commonly
found at the
foot of a
waterfall. • Formation of a waterfall:
• They are 1. The soft rock erodes more quickly,
formed undercutting the hard rock.
because of 2. The hard rock is left overhanging. It eventually
the sheer collapses due to the absence of any support.
impact of 3. The fallen rocks crash into the plunge pool.
water and They swirl around, causing more erosion.
rotation of boulders. 4. Over time, this process is repeated and the
waterfall moves upstream.
Rapid 5. A steep-sided gorge is formed as the waterfall
retreats.

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Incised Meanders DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS

Alluvial Fans

• Incised meanders are meanders which are • An alluvial fan is a wide fan shaped deposit by a
particularly well developed and occur when a river.
river’s base level has fallen giving the river a large • An alluvial fan is formed when a river flows out of
amount of vertical erosion power, allowing it to a mountain valley.
downcut. • The river becomes wider and more shallow making
• There are two types of incised meanders, it be slower and the sediment is deposited in a fan
entrenched meanders and ingrown meanders. shape.
• Entrenched meanders are symmetrical and
form when the river downcuts particularly Deltas
quickly. Due to the speed which the river
downcuts, there is little opportunity for lateral • Deltas are like alluvial fans (i.e. a depositional
erosion to occur giving them their symmetrical feature) but develop at a different location .
shape. • Unlike in alluvial fans, the deposits making up
• Ingrown meanders are asymmetrical. They deltas are very well sorted with clear stratification.
form when the river downcuts at a less rapid • The coarsest materials settle out first and the finer
pace, giving the river opportunity to erode fractions like silts and clays are carried out into the
laterally as well as vertically. sea.
• Deltas are found at the mouth of large rivers - for
River Terraces example, the Ganges delta.
• The load carried by the rivers is dumped and spread
into the sea.
• As the delta grows, the river distributaries continue
to increase in length and delta continues to build up
into the sea.
• There are three main types of delta, named after the
shape they create.
1. Arcuate or fan-shaped - the land around the
river mouth arches out into the sea and the river
splits many times on the way to the sea, creating
a fan effect.
▪ Examples: Nile, Ganga, Indus
• A rejuvenating river can erode vertically into the 2. Cuspate - the land around the mouth of the river
former flood plain to produce features called river juts out arrow-like into the sea.
▪ Example: Tiber river on west coast of Italy.
terraces.
• If vertical erosion is rapid then paired terraces are 3. Bird's foot - the river splits on the way to the sea,
formed either side of the channel. each part of the river juts out into the sea, rather
• If vertical erosion is slower though, unpaired like a bird's foot.
terraces form as the river is given opportunity to ▪ Example: Mississippi river
meander.
• River terraces are particularly useful for settlements
as they provide flat areas above the present
floodplain.

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Floodplains • A build up of alluvium on the banks of a river can

create levees, which raise the river bank.
• A floodplain is the area around a river that is
covered in times of flood.
• The rivers have a wide floodplain in the lower
course.
• It is a depositional feature where large sized
materials are deposited first when the river enters
the gentle slope.
• Active (near to the river) and Inactive Flood plains
(receded part-away from the river) are seen.
• Sometimes in inactive floodplains, cut off streams
can be seen.
• The flood plains in a delta are called delta plains.
• A floodplain is a very fertile area due to the rich
alluvium deposited by floodwaters.
• This makes floodplains a good place for agriculture.

Natural Levees
• Levees are natural embankments which are • Smaller material is deposited further away and
formed when a river floods. leads to the formation of gently sloping sides of
• When a river floods friction with the floodplain the levees.
leads to a rapid decrease in the velocity of the • These act as a natural protection
river (causing decrease in the capacity to againstfloods.A breach in a levee causessudden
transport material), larger material is deposited floods in adjoining areaslike in the case of the
closest to the river bank. This often leads to Hwang-He or Yellow riverof China (China's
large,raised mounds being formed. sorrow).

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Point bars or meander bars Meanders (Lateral erosion)

• They are sediments deposited in linear fashion by

the flowing rivers.
• If there are more than one ridge, narrow and
elongated depressions are found in between the
point bars.
• As the rivers build point bars on the convex side,
the banks on the concave side will erode actively.

Braided Channel
• As the river erodes laterally, to the right side then
the left side, it forms large bends, and then
horseshoe-like loops called meanders.
• In large flood and delta plains, rivers rarely flow in
straight courses. Loop-like channel patterns called
meanders develop over flood and delta plains.
• The formation of meanders is due to both deposition
and erosion and meanders gradually migrate
downstream.
• Outside of the bend where water flow has most
energy due to decreased friction, the force of the
water erodes and undercuts the river bank.
• Inside of the bend, river flow is slower due to the
more friction leading deposition of material.

Oxbow Lake

• These are thread-like streamsof water rejoin and • An oxbow lake is a meander that is no longer
subdivide repeatedly to give a typical braided attached to the river.
pattern. • The water has to find a straighter route downstream
• A braided channel is one that is divided into smaller during the floods, so the water flows over the ends
channels by temporary islands called eyots. of the meander.
• Braided channels tend to form in rivers that have a • As the flood starts to go down, the water deposits
significant amount of sedimentary load, a steep sediment and covers up the ends of the meander
profile and where discharge regularly fluctuates. making an oxbow lake.
• When the river’s carrying capacity is exceeded the
river deposits, its load into the channel and eyots
form.

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UPPER COURSE RIVER FEATURES (YOUTH STAGE = EROSION DOMINATES)

• The gradient (slope) here is steep and the river
• It starts from the source of the river in hilly or channel is narrow.
mountainous areas. • Vertical erosion in this highland part of the river
• As the river moves through the upper course, it cuts helps to create steep-sided V-shaped valleys,
downwards. interlocking spurs, rapids, waterfalls and gorges

MIDDLE COURSE (MATURE STAGE = TRANSPORTATION DOMINATES)

• In the middle course the river has more energy and • The river channel has also deepened.
a high volume of water. • A larger river channel means there is less friction,
• In this stage, vertical erosion slowly starts to replace so the water flows faster.
with lateral erosion (sideways). This causes • Landforms like alluvial fans, piedmont alluvial
widening of the river channel. plains, meanders etc. can be seen at this stage.

LOWER COURSE FEATURES (OLD STAGE = DEPOSITION DOMINATES)

• In the lower course, the river has a high volume and • The work of the river is mainly deposition. This
a large discharge. builds up its bed and form an extensive flood plain.
• Heavy debris brought down from upper and middle • Landforms like braided channels, floodplains,
courses. levees, meanders, oxbow lakes, deltas etc. can be
• Vertical erosion has almost stopped but lateral seen at this stage
erosion still goes on.
• .

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KARST LANDFORM Clint: Section of a limestone pavement separated from

• A karst landform is a geological feature created on the adjacent sections by grikes.
earth's surface by the drainage of water into the
ground resulting chemical erosion of bedrock. • Grike: Vertical crack that develops along a joint in
• For this reason, the development of karst landforms is limestone.
limited to areas where comparatively soluble rocks —
principally limestone — exist.
• Approximately 8% of the earth's land surface is karst

• Karren: small hollow that forms on the surface of a

limestone clint.

CAVERNS

terrain. • Limestone caverns and caves are large sub-surface

LIMESTONE PAVEMENT voids where the rocks have been dissolved by
carbonation.
• A landform consisting of a flat, incised surface of • Calcium carbonate precipitates out of the saturated
exposed limestone that resembles an artificial carbonate solution and accumulates as deposits.
pavement. • Stalactites: Deposits that grow from the ceiling
downward.
Features of limestone pavements • Stalagmites: Deposits that grow from the ground up.
• Column: Forms when the stalactite and stalagmites
get attached forming a pillar.

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SINKHOLES (DOLINE) linked with underground caves through vertical

shafts.
• Collapsed/depressed
limestone features that KARST WINDOW
develop in karst
landscapes. • The open, broad area formation due to thecollapse of
• The ground water adjoining multiple sink holes is called a karst
slowly dissolves the window.
limestone rock below
the surface until it eventually becomes unstable and POLJE/BLIND VALLEY
collapses creating local depressional features.
• Uvala: Collection of multiple smaller individual
• A number of uvalas may coalesce to create a valley
sinkholes that coalesce into a compound sinkhole.
called polje which is actually a flat-floored
depression.
SWALLOW HOLE • If the streams lose themselves in these valleys, then
these are called blind valleys. These valleys may have
surface streams and may be used for agriculture.

• The swallow holes are cylindrical tunnel-like holes

lying underneath the sinkhole at some depth.
• The surface streams which sink disappear
underground through swallow holes because these are

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SINKING CREEKS/BOGAS • Most of the changes along the coasts are

accomplished by waves.
• Constant impact of breaking waves drastically affects
the coasts.
1. When waves break, the water is thrown with
great force onto the shore along with a great
churning of sediments on the sea bottom.
• Storm waves and tsunami waves can cause far-
reaching changes in a short period of time than
normal breaking waves.
• Other than the action of waves, the coastal landforms
depend upon
1. the configuration of land and sea floor
2. whether the coast is advancing (emerging)
seaward or retreating (submerging) landward
• Assuming sea level to be constant, two types of coasts
are considered to explain the concept of evolution of
• In a valley, the water often gets lost through cracks coastal landforms:
and fissures in the bed. These are called sinking 1. High, rocky coasts (submerged coasts)
creeks, and if their tops are open, they are called ▪ The sea will be very close to the land with a
bogas. narrow coast or no coast.
▪ Erosional features are dominant here.
DRY VALLEY/BOURNE/HANGING VALLEY ▪ The shores of these high rocky coasts do not
show any depositional landforms.
▪ Wave-cut platforms, cliffs, sea caves etc. are
• Sometimes, a stream cuts through an impermeable
layer to reach a limestone bed. It erodes so much that common here.
▪ Most of the west coasts of the Indian
it goes very deep. The water table is also lowered.
Now the tributaries start serving the subterranean Peninsula belong to this category.
2. Low, smooth and gently sloping sedimentary
drainage and get dried up. These are dry valleys or
bournes. coasts (emerged coasts).
▪ The length of these coasts is extended by the
• Lack of adequate quantities of water and reduced
erosion leaves them hanging at a height from the main rivers by building coastal plains and deltas.
▪ Depositional features are dominant here.
valley. Thus, they are also referred to as hanging
▪ Bars, Barriers, spits, lagoons etc are common
valleys.
on these coasts.
▪ Most of the east coasts of the India Peninsula
HUMS are of this category.

• These are curved relicts of limestone rocks after

erosion. MARINE EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
Chasms
MARINE LANDFORMS
• These are narrow, deep indentations (a deep recess or
• The Coastal Landforms are formed by the constant notch on the edge or surface of something).
action of the waves, tides, and currents. • It is carved by wave actionthrough headward erosion
• The coastline changes the coastal landforms under the (downcutting) of weak vertical planes in the rocks.
influence of these denudational agents and gives
shapes to various types of marine landform features.

AGENT OF EROSION
Waves

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• With time, further headward erosion is hindered by

lateral erosion of chasm mouth, which itself keeps
widening till a bay is formed.

Cliff erosion and wave-cut platforms

1. Waves attack the bottom of the cliff, particularly

during storms and at high tide, forming a wave-cut
notch.
2. At the same time weathering attacks and weakens the
top of the cliff.
Sea Cliff 3. The weakened cliff is left unsupported and eventually
collapses.
4. Once the sea has removed the fallen rocks it can start
• A very steep rock face adjoining the coast forms a
the process again.
cliff.
5. The cliff will move back and leave a rocky platform
• Their steep nature is the result of wave-induced
at the base called a wave-cut platform.
erosion near sea level and the subsequent collapse of
rocks at a higher elevation.
• At the base of the cliff, the sea cuts a notch, which
gradually undermines the cliff so that it collapses.
• The best-known cliffs are the Chalk cliffs of the
English channel and the White Cliffs of Dover

Stages in cliff retreat

Sea Caves

• Prolonged attack of waves against the base of the cliff

and the rock debris that gets smashed against the cliff
along with lashing waves create holes in regions of
weakness.
• These holes get further widened and deepened to
form sea caves.
• Example Flamborough head, England

Sea Arches

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• When two caves approach one another from either

side of a headland and unite, they form a bridge like
structure, known as arch.
• Sea cave --> || <-- Sea cave
• These archways may have an arcuate or rectangular
shape, with the opening extending below water level.
• Example the Neddle Eye near Wick, Scotland

Stacks/Skarries/Chimney Rock

• Continued erosion, under the attack of the wave, can

result in the total collapse of an arch.
• The seaward portion of headland will remain as an
isolated pillar of rock known as stack.
• Like all other features, sea stacks is also temporary
and eventually, the stack will also disappear

Stump
• When sea caves grow towards the land and upwards
creating a vertical shaft that exposed on the surface,
• The stack is gradually eroded, leaving behind only the
it results in a blowhole.
stump.
• Water often gushes out at the top part of the landform
• Stumps are only just visible above the sea level.
when waves move to the sea cave with significant
force.
• Example Holborn Head, Scotland
Blow holes

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MARINE DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORMS and create areas of protected waters where wetlands
Beach may flourish.

• Beaches are temporary features covering the rock Spit and Hook
debris on or along a wave-cut platform.
• These are characteristic of shorelines that are • Barrier bar which gets keyed up to the headland of a
dominated by deposition but may occur as patches bay is called a spit.
along even the rugged shores. • Spits are projected depositional landforms with one
• Sands and gravels loosened from the land are moved end attached to the land and the other end projecting
by waves to be deposited along the shore as beaches. into the sea.
• Most of the sediment making up the beaches comes • Spits may also develop attached to headlands/hills.
from land carried by the streams and rivers or from • The mode of formation of spit is similar to a bar or
wave erosion. barrier.
• Most of the beaches are made up of sand sized • A shorter spit with one end curved towards the land
materials. Beaches called shingle beaches contain is called a hook.
excessively small pebbles and even cobbles. • When barrier bars and spits form at the mouth of a
bay and block it, a lagoon forms.
Dune • The lagoons would gradually get filled up by
sediments from the land giving rise to a coastal plain.
• Just behind the beach, the coastal sands lifted and
winnowed from over the beach surfaces will be Tombolos
deposited as sand dunes.
• On shore, winds play a major part in the formation of
these dunes
• Sand dunes forming long ridges parallel to the
coastline are very common along low sedimentary
coasts.
• Sand dunes are common in the coasts of Belgium,
Denmark and the Netherlands

Bar
• Tombolo joins two landmasses by a connecting bar.
• When a ridge of sand and shingle formed in the sea in
• The tombolo is a deposition landform in which an
the off-shore zone (from the position of low tide
waterline to seaward), it is called a bar. island is attached to the mainland by a narrow piece
• The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form of lands such as a spit or bar.
• A tombolo is a sandy isthmus.
across the mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay.
• Example = Tombolo can be found in Chesil beach in
• Bars are submerged features.
• When bars show up above water, they are called England which links the Isle of Portland with
barrier bars.
• Generally, bars are approximately parallel to the
coast.

Barrier

• An off-shore bar which is exposed due to further

addition of sand is termed a barrier bar.
• The off-shore bars and barriers commonly form
mainland.
across the mouth of a river or at the entrance of a bay.
• They usually occur in chains.
• They are subject to change during storms and other ARID EROSIONAL LANDFORMS
action, but absorb energy and protect the coastlines Mechanism of Arid Erosion

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1. Deflation Bolsons
o Lifting and blowing away of loose materials
from the ground.
o It results in the lowering of the land surface to
form large depressions called deflation hollows.
2. Abrasion
o The sand-blasting of rock surfaces by winds
when they hurl sand particles against them is
called abrasion.
o Abrasion is most effective at or near the base of
rocks, where the amount of maternal the wind is
able to carry is greatest.
3. Attrition
o Wind borne particles wear each other away
when they roll against one another in collision.
o This process is known as attrition. The sizes of
particles reduce by this and the grains are
rounded into millet seed sand.
4. Saltation
o Slightly larger particles move by rolling or
bouncing on the ground.

WATER ERODED ARID LANDFORMS

Rill

• In hill slope geomorphology, a rill is a narrow and • The intermontane basins in arid or semiarid areas are
shallow channel cut into soil by the erosive action of generally called bolsons.
flowing water. • Such basins are characterized by 3 unique landforms
which from the mountain front downward are
Gully pediments, bajadas and playas.
• Playas
• Rills can generally be easily removed by tilling the • Numerous ephemeral streams after originating
soil. When rills get large enough that they cannot from the surrounding mountain fronts drain into
easily be removed, they're known as gullies. the bolsons. These temporary lakes are called
playas.
Ravine • After the evaporation of water, salt-covered
playas are called salinas.
▪ The playa plain covered up by salts
• A ravine is a landform narrower than a canyon and is
is called alkali flats.
often the product of stream cutting erosion.
• Pediments
• Ravines are typically classified as larger in scale than
▪ Pediments situated between
gullies, although smaller than valleys.
mountain front and bajada in
intermontane basin.
Badland Topography • These are broad, extensive, and gently sloping
areas of rockcut surfaces which spread as aprons
• Badlands are a type of dry terrain where softer around the bases of mountains.
sedimentary rocks and clay-rich soils have been • There is no difference between a pediment and
extensively eroded by wind and water. an alluvial fan in form and function but
• They are characterized by steep slopes, minimal pediment is an erosional landform while a fan is
vegetation, lack of a substantial regolith, and high a constructional one.
drainage density. • Bajada
• Gently sloping depositionalplain between pediments
and playa is called bajada.

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• Bajada is formed due to coalescence of several • In deserts, a greater amount of sand and rock
alluvial fans. Thus, bajada is a wholly depositional particles are transported close to the ground by the
feature. winds which cause more bottom erosion in overlying
• Pediplains rocks than the top.
• A pediplain is an extensive flat terrain formed by
the coalescence of pediments.
• The steep wash slope and free face of pediments
retreat backward after its formation.
• Through parallel retreat of slopes, the pediments
extend backwards at the expense of mountain
front.
▪ Gradually, the mountain gets reduced leaving an
inselberg (a remnant of the mountain).
• That’s how the high relief in desert areas is
reduced to low featureless plains called
pediplains.

WIND ERODED AND DEPOSITIONAL ARID

LANDFORMS
Monadnock or Inselbergs
• The wind or Aeolian erosion takes place in the
following ways, viz. deflation, abrasion, and attrition.
• Monadnock or inselberg is an isolated rock hill,
EROSIONAL LANDFORM
knob, ridge, or small mountain that rises abruptly
from a gently sloping or virtually level surrounding
Deflation basins
plain.
• Deflation basins, called blowouts, are hollows formed
by the removal of particles by wind.
• Blowouts are generally small, but may be up to
several kilometers in diameter.

Demoiselles

Mushroom rock

• Formation of rock pillars shaped like a mushroom

with narrow pillars and broad top surfaces.

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• These are rock pillars which stand as resistant rocks • Sometimes the holes are gradually widened to reach
above soft rocks as a result of differential erosion of the other end of the rocks to create the effect of a
hard and soft rocks. window—thus forming a wind window.
• Window bridges are formed when the holes are
Zeugen further widened to form an arch-like feature.

• Zeugen is a flat-topped rock masses resembling a

capped inkpot.
• It stand on softer rock pedestals like mudstone, shale,
etc.
• Zeugens are formed in desert areas characterized by a
high range of temperature.
• The alternate freeze and thaw of moisture results in
expansion and contraction which ultimately
disintegrates rocks along the joints.

DEPOSITIONAL LANDFORM
Ripple Marks

• Ripple marks are sedimentary structures and indicate

agitation by water (current or waves) or wind.
• These are ridges of sediment that form in response to
wind blowing along a layer of sediment.
Yardangs • Ripple marks are generally depositional features
(formed at a fluid/sediment interface)
• Sculpted landforms, called yardangs, are up to tens of
meters high and kilometers long and are forms that
have been streamlined by desert winds.
• The famous sphinx at Giza in Egypt may be a
modified yardang.

Sand Dunes

• Heaps or mounds of sands are generally called sand

Wind bridges and windows dunes or simply dunes.
• Though sand dunes are significant depositional
• Powerful wind continuously abrades stone lattices, features of desert areas but they are also formed in all
creating holes. those areas where sands are available in profusion and
wind is capable of transporting and depositing them
in suitable areas.

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Barchan Dunes

• Barchan dunes have a crescentic shape with two

horns.
• The windward side in convex while the leeward is
concave and steep.

Transverse Dunes

• Transverse Dunes are dunes deposited transverse to

the prevailing wind direction.

Longitudinal Dunes

• Longitudinal Dunes are formed parallel to the wind

movement.
• In other words, these dunes are formed by a Loess
modification in the shape of the transverse dunes.
• The surface covered by deposits of wind-transported
Parabolic Dunes silt that has settled out from dust storms over many
thousands of years.
• They look much like Barchan, but accumulation of
sand and formation is opposite to Barchan. PLATEAUS
• Some shrubs are also found growing on them.
• They surface of all these types of dunes in marked by • A flat-topped tableland with steep descent to the
ripples. surrounding lowland.
• It covers about one-third area of the Earth’s land.
Seif • They are one of the four major landforms, along with
mountains, plains, and hills.
• It is similar to barchan with a small difference. • Plateaus, like mountains may be young or old.
• Seif has only one wing or point. This happens when • The Deccan plateau in India is one of the oldest
there is shift in wind conditions. plateaus.
• The lone wings of seifs can grow very long and high. • Valleys form when river water cuts through the
plateau.
Star dunes • The Columbia Plateau (between the Cascade and
Rocky Mountains in the north-western USA) is cut
• It has a high central peak, radically extending three or through by the Columbia River.
• Sometimes, a plateau is so eroded that it is broken up
four arms.
into smaller raised sections.
• Many outlier plateaus are composed of very old,
Reversing dunes
dense rock formations. Iron ore and coal often are
found in plateau outliers.
• These are formed when winds blow from opposite • Plateaus are very useful because they are rich in
direction and are balanced in strength and duration. mineral deposits. This is why many of the mining
areas in the world are located in the plateau areas.
Whaleback dunes
TYPES OF PLATEAU
• When the longitudinal dunes migrate, the coarser
Tectonic
sands are left behind to form whaleback dunes.
• Very large whaleback dunes are known as draas.
• Forms as a result of upward movement in the Earth’s
crust.

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• The uplift is caused by the slow collision of tectonic

plates.
• Example:
o Tibetan plateau

Volcanic

• Formed by basaltic lava which comes from the

interior of Earth's crust and spread over its surface to
form successive sheets.
• Example:
o The Columbia Plateau (USA)
o Deccan Traps Oceanic

Intermontane • Bordered by ocean or sea on all sides.

• Example:
• Plateau that are enclosed by fold mountains. o Caribbean
• These plateau some of the highest and most extensive o Mid-Pacific Mountain
plateau in the world.
• Example: Piedmount
o Tibetan plateau (between the Himalayas and
Kunlun) • These are bordered by a mountain on one side and a
o Mongolian plateau plain or ocean on the other side.
• Example:
o Pantagonian Plateau (South America

Dissected
MAJOR PLATEAUS OF THE WORLD
Tibetan plateau
• These plateaus are evolved by denudation.
• Example:
• It is the world’s largest and highest plateau.
o The Colorado Plateau (Western USA)
• The Tibetan Plateau lies between the Himalayas to the
south and Taklamakan desert to the north.
• Share between China, Nepal, India, Bhutan,
Continental
Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan.
• It is sometimes termed the Third Pole given its ice
• These are bordered on all sides by the plains or fields contain the largest reserve of freshwater outside
seas, forming away from mountains. the polar regions.
• Example:
o Antarctic Plateau in East Antarctica.
Plateau of Arabia

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• Westernmost part of Asia. • Rich in mineral resources like Cobalt, Copper, and
• Very high Aridity due to low Rainfall. Diamond etc.
• Rich petroleum reserves.
Adamawa Plateau
Pamir plateau
• Lies in Cameroon, Nigeria and central African
• It is known as Roof of the world. Republic.
• Pamirs Plateau is located in West China, extending • Savannah vegetation.
across Tajikistan, China and Afghanistan. • Bauxite deposits.
• At the junction of the Himalayas (to south east) with
the Tian Shan (North East), Karakoram (south east), Western Plateau
Kunlun (east), Hindu Kush(west) and Suleiman
(south). • It occupies nearly two-thirds of the continent.
• Most of the plateau is a desert or semi-desert.
Great Basin • Rich in Minerals such as gold and iron ore.
• Kimberly plateau is an example of western highlands.
• Largest intermontane plateau of the continent.
• The Basin forms an area of inland drainage for rivers. Anatolian Plateau
• Lies in United States, covering state of Nevada Utah,
California etc. • Also known as Asia Minor, most of Turkey lies on
this plateau.
Colorado Plateau • It is an intermontane plateau lying between Pontiac
and Taurus Mountain ranges.
• Colorado river and its tributaries have deep cuts in the • Tigris-Euphrates Rivers flow through this plateau.
soft rocks of the region. • Precious wool producing Angora goats are found
• Such deep cuts have formed canyons and Grand here.
canyon is the largest of them.
Patagonian Plateau
Columbian Plateau
• It is a Piedmont plateau (Arid Landforms) lying in
• Mostly lie in USA. southern part of Argentina.
• It lies between Rockies and cascade range. • It is a rain shadow desert plateau.
• It is a Basaltic Lava Plateau. • It is an important region for sheep rearing.
• It has rich mineral resources.
Mascarene Plateau
Ethiopian Highlands
• Plateau in the Indian Ocean.
• It lies in Ethiopia. • It extends between the Seychelles and Mauritius
• It is the highest Plateau of Africa. Islands.
• It is volcanic in nature.
• Highest peak is Ras Dashan (4,620m). Deccan Plateau
• Cooler despite close to equator.

East African plateau

• It is shared between Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania.

• Multiple rift valleys and lakes.

Katanga plateau

• Lies in Democratic Republic of Congo.

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• Deccan Plateau is a large plateau which covers the • The plateau includes the Deccan Traps which is the
majority of the southern part of the India. largest volcanic feature on Earth.
• It is bordered by two mountain ranges, the Western • It is made of multiple basaltic lava layers containing
Ghats on the west of the plateau and the Eastern Ghats some unique fossils and minerals.
on the east of the plateau.
• The Plateau is higher in the west and slopes gently
eastwards. This is why most Deccan plateau rivers We will read about the Deccan Plateau in detail in Indian
flow from west to east. Physical Geography Section.

PLAINS

• A plain is an area of lowland, either level or

undulating.
• It rarely raises more than few hundred feet above sea
level.
• It possesses high concentration of human habitation.

Classification of plains
Plains can be classified in following types on the basis of
their mode of formation

1. Structural plain
2. Erosional plains
3. Depositional plains

Structural Plains
• Plains that are carved by the erosional agents.
• Structurally depressed area of the world. • Agents of erosion smooth out the irregularities of the
• Formed by horizontally bedded rocks, relatively Earth's surface.
undisturbed by the crustal movement of the earth. • The surface of such plains is hardly smooth. This is
why these plains are also called as Peneplains, which
Erosional Plains means almost plain.

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Depositional Plains

• These plains are formed by the deposition of materials

brought by various agents of transportation.
• Plains are formed by the river deposits are
called riverine or alluvial plains.
• The depositions of sediments in a lake give rise to a
Lacustrine Plain or Lake Plains.
o Example: The Valley of Kashmir
• Plains are formed by glacial deposits are
called Glacial or Drift Plains.
• Loess Plains form when the wind acts as the major
depositional agent.

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CH-4 GEOGRAPHICAL PHENOMENON

TOPICS COVERED

1. Volcanism
2. Earthquake
3. Tsunami

SYLLABUS FOR GS PAPER

Prelims Paper I

1. Indian and World Geography-Physical, Social, Economic Geography of India and the World.

Paper 2 (GS-I)

2. Salient features of the world’s physical geography.

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VOLCANISM

• Volcanism includes the movement of molten rock

(magma) onto or toward the earth’s surface.
• A volcano is a place where gases, ashes and/or molten
rock material – lava – escape to the ground.
• Pyroclastic- Denotes rock fragments or ash erupted
by a volcano, especially as a hot, dense, destructive
flow.

Why do they erupt?

• Volcanoes are just a natural way through which the

Earth and other planets cool-off by releasing internal
heat and pressure.

Process of Eruption

Eruption of
Tremendous magma and
pressure of flow of lava
Bubbles of bubbles help after
gases form s to bring the eruption
Magma inside magma to
rises (Less magma the surface
density (from the gas
than dissolved in
Melting of surroundin the magma)
Earth's g rocks)
mantle and
Magma
formation

FACTORS THAT LEAD TO VOLCANISM

• Plate Tectonics: Convergence of of convection cell) and magma wells up from the
two lithospheric plates (due to the converging mantle.
limbs of convection cell) causing downward • Plate movement over a "hot spot": Magmas can
movement of one into the mantle penetrate to the surface via relatively fixed "hot-
• Ocean floor spreading: The plates move apart on spot" (We will read about it in detail ahead).
both sides of the ridge (due to the diverging limbs
• Weak Earth Surface: Magma and gases find the • A decrease in external pressure: This can trigger
opportunity to escape with great velocity through an eruption by minimizing the volcano’s ability
eruptions due to high internal pressure.

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to hold back the increasing pressures inside the

magma chamber.

Volcano classification on eruption frequency

Active Dormant Extinct

Eruption is not
Erupt regular, long Eruption recorded in
frequently interval of historic times
repose
Mount St Fujiyama Kilimanjaro (Eastern
Helens in US (Japan) Africa)

Volcano classification based on Characteristic of Lava Subaqueous Volcanism

Basaltic Eruption Andesitic Eruption • Occurs below the

surface of water.
Basic Lava Acidic Lava • Lava flowing over
Metallic mineral rich Silica rich the deep ocean floor
Less viscous (High or in contact with
Highly viscous (Low Fluidity) water consolidates to
fluidity)
produce a structure
Slower solidification Solidify quickly like that of a heap of pillows.
Quite eruption Explosive eruption o Pillow lava of Pre-
Lava flows far and wide Less flow of lava create large Cambrian Age are found
distance structures in parts of Karnataka.

Effusive (Lava outpouring)

Volcanism types based on ejection of materials
Exhalative (Vapor or Fumes)
• Denoting igneous rocks
outpoured as lava and later
• Materials discharge in the gaseous form.
solidified.
o These gases may escape through vents (in the
• Silica poor lava (basalt) that flows through larger
form of hot springs, geysers, fumaroles and
distances.
solfataras).
o Example: Deccan traps
• This kind of volcanism indicates the volcano is
• Columnar structure is sometimes developed in fine-
reaching its extinction.
grained plateau basalts.
• Associated landforms → Sinter mounds, cones of
o Columnar basalts are visible in the Deccan
precipitated minerals and mud volcanoes.
traps near Bombay.

Explosive (Violent ejection of solid material)

• This type of activity results in fragmentation and • Volcanic eject that settle out of air or water are
ejection of solid material through vents. sometimes called pyroclastic sediments.

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ERUPTIVE VOLCANISM TYPES (BASED ON THE TYPICAL PATTERN OR MODE OF ERUPTIONS)

Hawaiian Eruption

• It involves the effusive outpouring of fluid basalt lava

from craters, lava lakes or fissures.
• Because these flows are very fluid, they can travel
miles from their source as lava rivers before they cool
and harden.
• Little gas or tephra is produced.
• Examples: The great basalt plateaus of Columbia and
Iceland.

• Strombolian eruptions are distinct bursts of fluid lava

(usually basalt or andesite) from the mouth of a
magma-filled summit conduit.
• The explosions usually occur every few minutes at
regular or irregular intervals.
• The explosions of lava, which can reach heights of
hundreds of meters, are caused by the bursting of
Strombolian Eruption large bubbles of gas, which travel upward in the
magma-filled conduit until they reach the open air.

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• Stromboli lies in the Lipari Islands near Italy and Pelean or Nuée Ardente (glowing cloud) Eruption
known as 'lighthouse of the Mediterranean'.
• A large quantity of gas, dust, ash, and incandescent
Icelandic Eruption lava fragments are blown out of a central crater, fall
back, and form tongue-like, glowing avalanches that
• The Icelandic type is characterized by effusions of move downslope at velocities as great as 100 miles
molten basaltic lava that flow from long, parallel per hour.
fissures. • Example: Occurred on the Mayon Volcano in the
• Such outpourings often build lava plateaus. Philippines in 1968.

Pilinian Eruption

• The largest and most violent of all the types of

volcanic eruptions.
• They are caused by the fragmentation of gassy Vulcanian Eruption
magma, and are usually associated with very viscous
magmas (dacite and rhyolite). • It is a short, violent, relatively small explosion of
• They release enormous amounts of energy and create viscous magma (usually andesite).
eruption columns of gas and ash that can can drift or • Vulcanian eruptions create powerful explosions.
be blown hundreds or thousands of miles away from • This type of eruption results from the fragmentation
the volcano. and explosion of a plug of lava in a volcanic conduit,
• The eruption columns are usually shaped like a or from the rupture of a lava dome (viscous lava that
mushroom (similar to a nuclear explosion) or an piles up over a vent).
Italian pine tree. • They produce tephra, ash clouds, and pyroclastic
• Plinian eruptions are extremely destructive, and can density currents (clouds of hot ash, gas and rock that
even obliterate the entire top of a mountain, as flow almost like fluids).
occurred at Mount St. Helens in 1980. • Only minor lava flows result.
• The volcano is dormant for decades or for centuries
after each eruption cycle.

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CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF EXTERNAL LANDFORMS

Types Property
Conical • Narrow vent through which magma comes out explosively.
Vent • Common in Andesitic volcanism (Stratovolcano)

Fissure • Narrow and linear volcanic vent through which lava comes out
vent • Generally no explosive activity occurs.
• Common in basaltic volcanism (shield type volcanoes)

Shield • Found at constructive plate margins.

Volcanoes • Mostly made-up of basalt.
• These volcanoes are not steep.
• Less explosive (But becomes explosive if water gets into the vent)
• Example: Mauna Loa (Hawaii).

Composite • Found at destructive plate margins.

Volcanoes • Eruption of cooler and more viscous lava (Andesitic lava) than basalt.
(Stratovolc • Violent eruption
ano) • Pyroclastic material accumulates in the vicinity of the vent openings. This
leads to formation of layers making the mounts appear as composite
volcanoes.
• Examples: Mount St. Helens, Mount Rainier, Mt. Stromboli 'Lighthouse
of the Mediterranean’, Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Fuji etc.

Cinder • Steep circular or oval-shaped hill structure made-up of pyroclastic

Cone fragments.
• It built around a volcanic vent.

Crater • Inverted cone-shaped vent through which the magma comes out.
• It looks like a bowl-shaped depression if volcano turns inactive.

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Caldera • The crater turns into a lake after the cease of magma eruption. It is known
as a 'caldera'.
• Examples: Lonar Lake (Maharashtra) and Krakatao (Indonesia).

Fissure • Thin magma came out through cracks and fissures of the Earth's interior.
Type Flood • A series of these huge eruptions builds up a thick stack of basalt lava.
Basalt • The flowing lava spread over a vast area.
Provinces • Example: Deccan traps (peninsular India), Snake Basin (USA), Icelandic
Shield, Canadian Shield etc.

Mid-Ocean • Basaltic lava (less viscous and slow cooling causing longer distance
Ridge spreading)
Volcanoes • Lava here is responsible for sea floor spreading.

Lava • Mound-shaped protrusion

(Volcanic) • Viscous magma piles up around the vent
dome

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INTRUSIVE VOLCANIC LANDFORMS

Intrusive landforms are formed when magma cools within o Geysers provide spectacular displays of
the crust. Some major intrusive landforms are underground energy suddenly unleashed.
• Fumaroles emit mixtures of steam and other
1. Batholith: Cooled down and solidified magma inside gases. These are fed by conduits that pass through
the Earth the water table before reaching the surface of the
2. Laccolith: Large dome-shaped intrusive bodies with ground.
level base connected by a pipe-like conduit from • Places where warm groundwater (heated by
below. energy created by the earth) pools on the ground
3. Lapolith: Saucer shaped body concave to the sky. are called Hot Spring.
4. Phacolith: A wavy mass of intrusive rocks found at
the base of synclines or at the top of anticline.
5. Sills: Solidified horizontal lava layers inside the
Earth.
6. Dykes: Solidified vertical lava layers inside the
Earth

GEYSERS, FUMAROLES, AND HOT SPRINGS

• Surface water percolates downward through the

rocks below the Earth's surface to high-
temperature regions surrounding a magma
reservoir.
o This water is heated, becomes less dense, and
rises back to the surface along fissures and
cracks in the form of Geysers, fumaroles
(also called solfataras), and hot springs.
Hot Water Spring Geyser

Hot springs are springs that are produced by A geyser is a spring characterised by intermittent discharge
geothermally heated groundwater. of water ejected turbulently. The water discharge is
accompanied by vapour (or steam) as well.
Very colourful due to the presence of cyanobacteria of Distinct colours due to silicate deposits.
different colours.
Found all across the world. Found in very few regions. Iceland is famous for its
geysers.
Example: Tattapani (Himachal Pradesh) Example: Old faithful (USA)
• Medicinal values
• Can be helpful in harness geo-thermal energy

Examples
Old Faithful Geyser, Yellowstone National Park,
Wyoming

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Black Growler steam vents (fumaroles), Norris Basin,

Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming

• Hotspot volcanism occurs at abnormally hot centres

Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone National Park, known as the mantle plume.
Wyoming o Mantle plumes = Exceptionally hot areas
fixed deep below the Earth’s crust
• These mantle plumes are almost like lava lamps
consisting of a rising bulging head fed by a long,
narrow tail that originates from the mantle.
• As the plume head reaches the lithosphere, it spreads
into a mushroom shape. These features are
called diapirs.
• Melting take place when the head of a plume
encounters the base of the lithosphere resulting in
formation of large volumes of basalt magma.
HOTSPOT VOLCANISM
• The magma finds its way to the earth surface when
• Hotspot Volcanism is somewhat different from the an explosion takes place.
other types because this type of volcanism occurs not
at the margins but at the interior parts of the
lithospheric plates.
• Well known examples include Hawaiian Hotspot
Volcanism, Yellowstone Hotspot Volcanism and
Reunion Hotspot Volcanism.

Hot spot

• "Hotspot" refers to an area in the Earth s mantle from

where hot plumes rise upward through the process of
convection and form volcanoes on the overlying
Hotspot volcano chain
crust.
• This heat facilitates the melting of rock at the base of
the lithosphere. • Due to the tectonic plate movement over the
• The melted rock, known as magma, often pushes stationary hot spot, the volcanoes are rafted away and
through cracks in the crust to form volcanoes. new ones form in their place resulting in formation of
• Hot-spots are relatively fixed in comparison to the chain of volcanoes, such as the Hawaiian Islands.
plates.
Mantle plumes

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• Waters in the depth are heated from contact with hot

magma giving rise to springs and geysers.
• The geothermal heat energy resource from the earth's
interior in areas of volcanic activity is used to
generate Geothermal Electricity
• The Puga valley in Ladakh region and Manikaran
(Himachal Pradesh) are promising spots in India for
the generation of Geothermal Electricity.
• Geothermal potential can also be used for space
heating.
• As scenic features of great beauty, attracting a heavy
Hotspot volcanic landforms tourist trade, few landforms outrank volcanoes.

DESTRUCTIVE EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES

Volcanism can be a greatly damaging natural disaster.

• The damage is caused by advancing lava which

engulfs whole cities.
• Showers of cinders and bombs can cause damage to
life.
• Violent earthquakes associated with the volcanic
activity and mudflows of volcanic ash saturated by
heavy rain can bury nearby places.
• Volcanic activity at hot spots can create submarine • Sometimes ash can precipitate under the influence of
mountains known as seamounts. rain and completely cover whole cities.
• Hot spot seamounts that reach the surface of the water • In coastal areas, seismic sea waves (called tsunamis
can create entire chains of islands. in Japan) are an additional danger which are
o Examples generated by submarine earth faults where volcanism
▪ The U.S. state of Hawaii is active.
▪ Reunion islands near Madagascar
• Hot spots can also develop beneath continents VOLCANISM –ACID RAIN, OZONE
o Example = The Yellowstone hotspot, U.S.A DESTRUCTION

EFFECTS OF VOLCANOES • The volcanic gases like sulfur dioxide, carbon

dioxide, and hydrogen fluoride etc. pose the greatest
Positives Effects of Volcanoes potential hazard to people, animals, agriculture, and
property.
• Locally, sulfur dioxide gas can lead to acid rain and
• Volcanism creates new landforms like islands,
plateaus, volcanic mountains etc. air pollution.
• Globally, large explosive eruptions that inject high
• The volcanic ash and dust are very fertile for farms
and orchards. volume of sulfur aerosols into the stratosphere can
• Volcanic rocks yield very fertile soil upon weathering lead to lower surface temperatures and promote
and decomposition. depletion of the Earth's ozone layer.
• Although steep volcano slopes prevent extensive
agriculture, forestry operations on them provide VOLCANOS IN INDIA
valuable timber resources.
• Mineral resources, particularly metallic ores are • There are no volcanoes in the Himalayan region or in
brought to the surface by volcanoes. the Indian peninsula.
• The Kimberlite rock (source of diamonds) of South • Barren Island, lying 135 km north-east of Port Blair
Africa is the pipe of an ancient volcano. became active again in 1991 and 1995.

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• The other volcanic island in Indian territory is • A Stratovolcano (composite volcano) in Italy.
Narcondam, about 150 km north-east of Barren • The city of Pompeii, located to the southwest,
Island; it is probably extinct. Its crater wall has been was buried beneath twenty feet of volcanic ashes
completely destroyed. cemented by the torrential downpours of heavy
rain.
Recent Major Volcanic eruptions around the world
Krakatau
1. Mount Etna → Sicily, Italy • Krakatau is a small volcanic island in the Sunda
2. Mount Sinabung → Karo plateau of North Straits, between Java and Sumatra.
Sumatra, Indonesia • The explosion could be heard in Australia, almost
3. Mayotte Island → France, Western Indian
3,000 miles away.
• Though Krakatau itself was not inhabited and nobody
Ocean was killed by the lava flows, the vibration set up
4. Mount Agung → Indonesia enormous waves over 100 feet high which drowned
5. Mount Soputan → Indonesia 36,000 people in the coastal districts of Indonesia.

6. Anak Krakatau island → Indonesia Mt. Pelee

Some significant Volcanic Eruptions • The eruption of Mt. Pelee of the West Indies in May
In the history of mankind perhaps the most disastrous 1902 was the most catastrophic of modern times.
eruptions were those of Mt. Vesuvius, Mt. Krakatau and • St. Pierre, the capital of Martinique, lying on the path
Mt. Pelee. of the lava, was completely destroyed within minutes.
• Its entire population of 30,000 was killed almost
Mt. Vesuviusis instantly.

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EARTHQUAKE
SHALLOW AND DEEP FOCUS EARTHQUAKE
An earthquake is a sudden motion or trembling in the
earth caused by the abrupt release of slowly accumulated • A quake’s destructive force depends not only on
energy.
its strength, but also on location and distance
(depth) from the epicentre.
• Quakes can strike near the surface or deep within
the Earth.
• Both shallow and deep focus earthquakes are
"tectonic" earthquakes originating within the
earth's depths at various points.
• Shallow focus earthquake occur quite frequently
and at random whereas deep focus earthquakes
occur every 20 to 30 years along the given fault
line.
• Less energy is released during a shallow focus
Reason behind Earthquake earthquake, while terminus energy accumulates
during a deep focus earthquake.
• Earthquake is caused due to release of energy • According to the U.S. Geological Survey, most
which generates waves that travel in all quakes occur at shallow depths.
directions.
• The release of energy occurs along a fault. Shallow quakes
• A fault is a sharp break in the crustal rocks.
• Rocks along a fault tend to move in opposite • These are commonly occurring "crustal
directions. earthquake" caused by fault and movements of
• The friction locks the opposite moving rocks the continental plates.
together as they are pressed by overlying strata. • Generally tend to be more damaging than deeper
The tendency to move apart at some point of time quakes due to their focus nearer to the surface of
overcomes this friction. the Earth.
• As a result, the blocks get deformed and o Shaking is more intense from quakes that
eventually slide, past one another abruptly hit close to the surface like setting off "a
causing release of energy. bomb directly under a city".
o The energy waves travel in all directions.
• The point where the energy is released is called
the focus of an earthquake, alternatively, it is
called the hypocentre.
• The energy waves travelling in different
directions reach the surface. The point on the
surface nearest to the focus is called epicentre. It
is the first one to experience the waves. It is a
point directly above the focus.
• On the basis of focus, earthquakes can be classified
as
▪ shallow focus (focus located at depth of up to 70 Deep quakes
km)
▪ intermediate focus (70-300 km depth) • These earthquake occurs within the subducting
▪ deep focus earthquakes (foci depth of up to 700 plate as it move beneath the other plate.
km)

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• Deep quakes may be less damaging but they’re o Seismic waves from deep quakes have to
usually more widely felt. travel farther to the surface, losing energy
along the way.

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EARTHQUAKE SWARM

• Series of low magnitude earthquakes occur in a

localized region and over a period of time ranging
from days, weeks to even months.
• Earthquakes associated with volcanic activity often
occur in swarms.
o Hence earthquake swarms can serve as
markers for the location of the flowing
magma throughout the volcanoes.
• Himalayan swarm was attributed to low strength of
the earth’s crust in the area which could not hold the
tectonic energy.
P-WAVE OR PRIMARY WAVE
SEISMIC WAVES OR EARTHQUAKE WAVES
• Fastest kind of seismic wave.
• Seismic waves are produced when some form of
• First to 'arrive' at a seismic station.
energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly released.
• Can move through solid rock and fluids.
• This happen due to the slipping of land (masses of
• Velocity = Solids > Liquids > Gases
rock straining against one another suddenly fracture
• It pushes and pulls the rock it moves through just like
and "slip").
sound waves push and pull the air.
• These waves travel in all directions.
• Particles move in the same direction of wave
• Earthquake waves are basically of two types
propagation.

1. Body Waves
2. Surface Waves

BODY WAVES
S-WAVE OR SECONDARY WAVE
• Generated due to the release of energy at the focus.
• It move in all directions travelling through the body • Second wave felt in an earthquake.
of the earth. • The S wave is slower than a P wave.
• The velocity of waves changes as they travel through • It can only move through solid rock (not through any
materials with different densities. The denser the liquid medium).
material, the higher is the velocity. • S waves move rock particles up and down (or side-to-
• Their direction also changes as they reflect or refract side), perpendicular to the direction of wave
when coming across materials with different propagation.
densities.
• There are two types of body waves. They are called P
and S-waves (Discussed earlier).

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• Longest distance but die out faster (Generally affect

the surface of the Earth only and die out at smaller
depth).
• First few small and weak swings are recorded called
‘the first preliminary tremors’ and ‘second
preliminary tremors’ and then main tremors.
• There are two types of surface waves
1. Love waves- zig-zag movement
2. Rayleigh waves- elliptical movement

SURFACE WAVES

• The body waves interact with the surface rocks and

generate new set of waves called surface waves.
• These waves move along the surface.
• Arrive after body waves on seismograph (Recorded
last on the seismograph)
• Starts from epicentre.
• They are low frequency, long wavelength, and
transverse vibration long period waves.
• Responsible for destructive forces of the
earthquakes.

LOVE WAVE
• It's the fastest surface wave and moves the ground • Due to the rolling, it moves the ground up and down,
from side-to-side. and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is
• Confined to the surface of the crust (produce entirely moving.
horizontal motion). • Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to
the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the
other waves.

RAYLEIGH WAVES

• Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave

rolls across a lake or an ocean.

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TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE

1. Tectonic quakes caused by plate tectonics. They

account for most earthquakes worldwide and usually
occur at the boundaries of tectonic plates.

surface. Consequently, they are usually only felt in

the vicinity of the hypocentre.
3. Collapse quakes can be triggered by such
phenomena as cave-ins, mostly in karst areas or
close to mining facilities, as a result of
subsidence.
4. Explosion quakes is occur due to high-density
explosion such as nuclear explosions. The
occurrence of this type of earthquake is artificial
in nature.
2. Volcanic quakes are associated with active
5. Induced quakes are caused by human activity,
volcanism. They are generally not as powerful as
like tunnel construction, filling reservoirs, and
tectonic quakes and often occur relatively near the
implementing geothermal or fracking projects.

MEASUREMENT OF EARTHQUAKES
The earthquake events are scaled either according to the • Mercalli scale - The intensity scale is named after
magnitude or intensity of the shock. Mercalli, an Italian seismologist. The intensity scale
takes into account the visible damage caused by the
• Richter scale - The magnitude scale is known as the event. The range of intensity scale is from 1-12.
Richter scale. The magnitude relates to the energy
released during the quake. The magnitude is EARTHQUAKE PRONE ZONES IN INDIA
expressed in absolute numbers, 0-10.

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• Over 59% of India’s land area is under threat of CONSEQUENCES OR EFFECTS OF THE
moderate to severe earthquakes. EARTHQUAKES
• Based on the past seismic history, Bureau of
Indian Standards divided the country into four 1. Damage to property and infrastructure: Underground
seismic zones, viz. Zone II, III, IV and V. pipelines and railway lines are damaged or broken.
• Zone V is the most seismically active region, 2. Loss of lives: Duration of tremors of an earthquake is
while zone II is the least active region. normally of only a few seconds, but thousands of people
• The zones are divided on the basis of Modified may die in this short period. More than 25,000 people died
in Gujarat earthquake of 2001. Earthquakes also cause the
Mercalli (MM) intensity, which measures the
death of wildlife and result in a destruction of their
impact of earthquakes. habitat.
• The area covered under different seismic zones 3. Floods: Flood may result as an indirect consequence of
include an earthquake due to dam or levee failure.
• Zone II 4. Changes in river courses: Sometimes river channels are
• It falls under low intensity zone. blocked or their courses are changed due to the impact of
1. It covers approx 40% area of the country. the earthquake.
2. It comprises of major parts of peninsular 5. They can cause submergence and emergence of
region and Karnataka Plateau. landforms along coastal regions for example Coastline of
• Zone III Kutch.
1. It falls under moderate intensity zone. 6. Tsunamis: Tsunamis are extremely high sea wave caused
by an earthquake. It wreaks havoc on settlement of coastal
2. It covers approx 30% area of the country.
areas. Tsunamis are waves generated by the tremors and
• Zone IV
not an earthquake in itself.
1. It falls under severe intensity zone. 7. Soil liquefaction: Soil liquefaction occurs when, because
▪ It covers approx 17.5% area of the of the shaking, water-saturated granular material (such as
country. sand) temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a
2. Zone V solid to a liquid. Soil liquefaction may cause rigid
▪ It falls under very severe intensity zone. structures, like buildings and bridges, to tilt or sink into
▪ It covers approx 11% area of the country. the liquefied deposits.
▪ It comprises of the entire northeastern 8. Cracks and fissures: Sometimes cracks and fissures
India, parts of Jammu and Kashmir, develop in roads railway tracks, and fields, making them
Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Rann of useless. The well known San Andreas Fault formed
during the earthquake of San Francisco (California).
Kutch in Gujarat, part of North Bihar and
9. Landslides and Avalanches: landslides and avalanches
Andaman & Nicobar Islands. may be triggered due to an earthquake.
10. Fires: Earthquakes can cause fires by damaging electrical
power or gas lines. it may also become difficult to stop
the spread of a fire once it has started.

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TSUNAMI

Tsunami formation

• It is a series of waves of extremely long

wavelength and long period generated in a body of
water by an impulsive disturbance that displaces
water.
o Since they are long wavelengths, they lose
very little energy along the way.
• Tsunami is a Japanese term meaning a harbor wave.
• It is also commonly known as killer waves.

HOW TSUNAMI WAVES GENERATED

• A tsunami is caused by a large and sudden WAVES

displacement of the ocean. This displacement caused
due to
1. Earthquake
• Undersea volcanoes
• Anthropogenic factors like nuclear explosions
• Landslides
• Meteors, Asteroids

Some important terminologies related to the wave

• Crest and Trough: The highest and lowest points of

a wave are called the crest and trough respectively.
• Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the
bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
• Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
• Wave period: It is the time interval between two
successive wave crests or troughs.

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• Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two o Vertical motion = Tides

successive crests. • Tsunamis are not the same as ocean waves.
• Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a o Most ocean waves are generated by wind
given point during a one second time interval. whereas Tsunami have different sources
(impulsive disturbance).
Motion in oceanic water o Wind waves only affect the ocean surface
whereas tsunamis move through the entire
• The horizontal and vertical motions are common in water column, from the ocean surface to the
ocean water bodies. ocean floor.
o Horizontal motion = ocean currents and
waves

PROPERTIES OF TSUNAMI WAVES

• Tsunamis are a series of waves of very, very long
wavelengths and period created in oceans by an
impulsive disturbance.
• Tsunamis behave as shallow-water waves because of
their long wavelengths.
• It travels at different speeds in water: it travels slow
in water that is shallow and fast in deep water.

As tsunami waves are long wavelength waves, they

cannot be perceived in deep oceans (negligible amplitude
when compared with their wavelength). A tsunami may
be less than a foot in height on the surface of the open
ocean. This is why they are not noticed by sailors. But the
powerful shock wave of energy travels rapidly through
the ocean as fast as a commercial jet. Once a tsunami
reaches shallow water near the coast, the wave amplitude
increases (conservation of energy). The top of the wave
moves faster than the bottom, causing the sea to rise
dramatically. The waves may occasionally reach a height 2004 INDIAN OCEAN TSUNAMI
of 20 to 30 metres above mean sea level.

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• An earthquake under the Indian Ocean on 26th of • India had volunteered to join the International Tsunami
December 2004 generated the Tsunami wave that had Warning System after the December 2004 tsunami
impacted the Indian Ocean Region very severely. disaster.
• Earthquake had its epicentre near the western • The Deep Ocean Assessment and Reporting
boundary of Sumatra. The with magnitude of 9.0 on System (DOARS) was set up in the Indian Ocean
the Richter scale. post-2004.
o Reason = Indian plate went under the Burma plate • Indian Tsunami Early Warning Centre
due to the tectonic activity (ITEWC)
o Effect of tectonic activity • Embedded with specific systems called Deep
o The ocean floor was displaced by about 10- Ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis
20 meters with a downward direction tilt. (DART).
• The gap that was being created by the displacement • It established in 2007 at Indian National Centre
was filled by in-flow of surrounding water. for Ocean Information Sciences (INCOIS –
• This caused the withdrawal of the water mass from ESSO) Hyderabad, an autonomous body under
the coastlines of the landmasses in the south and Ministry of Earth Sciences.
Southeast Asia. • It is up and running to provide tsunami advisories
• The water mass rushed back towards the coastline as for the events occurring in the global oceans.
a tsunami after thrusting of the Indian plate below the • It has been recognized as one of the best systems
Burma plate. in the world.
• The ITEWC includes a real-time seismic
TSUNAMI EARLY WARNING SYSTEM monitoring network of seventeen broadband
seismic stations to detect tsunamigenic
earthquakes and to provide timely warnings to the
• The prevention of Tsunami is nearly impossible but its
vulnerable community.
effect can be mitigated through early warning system.
• It also receives earthquake data from all other
• There are many regional and international early warning
global networks to detect earthquakes (of M6.5).
systems installed all across the globe.

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CH-5 OCEANOGRPAHY
TOPICS TO BE COVERED

1. Division of ocean floor

1. Continental shelf
2. Continental slope
3. continental rise
4. Deep ocean floor
5. Oceanic ridge
6. Submarine Canyons
7. Trenches
8. Sea mounts
9. Hills
10. Guyots
11. Marginal sea
2. Bays, gulf, straits, and Isthmus
3. Continental shelf deposits
4. Abyssal plain deposits
5. UN Convention on Laws of Seas (UNCLOS) and
sea division
6. Ocean zones
a. Intertidal, Photic, Neritic, Aphotic, Oceanic,
Bentic
7. Marine deposits
8. Marine pollution
9. Types of islands
10. Ocean temperature
11. Salinity
12. Oceanic movement
a. Waves
b. Ocean current
i. Forces responsible
ii. Gyres
iii. Equatorial Countercurrents
iv. North Indian Ocean Current
v. Effects of ocean currents
c. Upwelling and Downwelling
i. Ekman spiral and transport
ii. Nutrients enrichment
d. Tide
i. Ebb and Flood/Flow
ii. Moon position and tide (Syzygy and
Quadrature)
13. Coral reefs
a. Relief features
b. Coral bleaching
14. Kelp Forest

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The oceans are the largest and most prominent feature on of water, which is large in size and volume. It can be
Earth. In fact, they are the single most defining feature of divided into five principal oceans- the Pacific,
our planet. Water covers roughly around 70% of Earth's Atlantic, Indian, Southern or Antarctic Ocean, and Arctic
surface. The world ocean is a single inter-connected body Ocean.

DIVISIONS OF THE OCEAN FLOOR

The ocean floors can be divided into four major divisions

1. Continental-Oceanic margin
1. Continental Shelf
2. Continental Slope
3. Continental Rise
2. Deep ocean plains
3. Oceanic Ridges
CONTINENTAL-OCEANIC MARGIN

Continental Shelf

• Angle is 1º, depth is 120-150 meter, and it extends

generally 70 km into the sea. But this varies a lot • Continental Shelf of all oceans together covers7.5%
• Width=The continental shelf is virtually absent in of the total area of the oceans.
west coast of South America.It is 120 km wide in east • The continental shelves are covered with variable
coast of North America. In Bay of Bengal too, it is thicknesses of sediments brought down by rivers,
very wide. glaciers etc.
• Depth =It may be as shallow as 30 m in some areas • The shelf is formed mainly due to
while in some areas it is as deep as 600 m. 1. Submergence of a part of continent
• The shelf typically ends at a very steep slope, called 2. Relative rise in sea level
the shelf break. 3. Sedimentary deposits brought down by
rivers

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Continental Slope THERE ARE ALSO MINOR RELIEF FEATURES

IN THE OCEAN FLOORS LIKE
• At the end of continental shelf slope steepens
abruptly. 1. Submarine Canyons
• The continental slope connects the continental shelf • Canyons are deep concave gorges on continental
and the ocean basins. shelf, slope or rise, often extending from the
• The gradient of the slope region varies between 2°-5°. mouths of large rivers.
• The depth of the slope region varies between 200 m 2. Trenches
and 3km. • Long narrow and steep depression on abyssal
• The seaward edge of the continental slope loses plain is called a trench.
gradient at this depth and gives rise to continental rise. • The trenches lie along the fringes of the deep-sea
• Canyons and trenches are observed in this region. plain at the bases of continental slopes and along
island arcs.
Continental Rise • They are of tectonic origin and are formed during
Ocean-Ocean Convergence and Ocean-Continent
• The continental rise is a sediment underwater feature Convergence.
found between the continental slope and the abyssal • They are some 3-5 km deeper than the
plain. surrounding ocean floor.
• Sediment, silt, and other material are picked-up by • The deeper trenches (> 5500 meters) are called
river when it travels over land, which is gradually deeps.
carried out to sea. Some of these sediments settle on • The trenches run parallel to the bordering fold
the continental shelf, but others drift down the mountains or the island chains.
continental slope to form the continental rise. • They are associated with active volcanoes and
• The formation of the continental rise is a constant and strong earthquakes (Deep Focus Earthquakes like
very slow process. in Japan).
3. Sea mounts
Deep Sea Plain (Abyssal Plain) • Sea hills on abyssal plains rising above 1000
meters from the floor are called sea mounts.
• At the end of continental slope, slope becomes gentle 4. Hills
again to 0.5º to 1º.
• Its end marks the end of continental margin. • Sea hills on abyssal plains rising less than 1000
• Undulating plain lies 2-3 miles below sea level and meters from the floor are called Abyssal hills.
cover 40% of ocean floor.
• Lying generally between the foot of a continental rise 5. Guyots
and a mid-ocean ridge. • Guyots are seamounts which have flat tops. All of
• Abyssal plains cover more than 50% of the Earth's them are generally of volcanic origin.
surface.
• These plains are covered with fine-grained sediments MARGINAL SEA
like clay and silt. A marginal sea is a division of an ocean, partially
enclosed by islands, archipelagos, or peninsulas, adjacent
Oceanic Ridges to or widely opens to the open ocean at the surface, and/or
bounded by submarine ridges on the sea floor.
• A mid-oceanic ridge is composed of two chains of Examples (Locate these on Atlas)
mountains separated by a large depression.
[Divergent Boundary] 1. Arabian Sea
• The oceanic ridge system is a continuous underwater 2. Persian Gulf
mountain range. It is created when magma rising 3. Red Sea
between diverging plates of the lithosphere cools and 4. Gulf of Oman
forms a new layer of crust. 5. Gulf of Aden
6. Gulf of Kutch
7. Gulf of Khambat

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8. Bay of Bengal Persian Gulf (between Saudi Arabia and Iran), Gulf
9. Andaman Sea of Mannar.
10. Malacca Strait
11. Mozambique Channel Straits
12. Great Australian Bight
13. Gulf of Mannar • A strait is a narrow passageway of water between the
14. Laccadive Sea landmass (continents or islands).
• When a body of water such as a strait is capable of
BAYS, GULFS, STRAITS, AND ISTHMUS being blocked or even closed in order to control
transportation routes, the body is called a “choke
• Bays, gulfs, and straits are types of water bodies that point”.
are contained within a larger body of water near land.
• These three water bodies are usually located at Isthmus
important points of human activities; thus, conflicts
with nature and neighbors are common. • Isthmus is the land-equivalent of a strait. i.e., a narrow

Bays

• Bay is a water body

surrounded on three sides by
land with the fourth side
(mouth) wide open towards
oceans (In Gulfs, the mouth is
narrow).
• A bay is usually smaller and
less enclosed than a gulf.
• Example: Hudson Bay
(Canada), Bay of Bengal etc.
• An example of a bay at a
river’s mouth is New York
Bay, at the mouth of the
Hudson River (Hudson
Estuary).

Gulfs

• A gulf is a large body of

water, sometimes with a
narrow mouth, that is almost strip of land connecting two larger land masses.
completely surrounded by land. • Example: Isthmus of Panama and Isthmus of Suez.
• The world’s largest gulf is the Gulf of Mexico.
• Other Examples = Gulf of California, Gulf of Aden
(between the Red Sea and the Arabian Sea), and the

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CONTINENTAL SHELF DEPOSITS • India was the first country to receive the status of a
pioneer investor for exploration and utilization of
Properties PMNs.
• It was allocated an exclusive area in Central Indian
1. They are responsible for preventing cold under- Ocean Basin by United Nations (UN) in 1987.
current from rising and also increases the height of • National Institute of Ocean Technology (NIOT) will
tides. launch 'Samudrayaan project' by 2021-22 to explore
2. They are excellent location for ports. the deep sea region. It is pilot project of Union
3. Rich in marine organisms: The sunlight reaches the Ministry of Earth Sciences as part the 'Deep Ocean
shelves and so minute plankton grows on them. This mission' for deep ocean mining of rare minerals.
causes fishes to reach the shelves. The shelves are • Samudrayaan project
thus known as the richest fishing grounds of the • It proposes to send indigenously developed
world. submersible vehicle with three persons to a
depth of about 6000 metres to carry out deep
Resources underwater studies.

1. 90% of petroleum reserves are found in shelves.

E.g.: Bombay High, Gulf of Cambay, Persian Gulf,
Strait of Hormuz, Arctic Ocean, and Gulf of Mexico.
2. Sulfur metal rarely found on land but is abundant in
Gulf of Mexico continental shelf due to marine
volcanism.
3. Concentration of heavy metals on shelf. E.g.:
Monazite sand in Kerala (Thorium), gold, silver and
diamonds.
4. Pearls.

Resources from an abyssal plain

1. Poly metallic nodules are a concentration of metals

around a core. Found in all oceans. Some of the
minerals are rare on land.
Significance of Polymetallic Nodules
POLYMETALLIC NODULES (PMNS) • They contain Rare Earth Elements and metals which
are important to high-tech industries.
• Polymetallic nodules (also • The amount of copper contained in the CCZ nodules
called as manganese is estimated to be about 20% of that held in global
nodules) are small potato- land-based reserves.
sized (from millimetres to • These Rare earth minerals are considered as the great
tens of centimetres in source of valuable minerals such as gold, silver and
diameter) lumps of zinc.
minerals found in deep • Presently, China is controlling more than 95% of rare
sea. earth metals. The exploration by India will nullify the
• They contain nickel, copper, cobalt, lead, cadmium, increasing influence of China.
vanadium, molybdenum, titanium in various
proportions of which nickel, cobalt and copper are Challenges
considered to be of economic and strategic
importance. • The extraction of metals from the PMN is not yet
• They are found in abundance carpeting the sea floor found to be economically viable at this stage.
of world oceans in deep sea.

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• The deep sea mining without holistic approach may • Submarine while passing through other country’s
cause a disturbance in the aquatic ecosystem. territorial waters has to navigate on the surface
and show their flags.
UN CONVENTION ON LAWS OF SEAS 2. Contiguous Zone
• Area 12 Nautical Miles beyond the Territorial
waters (i.e. 24 Nautical Miles from the baseline
• Decides deep sea mining, environment protection,
limit).
maritime boundary and dispute settlement.
• Country can enforce laws only in 4 areas viz.
pollution, taxation, customs, and immigration.
UNCLOS sections the oceans into: 3. Exclusive Economic Zones (EEZs)
• Area from the edge of the territorial sea out to 200
1. Territorial waters nautical miles from the baseline.
• 12 Nautical Miles from the baseline. • Country has sole exploitation rights over all
• Countries are free to set laws and use its natural resources.
resources. • The most important reason to introduce EEZ was
• Foreign vessels arenot given all rights to passage to halt the clashes over the fishing rights and oil
through except “Innocent Passage”. rights.
1. Passing through the waters which are not • Foreign vessels have freedom of navigation and
prejudicial to peace and security. over flight, subject to the regulation of the coastal
2. Nations have right to suspend the innocent states.
passage. • Foreign states are allowed to lay submarine pipes
and cables.

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INTERNATIONAL SEABED AUTHORITY United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea

(UNCLOS).
• It is an intergovernmental body that organizes, • HQ at Jamaica.
regulates and controls all mineral (non-living • It has an observer status to UN.
resources) related activities in the international • The total area under its regulation is more than 54%
seabed area beyond the limits of national jurisdiction of the total area of the world’s oceans.
and ensures that marine ecosystem remains protected. • India is its member.
• It was established in 1994 by the Law of the Sea • ISA has registered & voluntary commitments towards
Convention and functions under the aegis of the Agenda 2030 for sustainable development.

MARINE DEPOSITS the environment, to the health of all organisms, and to

Sources economic structures worldwide.

1. River brought sediments

2. Weathering due to wave actions
3. Wind Blown Dust
4. Submarine erosion
5. Marine life decomposition
6. Extraterrestrial (Meteorites)
7. Volcanic

MARINE POLLUTION
Marine pollution is a combination of chemicals and trash,
most of which comes from land sources and is washed or
blown into the ocean. This pollution results in damage to

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TYPES OF ISLANDS
Type Description Diagram

Continental • Continental islands are simply unsubmerged parts of the

Island continental shelf that are entirely surrounded by water.
• Once a part of large continent separated by
geomorphologic processes.
• Many of the larger islands of the world are of the
continental type.
• Example=SriLanka, Madagascar, Vancouver, Baffin
Island

Volcanic • Volcanic islands occur in ocean basins (such as the

Island Hawaiian Islands) or on or near ocean ridges (e.g., St.
Paul Rocks and Ascension Island in the Atlantic Ocean)
or on hotspot.
• They are large volcanoes erupted on the seafloor whose
tops have emerged above sea level.
• Example = Japan, Philippines, Kurile, Aleutian

Sand-bar • A sandbar is an area of sand, gravel or fine sediment that

Island sits above the water.
• It may be connected to the shoreline, or it may be
offshore.
• It is generally narrow and straight.
• A sandbar is also known as a shoal or sandbank.
• A large sandbar is called a barrier island.
• Example = Long Island (New York)

Coral • Island built of organic material derived from skeletons

Island of corals and numerous other animals and plants
associated with corals.
• Coral islands consist of low land perhaps only a few
meters above sea level.
• Example=Lakshadweep, Maldives,Mauritius, Bahama,
Bermuda

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OCEAN TEMPERATURE ▪ Cold ocean currents = Lowers the

temperature in cold areas (Like Canary
• The study of the temperature of the oceans is current)
important for determining the 5. Enclosed and open sea
• Movement of large volumes of water (vertical o Temperature at Lower latitudes = Enclosed
and horizontal ocean currents), sea > Open sea
• Type and distribution of marine organisms at o Temperature at Higher latitude = Open sea >
various depths of oceans, Enclosed sea
• Climate of coastal lands, etc. 6. Physical characteristics of the sea surface:
• Main energy source for ocean temperature - o Boiling point of the sea water increases with
Insolation (Incoming Solar Radiation) increasing salinity and vice versa.
• Oceans play an important role in energy and o Salinity increased --> Boiling point increased
temperature regulation on earth (it warms slowly in --> Evaporation decreased
comparison of land due to its specific heat of the 7. Diurnal range of temperature
water). o Maximum temperature in day and minimum
• Average temperature of ocean = 3-5 degree Celsius temperature in night time.
• But average surface temperature of ocean water = 25 o Tropical water has higher diurnal range (due
degree to less cloud) than equatorial waters.
▪ Because, heating and cooling of water
rapid under clear sky.
Factors affecting temperature distribution
8. Annual range of temperature
o Bigger the size of ocean =Better mixing of
1. Latitude water and heat + Slow heating
o Surface water temperature decreases from
▪ Hence, lower annual range
the equator towards the pole.
o Pacific ocean –> Lower annual range than
▪ It is due to the declining intensity of
Atlantic Ocean
insolation per unit area while moving
towards pole.
Variationin ocean temperature
o But highest temperature is not at the equator
insteadat the tropics (high rainfall, cloud
cover = high albedo/ reflection of sunrays) • Earth's surface at equator receives about four times
2. Hemispheric variation more average incoming solar energy than at pole.
o Unequal distribution of land and water. • Radiation penetrates some distance below the surface
o Northern hemisphere is warmer than due to the transparency of water.
southern because of large land mass in • Shorter wavelengths (high energy) penetrate deeper
northern hemisphere (High specific heat of than longer wavelengths. Heat is carried further to the
water causes slower heating of it). deeper levels by mixing.
3. Prevailing winds (Longitudinal variation of • Diurnal and seasonal temperature variations are
temperature) relatively small in water than on land due to the high
o The offshore winds (Winds blow towards the specific heat of water.
ocean from the land) drive warm surface • Most solar energy is absorbed within a few meters of
water away from coast. the ocean surface by directly heating the surface
▪ This results in upwelling of cold water water. This provides the energy for
from below. photosynthesis for marine plants and algae.
o The onshore winds raise the temperature at
coast by piling up warm water near it. Vertical variation in oceanic temperature
4. Ocean currents
o Oceanic currents describe the movement of • Vertical distribution of temperature in the deep ocean
water from one location to another. is controlled by density driven water movements.
▪ Warm ocean currents = Increases the • The maximum temperature of oceans is always at
temperature of cold areas (like Gulf their surface due to the direct incidence of solar
stream) energy.

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• Heat conduction by itself is extremely slow, so only a • The highest temperature is recorded slightly away
small proportion of heat is transferred downwards by from equator in the northern direction.
this process.
• The heat is transmitted to the lower sections of the SALINITY
oceans through the process of convection. Throughout Earth's history, certain processes have served
to make the ocean salty. The weathering of rocks delivers
Thermal layer distribution in ocean minerals, including salt, into the ocean.

• 1st layer • Salinity is a vital property of sea water. It is

o Top layer consists of warm oceanic water. determined by the amount of salt (in gm) dissolved in
o It is about 500 meter thick with temperature 1,000 gm (1 kg) of seawater.
range between 20-25°C. • It is usually expressed as parts per thousand (o/oo)
o This layer exists throughout the year in tropical orppt.
region but develops only during summer in mid- • Salinityof 24.7 o/oo has been considered as the upper
latitude. limit to demarcate 'brackish water'.
• 2nd layer
• Even small variations in ocean surface salinity (i.e.,
o Temperature decline rapidly
concentration of dissolved salts) can have dramatic
between the depths of about 200 meters to 1000
effects on the water cycle and ocean circulation.
meters.
• Factors that affect the salinity of the oceans can be
o This region of steep temperature gradient is
broadly grouped into two categories
known as the permanent thermocline.
o Factors that increase salinity (due to
o About 90 per cent of the total volume of water is
increase in salt concentration by
found below the thermocline in the deep ocean.
extracting freshwater from the ocean)
In this zone, temperatures approach 0°C.
1. Evaporation from the ocean’s
o The thermocline is less steep (almost absent) in
surface waters removes water
Polar Regions as the surface temperatures are
molecules, leaving the salt behind.
close to 0°C which results in small variations in
2. Ice formationas freezing of ice
temperature with depth.
leaves salt in the water.
• 3rd layer
3. Advection of more saline water
o There is virtually no seasonal variation beyond
4. Mixing with more saline deep
1000 meters (beneath permanent thermocline)
water(Due to the ocean currents)
and the temperatures are around 2°C.
5. Solution of salt deposits
o This layer extends up to the deep ocean floor.
o Factors that decrease salinity (due to the
o This narrow range is maintained throughout the
decrease in salt concentration by
deep oceans, both geographically and
incorporating freshwater into the ocean)
seasonally, because it is determined by the
1. Precipitation on the ocean surface
temperature of the cold, dense water that sinks at
waters adds water molecules.
the polar-regions and flows towards the
2. Melting of ice which dilutes the
Equator.
concentration of salt in the water.
3. Advection of less saline water
Horizontal variation in oceanic temperature
4. Mixing with less saline deep
water(Due to the ocean currents)
• Average temperature of surface water of the ocean is 5. Inflow of fresh water from land
about 27 °C. • Surface salinity majorly affected by three processes
• Average temperature gradually decreases from the 1. Decrease of salinity by precipitation
equator towards the poles. 2. Increase of salinity by evaporation
• The ocean temperature records,relativity lower 3. Change of salinity by mixing processes
temperature in southern hemisphere then the northern (Due to the ocean currents)
hemisphere.
• This anomaly is a result of unequal distribution of
Salinity of the oceans
land and water in the northern and southern
hemispheres.

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• Standard salinity of ocean water is = 35.5 ppt – Removal of Salts in Ocean water
salinity of Atlantic Ocean
• Dead Sea (350 salinity), Lake van (400), Lake Urmia • Physical removal – waves break at the beaches, salt-
• Man seldom drowns in sea with high salinity spray
o Because, high salinity = high density • Biological removal – marine lifeforms extract
calcium from sea water for their bones.
Sources of salts in ocean water
Distribution of salinity
• Sediments carried by rivers.
• Submarine volcanism at Oceanic Ridge. Vertical (Change with depth)
• Chemical reaction between rocks of geothermal vent
of volcano and cold water. • Salinity changes with depth, but the way it changes
• Erosion of oceanic rocks. depend upon the location of the sea.
• Other factors being constant, increasing salinity of
seawater causes its density to increase. High salinity
seawater, generally, sinks below the lower salinity
water. This leads to stratification by salinity.
• There is a distinct zone called the halocline (compare
this with thermocline) where salinity increases
sharply.

Horizontal

• Highest salinity is found near tropics.

• It decreases towards equator and pole
o Equator = Heavier rains causes incorporation of
freshwater
o Poles = Less evaporation prevents removal of
water molecule from the surface

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SALINITY,

Share of different salts is as shown below TEMPERATURE, AND DENSITY

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• Temperature and density share an inverse o Example = Let the mass of a definite water
relationship. body is 10 and volume is 5, which gives
o As temperature increases, the space between density is equal to 2. If the volume increases
water molecules increases (hence volume to 10 keeping mass constant, the density
increases) which therefore decreases the salinity. reduces to 1.
o If the temperature of water decreases its density • Salinity and density share a positive relationship.
increases, but only to a point. o As density increases, the amount of salts in the
o At a temperature of 4°C pure water reaches its water (also known as salinity), increases.
maximum or peak density, cooled further it • The ocean water is constantly churning underneath,
expands and becomes less dense than the bringing nutrients up to the top.
surrounding water which is why when water o The difference in density of cold water versus
freezes at 0°C it floats. density of warmer water is responsible for ocean
currents and upwelling.
Density = Mass/Volume o Warm seawater floats and cold (4° C), dense (1
g/cm3) seawater sinks, so ocean temperatures
also vary across the surface and into the depths.

Variation of density, salinity, and temperature with the oceanic depth

• When the temperature, density or salinity of a layer • The ocean water is dynamic and its movement is
changes rapidly, this region is referred to as a cline. influenced by physical characteristics like
• Thermoclines are areas of rapid change in temperature, salinity, density and the external forces
temperature. Areas of rapid change in density are like of the sun, moon and the winds.
pycnoclines and areas of rapid change in salinity are • The horizontal and vertical motions are common in
haloclines. ocean water bodies.
• The horizontal motion refers to the ocean currents and
OCEANIC MOVEMENT waves.

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• Water moves ahead from one place to another through • Vertical currentsarise mainlydue todensity
ocean currents while the water in the waves does not differencescausedby temperatureandsalinity
move, but the wave trains move ahead. changes.
• The vertical motion refers to tides (rise and fall of
water in the oceans and seas) and upwelling. WAVES
• Due to attraction of the sun and the moon, the ocean
water is raised up and falls down twice a day.
• Waves are formed due to friction between wind and
• The upwelling of cold water from subsurface and the
surface water layer.
sinking of surface water are also forms of vertical
• The stronger the wind, the bigger the wave.
motion of ocean water.
• They die out quickly on reaching shore or shallow
waters.
• Actual motion of water beneath the wave is circular.

Important terminologies related to wave

• Crest and Trough: The highest and lowest points of

a wave are called the crest and trough respectively.
• Wave height: It is the vertical distance from the
bottom of a trough to the top of a crest of a wave.
• Wave amplitude: It is one-half of the wave height.
• Wave period: It is the time interval between two
successive wave crests or troughs.
• Wavelength: It is the horizontal distance between two
successive crests.
• Wave frequency: It is the number of waves passing a
given point during one second time interval.

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• Wave speed: It is the rate at which the wave moves Breaking of wave
through the water. It is measured in knots. When the depth of water is less than half the wavelength,
the wave breaks.

Waves increases, they crowd together and eventually breaks.

This breaking is called surf.
1. The size and force of the wave depends on 4. Swash: Once the wave breaks, the top fallen over part
o Velocity of the wind is carried over to the shore. This is called swash.
o Duration of the wind 5. Backwash: As the water goes back to the sea, it is
o Distance over which the wind blows unhindered called backwash.
(the fetch)
2. If the water is deep (so that bottom doesn't interfere OCEAN CURRENT
with the wave), winds blow over large distances for Ocean current is a continuous, directed movement of
longer time, waves are bigger. ocean water masses that flow from one place to another
circumnavigating the earth. The forces that initiate the
Important effects by waves movement of water are:

1. Sea: Normally several trains of differing wave lengths 1. Wind

and directional movements of waves occurs in seas. o The major ocean currents are wind-driven
This overall irregular and chaotic wave pattern is currents, though some ocean currents result from
called sea. density and salinity variations of water.
2. Swell: If the wave moves away from the disturbance ▪ The subtropical high pressure cells are
zone into a smooth zone, there appears a uniform responsible for many of the Earth's great
pattern of equivalent wavelength and amplitude. This ocean currents.
is called swell. 2. Heating by solar energy
3. Surf: As the swell reaches shore, the pattern gets o Water expands under high temperature.
disturbed due to friction from the shallow sea floor ▪ Near equator, water is lighter than at the
and the wave breaks. The lower part of the wave poles.
travels more slowly than the upper part so its height

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▪ Near poles, water is cold hence denser and o Thermohaline circulations can be both -
sinks down causing movement of water from 1. Vertical (i.e. upwelling or downwelling)
equator towards the pole. 2. Horizontal (Ocean current movement)
o Cold water from pole flow towards equator at
subsurface level, to balance loss of water at Ocean currents can be classified based on temperature
equator. as cold currents and warm currents:
3. Salinity
o Salinity increases density of water which sinks at 1. Warm currents bring warm water into cold water
depth. areas and are usually observed on the east coast of
▪ Less saline water move towards high saline continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in
water on the surface. both hemispheres). In the northern hemisphere, they
▪ High saline water move towards less saline are found on the west coasts of continents in high
water at sub-surface latitudes.
o Equator → rainfall (less saline water) 2. Cold currentsbring cold water into warm water areas.
o Poles → iceberg (high saline water) These currents are usually found on the west coast of
4. Thermohaline differences the continents in the low and middle latitudes (true in
o Thermohaline circulations are due to changes in both hemispheres) and on the east coast in the higher
density (result of changes in temperature and latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere.
salinity).

Subtropical Gyres 2. The South Atlantic Subtropical Gyre or Navigator

gyre (after the Portuguese prince Henry, the
• The large, circular moving loops of water that are navigator)
driven by the major wind belts of the world are called 3. The North Pacific Subtropical Gyre or Turtle gyre
gyres which generally comprises of four main 4. The South Pacific Subtropical Gyre or Hyerdahl
currents. gyre
• They rotate clockwise in the Northern Hemisphere 5. The Indian Ocean Subtropical or Majid gyre
and counter clockwise in the Southern
Hemisphere. World's five subtropical gyres: Sargasso Sea
1. The North Atlantic Subtropical Gyre or Sargasso
sea (due to presence of seaweed called Sargasso on • The Sargasso Sea is a motionless sea confined to the
the surface) sub-tropical north Atlantic gyre.
o The gyral system formed by the anti-cyclonic
circulation of oceanic water.

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o Atmospheric stability due to it being located in the

transition zone of the trade winds and the
westerlies which is characterized by anti-cyclonic
conditions.
o Hence, there are feeble winds which allow little
intermixing with waters outside the gyre.
• It is located entirely within the Atlantic Ocean, is the
only sea without a land boundary.

Equatorial Countercurrents

Equatorial currents moves large volume of

water westward. As a result water piles up along
the western margin of an ocean basin, which raises sea
level on the western side of the basin.

• The water on the western margins then flows

downhill under the influence of gravity, creating
narrow equatorial counter currents that flow to the
east counter to and between the adjoining equatorial
currents.

North Indian Ocean Currents

• Indian Ocean is half an ocean; hence the behavior of Effects of ocean currents
the North Indian Ocean Currents is different from that
of Atlantic Ocean Currents or the Pacific Ocean 1. Meeting of cold and warm currents
Currents. o Creates excellent fishing zones.
• Seasonal monsoon winds peculiar to the Northern ▪ Kurishio (warm) + Oyashio (cold)
Indian Ocean region directly influence the ocean ▪ Labrador (cold) + Gulf Stream(warm)
surface water movement. ▪ Falkland (cold) + Brazilian(warm)
• Due to the seasonal change of ocean current o Mixing of cold and warm water creates fog.
circulation, North Indian Ocean Currents is important 2. Warming effect by warm current
for sea-trade, cultural interaction. o This makes port operable near the adjacent areas
in comparison of areas lying on the same latitude
• During summer, wind and current flow towards India but at the locations where cold current flows.
from Arabia in influence of strong south-west o Norway ports are operable in winter whereas ports
monsoon winds. in Russia freeze.
o Sea vessel moves from Arabia to India by 3. Dessicating effect by cold currents (an element for
utilizing wind and ocean current. desert formation)
• During winter, wind and current flow towards Arabia o Peru or Humboldt current = Atacama Desert
from India in influence of prevailing trade winds o Benguela current = Namib Desert
(easterly trade winds) o Canary current = Sahara Desert
o Sea vessel moves from India to Arabia by o California current = Mojave Desert
utilizing wind and ocean current.
UPWELLING AND DOWNWELLING

Ekman spiral and transport

• When the wind pushes the water in its direction, the

surface layer begins to move but gets deflected

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towards the right (in North hemisphere) due to • Upwelling occurs where water from the deeper parts
Coriolis Effect. of the ocean is allowed to travel upwards to the
• This surface layer pulls along the layer immediately surface.
below with it. But as that layer moves it gets deflected
further to right. Downwelling
• Successive layers move progressively right until a
layer moves 90º to the direction of the wind. This is • Downwelling is the vertical movement of surface
called Ekman spiral. water to deeper parts of the ocean which occurs in the
• Ekman transport is the movement of the 90º layer. areas where waters converge and "pile up".

Upwelling

Upwelling and nutrient enrichment at surface water

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TIDES

• The periodical rise and fall of the sea level, once or

twice a day, mainly due to the attraction of the sun
and the moon, is called a tide.
o Cause of Tide = Gravitational Pull of Moon
(major effect) and Sun (minor effect) +
Centrifugal Force
• The gravitational pull and the centrifugal force (due
to inertia) working together are responsible for
creating the two major tidal bulges on the earth.
• Tsunami, storm surge, and tides are tidal
waves (waves with large wavelengths that have • Ebb is the tidal phase (time between high tide and low
greater intensity and destructive power). tide) during which the tidal current is flowing seaward
(ebb current).
Ebb and Flood/Flow • Flood is the tidal phase (time between high tide and
In open sea low tide) during which the tidal current is flowing
inland (flood current).
• Ebb is the tidal phase (time between high tide and low
tide) during which the water level is falling. MOON POSTION AND TIDE
• Flood is the tidal phase (time between high tide and Magnitude of tides based on Perigee and Apogee of
low tide) during which the water level is rising. earth
Perigee tides are higher than apogee tides
In tidal inlet system

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• When the earth is closest to the moon (Perigee), tidal • The forces of the sun and moon – counteract
ranges are also much greater, with unusually high and • Occurs on 7/8th Day of every fortnight.
unusually low tides. • It causes Neap tides are (minimum tides due to the
• When the earth is farthest from the moon (apogee), counter effect of gravitational force by sun and
tidal ranges are much less than average. moon).
• There is a 7 Days interval between the spring tides
and neap tides.

Syzygy

• Syzygy refers to the positions of the sun, earth, and

moon in a straight line.
• It occurs when the sun, moon, and earth aligned in a
same line as shown in figure.
• occur twice a month
1. Conjuction – New moon
2. opposition – full moon
• It causes spring tides (maximum tides due to the
combined effect of gravitational force by sun and
moon gravitation).

SOME IMPORTANT CONCEPTS OF TIDE

1. Tidal bore: When a tide enters a narrow and shallow

estuary of a river, the front of the tide appears to be
vertical (due to piling up of water because of bottom
friction). This is called tidal bore.
2. Tidal current: When a gulf is connected with a sea
through a narrow channel, during tides water flows in
and out. This is called tidal current.
3. Kallakkadal: These are ocean swells which occur in
Indian Ocean during April-May. They originate in
South Indian Ocean due to storms and propagate
northward with ocean currents. They get amplified as
they reach shores. The flooding is most severe on
spring tides.
Quadrature
Tidal range
• Quadrature refers to the orthogonal positions of the • Difference between High tide and Low Tide.
sun and moon. • It depends upon:

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1. Depth of ocean water 3. Openness and closeness of the sea

2. Configuration of coastline

Highest tidal range CORAL REEFS

1. World: Bay of Fundy
2. India: Gulf of Khambhat

• Underwater structures made from calcium carbonate

secreted by corals.
• It often called "rainforests of the sea" as they form
some of the most diverse ecosystems on Earth.
• An individual coral is known as a polyp which has a
symbiotic relationship with plant like cells called
zooxanthellae.
o Polyp ingests tiny organisms called plankton &
other small creatures.
o Thousands of identical polyps live together and
form a coral colony.
• Each polyp excretes a calcium carbonate exoskeleton
beneath it. Over long periods of time, the skeletons of

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many coral colonies add up to build the structure of a • They are considered as the largest, highest and widest
coral reef. reefs among the three coral reefs.
• Many other species – fish, invertebrates, algae and o They run for 100 kilometres and is several
microorganisms – make their homes on and around kilometres wide
this reef. • Barrier reefs are far less common than fringing reefs
• Coral reefs over a period of time transform or evolve or atolls, although examples can be found in the
into coral Islands (Lakshadweep). tropical Atlantic as well as the Pacific.
o In India, they are present around A&N, • Example = The Great Barrier Reef of Australia which
Lakshadweep, Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of is 1200 mile long.
Mannar.
Atoll
CORAL REEF RELIEF FEATURES
Fringing reef (Shore reefs), barrier reef and atoll (coral • An atoll can be defined as a reef that is roughly
islands are formed on atolls) are the most important relief circular and surrounds a large central lagoon.
features. o If a fringing reef forms around a volcanic island
that subsides completely below sea level while
the coral continues to grow upward, an atoll
forms.
• This lagoon is mostly deep having a depth of 80-150
metres and may be joined with sea water through a

Fringing Reef

• It is a coral platform attached to a continental coast or

an island, sometimes separated by a narrow, shallow
lagoon known as Boat Channel.
• They grow from the deep bottom of the sea and have
their seaward side sloping steeply into the deep sea.
• Coral polyps do not extend outwards because of
sudden and large increase in depth.
• Fringing Reefs are the most commonly found coral
reefs among the three. number of channels cutting across the reef.
• Example = Sakau Island in New Hebrides, South • Atolls are located at great distances from deep see
Florida Reef. platforms, where the submarine features may help in
formation of atolls, such as a submerged island or a
Barrier Reef volcanic cone which may reach a level suitable for
coral growth.
• Barrier Reefs develop off the coast and parallel to the • Example = Fiji Atolls, Suvadivo in Maldives and
shore as a broken and irregular ring. Funafoothis Atoll of Ellice.
• They are separated from their adjacent land mass by
a lagoon of open, often deep water.

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Conditions for survival o That is why coral reefs grow so near the surface
of the water where it is the sunniest–the algae
1. Shallow water: Where sunlight can reach them. need sunshine for photosynthesis.
Rarely develop in water deeper than 165 feet (50 o Corals also capture food. At night, they stretched
meters). out their stinging tentacles and catch the
2. Clear water: That lets sunlight through. They don’t microscopic organisms that flow in the water
thrive well when the water is opaque. and digest them in their stomachs.
3. Warm water: Reef-building corals require warm • Hence, corals have two way of getting food - through
water conditions to survive. Different corals living in zooxanthellae and capturing microscopic organisms.
different regions can withstand water temperatures of • Despite occupying less than 1% of the world’s ocean
68–90° F or 20–32° C. surface, they provide a home for 25% of all marine
4. Pollution-free water: Corals are sensitive to pollution species.
and sediments. Wastewater discharged into the ocean • In addition to providing corals with essential
near the reef can contain too many nutrients that cause nutrients, zooxanthellae are responsible for the
seaweeds to overgrow the reef. unique and beautiful colors of many stony corals.
5. Salinity: Corals need saltwater (salinity almost 27
ppt) to survive and require a certain balance in the DISTRIBUTION OF CORAL REEFS
ratio of salt to water. This is why corals don’t live in
areas where rivers drain fresh water into the ocean • The majority of reef building corals are found within
(“estuaries”). tropical and subtropical waters. These typically occur
between 30º north and 30º south latitudes.
PROMINENT FEATURES OF CORAL REEFS • The Indonesian/Philippines archipelago has
the world's greatest concentration of reefs and
• Coral lives a symbiotic life. Inside the sac of each the greatest coral diversity. Other area of
coral polyp lives zooxanthellae algae. reef concentration are the Great Barrier Reef
o Algae gives off oxygen and other nutrients (for of Australia, the Red Sea and the Caribbean, the
food) that the coral polyp needs to live and in latter having a much lower diversity than all major
return the polyp provides the zooxanthellae with Indo- Pacific regions.
shelter and nutrients.

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CORAL BLEACHING
• Coral bleaching occurs when the
relationship between the coral host and marine algae,
which give coral much of their colour, breaks down.
• Without the marine algae, the tissue of the
coral animal appears transparent and the coral's
bright white skeleton is revealed.
• Coral reef bleaching is a common stress response of
corals to many of the various disturbances caused
by anthropogenic and natural events.
• When temperature increases, the algae in the corals
are killed and lose their colour. Hence, the process is
known as coral bleaching, which leads to their death

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• Hurricanes, Predators, Over Fishing, oil pollution and climate change, El Nino, Coral diseases and local
fishing methods (Cyanide Fishing and Blast Fishing), factors are responsible.

Causes of coral bleaching o Epizootics are diseases that are temporarily

prevalent, often becoming widespread through
1. Temperature animal populations.
o Rises in seawater temperature as a result of global o Pathogen-induced bleaching commonly results in
warming. sporadic or whole-colony death amongst coral
o Changes in water heat affect zooxanthellae populations, leaving behind a white skeleton (Not
photosynthesis, forcing it out of coral polyps and to be mistaken for bleaching).
depriving coral of essential resources.
2. Solar Irradiance Kelp Forest
o During summer months, coral bleaching can occur
due to solar radiation.
o Both photosynthetically active radiation and UV
radiation have been associated with bleaching.
3. Subaerial Exposure
o Low tides, sea level drops and tectonic uplift can
result in sudden exposure of coral to the
atmosphere.
o Whether due to exposure to high/low temperature,
increased solar radiation or desiccation, subaerial
exposure often results in bleaching and consequent
coral death due to sudden changes in atmospheric
conditions.
4. Sedimentation
o Though uncommon, coral bleaching can
sometimes be linked to sediment.
o Activities such as land clearing and coastal
construction can result in high rates of erosion,
increasing sediment content in water and
disrupting the natural process of photosynthesis.
5. Inorganic Nutrients • Kelps are the large brown algae seaweeds which
o Increases in inorganic nutrients such as ammonia
absorbs carbon emissions.
and nitrate do not deplete coral of zooxanthellae, • It grows in "underwater forests" in shallow oceans
but rather cause it to multiply, increasing its and live further from the tropics than coral reefs,
content by 2-3 times. mangrove forests, and warm-water seagrass beds.
o Though this does not directly cause bleaching,
o Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical
secondary adverse effects such as lower coral surface waters, a few species have been known to
resistance and increased disease susceptibility can occur exclusively in tropical deep waterso.
occur. o Kelps and coral reefs are composed of algae that
6. Xenobiotics grow in the shallow parts of the ocean in warm and
o Exposure of coral to chemical contaminants such
sunny waters. However, kelp forest grows in
as copper, herbicides and oils can cause nutrient-rich waters while corals can develop in
zooxanthellae loss. low nutrient waters.
o Such loss is often highly localised, only occurring
o Not present in Antarctica
where xenobiotics (foreign substances) come into • Recognized as one of the most productive and
contact with coral. dynamic ecosystems on Earth.
7. Epizootics • Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds.

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Environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive

1. Hard substrate (usually rock)

2. High nutrients
3. Clear shallow coastal waters
4. Light

Importance

• Considered as Keystone Species.

• Provides as an important source of food for many
marine species (up to 60% of carbon found in coastal
invertebrates is attributable to kelp productivity).
• It slows down the flow of the water.
• Natural breakwaters and prevent coastal erosion.
• Can influence coastal oceanographic patterns.
• Iimportant source of potash and iodine.
• Produce algin (complex carbohydrate useful in
industries such as tire manufacturing, ice-cream
industry).

Speices classification

• Keystone species refer to species that has a

disproportionately large effect on its environment
relative to its abundance.
• Foundation species refer to species that has a strong
role in structuring a community.
• Indicator species defines a trait or characteristic of
the enviornment.
• Flagship species is a species selected to act as an
ambassador, icon or symbol for a defined habitat,
issue, campaign or environmental cause.

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CH-6 CLIMATOLOGY

Topics covered 18. Pressure Systems of the World (Vertical and

horizontal Pressure Belts)
1. Climate and weather 19. El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
2. Evolution of atmosphere 20. Wind Systems of the World
3. Composition of atmosphere 1. Permanent- Planetary Winds
1. Air 2. Variable- Seasonal and Local winds
2. Dust particle 21. Jet Streams
3. Green House Gases 22. Air Mass
4. Structure of Atmosphere 23. Fronts
1. Troposphere 24. Cyclones- Tropical & Temperate Cyclone, their
2. Stratosphere Formation, their Distribution, their Differences
3. Mesosphere 25. Thunderstorm
4. Thermosphere 26. Tornados or Twisters
5. Exosphere 27. Rossby Waves
5. Insolation and terrestrial radiation 28. Polar Vortex
1. Variability of insolation at the surface of 29. Ozone Depletion & Hole
the Earth 30. Polar Stratospheric Clouds
2. Albedo 31. Aurora
3. Heat Budget
6. Temperature Distribution on the Earth Syllabus for GS Paper
1. Controlling factors
2. Isotherm 3. Prelims Paper I
7. Air moisture o Indian and World Geography-Physical,
1. Water in the atmosphere Social, Economic Geography of India
2. Humidity and the World.
8. Temperature lapse rate 4. Paper 2 (GS-I)
1. Rising and Falling Air Parcel o Salient features of the world’s physical
2. Adiabatic Lapse Rate geography.
9. Types of condensation
10. Temperature Inversion
1. Ground surface inversion
2. Upper air inversion
3. Frontal or cyclonic inversion
4. Surface inversion of temperature
5. Valley inversion
11. Temperature inversion implications
12. Types of precipitation - Rain, Frost, Sleet, Hail
13. Rainfall Types
14. Atmospheric circulation
1. Vertical and horizontal variation
2. Coriolis force
3. Frictional force
4. Pressure gradient force
15. Geostrophic wind
16. Pressure and wind
17. World distribution of isobars

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EVOLUTION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 1. No chemical interaction among them

2. They don’t lose their properties
Climate Weather 3. They act as a single unified gas

Climate is the It is the mix of events that COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERE

weather of a place happen each day in our
averaged over a atmosphere (One • Atmosphere is a mixture of different odorless,
period of time, often atmosphere on the Earth but tasteless and colorless gases, dust and vapour.
30 years. different weathers at • It is a relatively thin layer enveloping the earth all
different locations). round and held by the Earth’s gravity. It extends
several thousands of kilometres above earth surface.
Describes what the Refers to short-term • It is a protective boundary between outer space and
weather is like over a changes in the atmosphere. the biosphere.
long period of time in
a specific area. Air
Its study known as Its study known as
• Air is mostly gas.
Climatology Meteorology
• Air in motion is called wind.
• Atmosphere is an envelope of air composed of
• There are three stages in the evolution of the present numerous gases. These gases support life over the
atmosphere. earth’s surface.
• The air in Earth’s atmosphere is made up of
approximately 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen.
1. Loss of primordial atmosphere.
• Air also has small amounts of lots of other gases, too,
such as carbon dioxide, neon, and hydrogen.
• The early atmosphere, with hydrogen and helium, is
supposed to have been stripped off as a result of the
solar winds.
1. Evolution of the atmosphere by hot interior of the
earth.
▪ During early life of the earth, Nitrogen, Sulphur,
Carbon Dioxide, Water Vapour, and Argon came
out due to the extensive volcanism and degassing.
2. Modification of atmospheric composition by the
living world through the process of photosynthesis.
▪ Water vapour condensed,that led to the formation
of clouds andhence the rainfall washed out the
bulk of Carbon Dioxide intothe Oceans.
▪ Oxygenwas produced from anaerobic respiration
of bacteria like, Cynobacteria (and not from
degassing).
• The present composition of earth’s atmosphere is
chiefly contributed by nitrogen and oxygen.

PROPERTIES OF GASES

• Nitrogen, Oxygen, Hydrogen and Argon are

permanent gases.
• Water vapour, Carbon Dioxide, Ozone are variable
gases.
• Neon, Argon – inert gases
• Atmospheric gases

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• This process makes Earth much warmer than it would

be without an atmosphere.
• The greenhouse effect is one of the things that make
Earth a comfortable place to live.

Greenhouse Gases

• Greenhouse gases are gases in Earth’s atmosphere

that trap heat.
• They let sunlight pass through the atmosphere, but
they prevent the heat that the sunlight brings from
leaving the atmosphere.
• GHGs absorblong wave terrestrial radiation.
• Some of the main greenhouse gases are:
1. Water vapor
Dust Particles 2. Carbon dioxide
3. Methane
• Small solid particles originate from different sources. 4. Ozone
• It includes sea salts, fine soil, smoke-soot, ash, pollen,
dust and disintegrated particles of meteors. Each gas's effect on climate change depends on 3 main
• They are generally concentrated in the lower layers of factors
the atmosphere.
• They canbe transported to great heights by 1. How much is in the atmosphere?
convectional air currents. o Concentration, or abundance, i.e. the amount of a
• The higher concentration of dust particles is found particular gas in the air.
in subtropical and temperate regionsdue to dry winds o Larger emissions of greenhouse gases lead to
in comparison to equatorial and Polar Regions. higher concentrations in the atmosphere.
2. How long do they stay in the atmosphere?
Hygroscopic nuclei: They are the dust particles around o Each of these gases can remain in the atmosphere
which the water vapor condense to form clouds. for different amounts of time, ranging from a few
years to thousands of years.
3. How strongly do they impact the atmosphere?
o Some gases are more effective than others at
making the planet warmer and "thickening the
Earth's blanket."

For each greenhouse gas, a Global Warming Potential

(GWP) has been calculated to reflect how long it remains
in the atmosphere, on average, and how strongly it
absorbs energy. Gases with a higher GWP absorb more
energy than gases with a lower GWP, and thus contribute
more to warming Earth.

Water vapour

• A variable gas in the atmosphere that decreases with

altitude and on moving from the equator towards the
poles.
Greenhouse Effect • Its concentration is higher in warm and wet tropics in
comparison of the dry and cold areas of desert and
• The greenhouse effect is aprocess that occurs when Polar Regions.
gases in Earth's atmosphere trap the Sun's heat.

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• It also absorbs parts of the incoming solar • Nitrous oxide is emitted during agricultural and
radiationand preserves the radiated heat from the industrial activities, combustion of fossil fuels and
earth (terrestrial radiation). solid waste, as well as during treatment of
• Hence, it acts like a blanket allowing the earth neither wastewater.
to become too cold nor too hot.
• It also contributes to the stability and instability in the Fluorinated gases
air.
• These are synthetic, powerful greenhouse gases that
Carbon Dioxide are emitted from a variety of industrial processes.
• Fluorinated gases are sometimes used as substitutes
• Meteorologically a very important gas because of its for stratospheric ozone-depleting substances.
transparency to the incoming solar radiation but • These gases are typically emitted in smaller
opaqueness to the outgoing terrestrial radiation. quantities, but because they are potent greenhouse
• It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects gases, they are sometimes referred to as High Global
back some part of it towards the surface of earth. Warming Potential gases ("High GWP gases").
• It is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect.
Ozone
Methane
• Important component of the atmosphere found
• One of the most important greenhouse gases. between 10 and 50 km above the earth’s surface.
• It is produced from decomposition of animal wastes • Prevents surface of the earth by absorbing the
and biological matter. harmful ultra-violet radiations coming from the sun.

Nitrous oxide

GROUND-LEVEL OZONE VERSES STRATOSPHERIC OZONE

Ground-level Ozone Stratospheric Ozone

Description • Bad Ozone • Good Ozone

• Part of Photochemical Smog (We will read • Act as natural filter which absorbs the Sun’s UV rays
about it later) • Found in Stratosphere
• Found in Troposphere

Sources • Forms when Nitrous Oxides (NOx) react with • Naturally forms when Oxygen is in the presence of
Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs). UV radiation.

Effects • Eye and respiratory irritation Thinning of ozone shield leads to

• Lung disease
• Corrosion in buildings • Crop damage
• Aquatic life death
• Eye irritation
• Skin cancer

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STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE
Thermal Zone Segregation • Temperature reduces at 6.5ºC/km or 1ºC▼/165m
(normal lapse rate) as we move up.
Troposphere
Stratosphere
• Lowermost layer of the atmosphere.
• Also known as convective region(all convection • Extends from tropopause to 50 km.
occurs till the Tropopause). • Important Feature = It contains the Ozone Layer
• Tropopause: Zone separating the troposphere from (Shields life on the earth by absorbing intense,
stratosphere. The temperature here is nearly constant. harmful ultra-violet radiation)
o Average height = 13 km • Temperature inversion: Normal Lapse Rate ends
here. This warming of the stratosphere with altitude
is caused largely due to absorption of solar energy by
ozone.
• The air movements are almost horizontal. This is
because the effect of convection currents is almost
negligible in comparison to troposphere. This in turn
prevents vertical mixing of pollutants from
troposphere to stratosphere.
• Ideal region for flying jets as clouds are almost absent
(sometimes layer possess cirrus clouds in lower
level).
• Winds blow from west to east.

Mesosphere

• Ranges 50-80 km (Stratopause and Mesopause)

• Temperature again starts falling with elevation
(because no GHGs exists here, i.e. no heat absorbing
layer nor ozone layer).
o Temperature decrease from 0 ºC to -90 ºC.
• Meteors burn in this layer.
o Mesospheric or Noctilucent clouds visible at high
latitude during summer season due to the
condensation of moisture around the meteoric
dust.
• Mesopause= Upper limit of mesosphere
o
Highest at equator (18 km) because heat is • Very thin layer causes difficulty in breathing.
transported to great heights by strong convectional
currents Thermosphere
o Lowest at poles (8 km)
• The temperature is also lowest at equator (-80ºC) as
• It extends from 80-400 km and contains electrically
compared to poles (-45ºC). This is because
charged particles known as ions (Region is known as
convectional currents are strongest at equator.
• 90% of total mass.
Ionosphere).
• Contains dust particles and water vapor. • Temperature rises with height again due to proximity
• Most cloud appear here as approx 99% of water vapor to the sun (Ions absorbs heat).
o Even though the temperature is high but because
is found here.
• All changes in climate and weather take place in this of rarified atmosphere the heat could not be felt.
• International Space Station&Satellitesorbit in this
layer.
• Seasons and jet streams affect troposphere. layer
• Most important layer for all biological activity. • Aurorasalso form in this layer.

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Exosphere • This layer reflects the harmful ultraviolet radiation

due to the presence of ozone molecules.
• Uppermost layer of the atmosphere. • The ozonosphere is also known as
• Above the thermosphere. chemospherebecause of immense chemical activity
• Highest layer and extremely rarefied. goes on here.
• It gradually merges with the outer space. • The temperature increases at a rate of 5°C/km.

FUNCTIONAL ZONE SEGREGATION Ionosphere

Ozonosphere
• Where electron density is very high (100-300 km).
• It spans the stratosphere and lower mesosphere and • Ions useful for Radio communication(reflects radio
lies at an altitude between 30 km and 60 kmfrom the waves).
earth’s surface.

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GYANBAZI (EXTRA KNOWLEDGE) (mainly in the troposphere) while solar radiation passes
Electromagnetic Spectrum through it.

Coloring of the sky

• Sunlight reaches Earth's atmosphere and is scattered
in all directions by all the gases and particles in the
troposphere.
• A clear cloudless day-time, sky is blue because
molecules in the air scatter blue light from the sun
more than they scatter red light.
• When we look towards the sun at sunset, we see red
and orange colors because the blue light has been
scattered out and away from the line of sight.
Temperature
An objective measurement of how hot or cold an object
is. It can be measured with a thermometer or a
calorimeter.
Heat
Planck–Einstein relation ( Planck's energy–frequency It is a form of energy that is transferred between two
relation) substances at different temperatures.The effects of this
energy transfer usually, but not always, is an increase in
the temperature of the colder body and a decrease in the
temperature of the hotter body.

• A substance may absorb heat without an increase in

temperature by changing from one physical state
(known as phase) to another. This absorbed heat is
known as Latent Heat.

• Frequency = Number of occurrences of a repeating

event per unit of time.
• Wavelength = Distance between identical points in
the adjacent cycles of a waveform signal.
• Higher the Frequency = High Energy or Short
Wavelength

Much of the near infrared radiation absorbed by the water

vapor, ozone and other gases present in the atmosphere

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Heat versus Temperature 4. Radiation– The transfer of energy through empty

space. There is no direct contact between heat source
While heat represents the molecular movement of and an object.
particles comprising a substance, the temperature is the
measurement in degrees of how hot (or cold) a thing (or a
place) is. The interaction of incoming solar radiation with INSOLATION & TERRESTRIAL RADIATION
the atmosphere and the earth’s surface creates heat which
is measured in terms of temperature. • Earth’s surface receives most of its energy in the form
of short wavelengths known as incoming solar
• Plank’s law states that hotter a body, the more energy radiation (Insolation).
it will radiate and shorter the wavelength of that • The earth absorbs short wave radiation (Short
radiation. wavelength = High Energy) during daytime and
• Specific heat is the energy needed to raise the reflects back the heat received into space as long-
temperature of one gram of substance by one Celsius. wave radiation (mostly infrared radiation) during
night. It makes the Earth a radiating body.
Heat Transfer mechanisms • The long wave energy radiated by the Earth known as
Terrestrial Radiation.
1. Conduction– Heat transfer by direct contact of • Terrestrial Radiation heats the atmosphere from
particles of matter. below as it is absorbed by the atmospheric gases
2. Convection– Transfer of heat by the movement of a particularly the green house gases.
heated fluid (liquids and gases) molecules. Heat • The atmosphere in turn radiates and transmits heat to
transfer by convection is caused by differences in the space.
temperature and density within a fluid. • Finally, the amount of heat received from the sun is
3. Advection– Heat transfer through horizontal returned to space thereby maintaining constant
movement of the air. temperature at the earth’s surface and in the
atmosphere.

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• This is why earth neither warms up nor does it get • Albedo commonly refers to the "whiteness" of a
cooled over a period of time. surface, with 0 meaning black and 1 meaning white.
• The amount of heat received by different parts of the • A value of 0 means the surface is a "perfect
earth is not equal which causes pressure differences absorber" that absorbs all incoming energy and the
in the atmosphere. object having this surface is known as Blackbody.
• This leads to transfer of heat from one region to
the other by winds.

VARIABILITY OF INSOLATION AT THE

SURFACE OF THE EARTH
The factors that cause these variations in insolation are:

1. Rotation of earth on its tilted axis (at 66.5 degree with

the plane of its orbit round the sun).
2. Angle of inclination of the sun’s rays
o Area under the insolation increases with
increasing latitude as a result of slant sun rays.
3. Length of the day
o Duration of the day affects the amount of
insolation received.
o Shorter the duration results in less received
insolation.
4. Transparency of the atmosphere
o Affects reflection, absorption or transmission of
insolation.
o Depends upon the cloud cover and its thickness,
dust particles, water vapor, etc
o Thick cloud hinders the solar radiation to reach the
earth’s surface.
o Water vapor absorbs solar radiation resulting in
less amount of insolation reaching the surface.
o Slant rays are required to pass through greater
depth of the atmosphere resulting in more
absorption, scattering and diffusion.
5. Configuration of land in terms of its topography
o Sun facing slopes receive more vertical rays of
sun.

Sub-solar point and Sun's declination

• The point on earth where the sun is directly overhead
at a given point of time is called sub-solar point.
• The latitude of the sub-solar point is called Sun's Heat Budget
declination.
• The earth as a whole does not accumulate or loose
Albedo heat. It maintains its temperature.
• This can happen only if the amount of heat received
• This is the amount of insolation reflected by the body. in the form of insolation equals the amount lost by the
• It is defined as the ratio of the reflected radiation to earth through terrestrial radiation
the total intercepted radiation. (insolation=terrestrial radiation).
• It is described in terms of percentage of reflected
radiation.
• When sun is overhead, albedo is less.

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• 17% is radiated directly to space.

• Atmosphere together radiates back 48% to the space.

Latitudinal Heat Balance

• 35% of insolation is radiated (27% from clouds, 2%

from ice) and 14% of insolation is absorbed by
atmosphere.

• Latitudinal Heat Balance is the state of balance which

exists between the latitudinal belts by maintaining net
incoming solar radiation and the outgoing terrestrial
radiation.
• The amount of insolation received by earth surface
varies from latitude to latitude.
o At latitudes below 40º = Insolation ≥ Outgoing
Radiation (surplus of net radiation)
o At latitudes above 40º = Insolation ≤ Outgoing
Radiation (deficit of net radiation)
• Heat transfer takes from heat surplus zone to the heat
• Rest 51% of insolation reaching earth's surface get deficit zone by ocean currents (20%) and atmosphere
absorbed by it and later radiated back. (80%).
• 34% is absorbed by atmosphere again (19% via latent • The temperature of the earth as a whole remains
heat of condensation). constant due to this equilibrium.

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• If there is no latitudinal heat balance, the deficit heat • The global distribution of temperature can well be
belt will become extremely cold and the surplus heat understood by studying the temperature distribution
belt will become extremely hot to live in. in January and July.
• The temperature distribution is generally shown on
TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION ON THE the map with the help of isotherms.
EARTH • Isotherms: Lines joining places having equal
Factors controlling the distribution of Temperature temperature at a given time or on average over a given
(LACTO PAE) (BHUMIKA BANDHO) period.
o Effects of altitude is not considered while
drawing an isotherm.
1. Latitudes: Intensity of insolation decreases with the
• Temperature anomaly: The difference between mean
increase in latitude. Maximum temperature is not at
temperature of a place and the mean temperature of
equator but at 20ºN.
its latitude is called temperature anomaly.
o Major portion is reflected by the clouds and
o Positive Anomaly = Local Temperature >
sizeable amount is lost in evaporation.
Latitude Temperature
o At 45º latitude, insolation is about 75% of that at
o Negative Anomaly = Local Temperature <
equator.
o At 66.5º latitude, it is about 50% of that at equator.
Latitude Temperature
o At poles, it is about 40% of that at equator.
2. Altitude: Temperature decreases with increasing Above 40º N, continents have Negative Anomaly and
height at an average rate of 6.5ºC/km. oceans have Positive Anomaly for the year as a whole and
o The layers of air are denser at the earth surface and vice versa for ocean.
become lighter with increasing altitude.
o The lower layers contain water vapor and dust Isotherms and their general characteristics
particles.
3. Distance from the Coast: Temperature is moderated • Generally, follow the latitude parallels (because all
by marine environment because of sea breeze and the points located on the same latitude receives same
land breeze. amount of insolation).
4. Terrestrial radiation: Major source of atmospheric • Sudden bends at ocean-continent boundaries even on
heat is the earth’s surface from where heat is the same latitude (because of the differential heating
transferred to the atmosphere. of land and water).
5. Ocean Currents: Warm currents raise temperature • High thermal gradient (rapid change in temperature)
where as cold current reduces. (We will read Ocean indicated by narrow spacing between isotherms.
Currents in detail in Oceanography Chapter) • Low thermal gradient (small or slow change in
6. Prevailing Winds: Winds transfer heat from one temperatures) indicated by wide spacing between
latitude to another as well as between land and water isotherm.
bodies.
o The oceanic winds bring moderating effect from General Temperature Distribution
the sea to coastal areas (cool summers and mild
winters). • Highest temperatures = Tropics and sub-tropics (high
o This effect is pronounced only on the windward insolation)
side. The leeward side or the interiors experiences • Lowest temperatures = Polar and Sub Polar Regions
extreme temperature as it do not get moderating • The interiors of continents have highest diurnal and
effect of the sea. (Grammer) annual temperature range because of continentality
7. Air mass: Places having warm air mass experiences effect (No moderating effect of oceans).
higher temperature than the places comes under • Temperature gradients are usually low over the
influence of cold air mass. (We will read Air Mass in eastern margins (because of warm ocean currents)
detail ahead) and high over the western margins (because of cold
8. Effect of continentality: Daily Range of temperature ocean currents) of continents.
is less in marine climate, while extremely high in o The isotherms show a poleward shift while
continental climate. passing through an area with warm ocean currents.
• An enhanced land-sea contrast makes isotherms
DISTRIBUTION OF TEMPERATURE irregular over the northern hemisphere.

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o Northern hemisphere is warmer than the southern high temperature belt runs somewhere along 30°S
o hemisphere due to the predominance of landmass. latitude.
• Temperature contrast between continents and oceans • The western margins of continents are more warm the
are greater during winters than in summers. eastern margins due to the Westerlies that carry high
• Maximum insolation is received over the subtropical temperature into the landmasses.
Deserts due to less cloudiness. • The eastern margins of continents have close
temperature gradient.
The cold currents and warm currents would be discussed • The effect of the ocean makes isotherms almost
in detail in Oceanography. parallel to the latitudes in southern hemisphere.
• Landmasses are cooler than the oceans in the northern
January hemisphere.
o The isotherms bend towards the poles while
• Summer in southern hemisphere and winter in the crossing oceans and to the equator while
northern hemisphere. crossing landmasses.
• The thermal equator lies to the south of geographical • Oceans are cooler than the landmasses in the southern
equator (because ITCZ shifts southward with the hemisphere.
apparent southward movement of the sun) and the o Isotherms bend towards the equator while
crossing oceans and towards the poles while
crossing landmasses.

July
• Summer in northern hemisphere and winter in the • Oceans are cooler than the landmasses in the northern
southern hemisphere. hemisphere.
• The thermal equator lies to the north of geographical o Isotherms bend towards the equator while crossing
equator (due to the northward shift of ITCZ with the oceans and towards the poles while crossing
apparent northward movement of the sun). landmasses.
• The southern hemisphere has regular gradient but • Landmasses are cooler than the oceans in the southern
shows a slight bend towards the equator at the hemisphere.
continents edge. o The isotherms bend towards the poles while
• The deviation of isotherms is not that much crossing oceans and to the equator while crossing
pronounced in July as in January, especially in the landmasses.
northern hemisphere.

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AIR MOISTURE
WATER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Water or Hydrological cycle

• The water between the atmosphere, the oceans and

the continents continuously exchanges through the
processes of
1. Evaporation (Moisture driven from atmosphere
by transforming liquid into gaseous state)
2. Transpiration (Moisture driven from plants)
3. Condensation (In the form of clouds)
4. Precipitation ((In the form of rain)
• The hydrological cycle maintains the balance
between these processes so that the total amount of
moisture in the entire system remain constant.
• Water vapor in air varies from zero to four percent by
volume of the atmosphere and plays an important
role in the weather phenomena.

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HUMIDITY • RH = Over Ocean (greater availability

of water for evaporation) > Over
Water vapor present in the air is known as humidity. Continent
2. By changing temperature of air (Change
1. Absolute humidity in saturation point)
o It is the weight of water vapor per unit volume of • Change in temperature can affect the
moist air. moisture carrying capacity of the
o It is an actual amount of water vapor present in atmosphere.
atmosphere. o Dew Point = Temperature at which the
o It is expressed as grams of moisture per cubic sample of air becomes saturated and it cannot
meter of air (g/m3). hold moisture any further.
o Change in temperature or pressure may be
impact volume hence affects absolute humidity. Measurement
2. Specific Humidity
o It is the weight of water vapor per unit weight of • Hygrometer is an instrument used to measure
dry air. humidity.
o Since it is the weight of the air now, it is not • Psychrometer is a hygrometer with one dry bulb
impacted by change in temperature or pressure. thermometer and one wet bulb thermometer. The
3. Relative humidity (RH) difference between the two readings gives the
o Proportion of actual water vapor present in the humidity.
air to its water vapor carrying capacity at a
constant temperature. Temperature Lapse Rate
o Saturated Air parcel = 100% RH (The air is at full
moisture carrying capacity and no further
• It is rate of change in temperature observed with
moisture addition is possible) rising altitude.
o Relative humidity can be affected by two ways • Positive = Temperature decreases with altitude
1. By adding moisture through evaporation (Normal Lapse Rate)
(by increase in absolute humidity) • Zero = Temperature is constant with altitude
• Negative = Temperature increases with altitude
(known as temperature inversion)

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• This fall in temperature with altitude is called

Temperature Lapse and the rate at which it falls is
known as Temperature Lapse Rate.

Rising and Falling Air Parcel

• The object sinks or rises in a fluid based on the its

relative density with fluid.
• Air parcel density is more than the surrounding
environment = It will fall
• Air parcel density is less than the surrounding
environment = It will rise

Rising Air Parcel

1. Air parcel heated more than surrounding (Heat

exchange hence non-adiabatic) = Temperature
increase → Volume increase (due to expansion,
Charles's law) → Density decrease
Why does temperature fall with rising altitude o At constant Pressure, Change in Volume is
directly proportional to Temperature change (i.e.
• The temperature falls with rising altitude is primarily Increase in Temperature →Increase in Volume)
due to two reasons. o Since there is only heat interaction take place
1. Atmospheric pressure falls (Pressure is directly with no addition of any mass in the air parcel,
proportional to Temperature and vice versa) volume increases at constant mass.
2. Reduced greenhouse gases concentration (leading o As density is given by mass divided by volume,
low heat absorption capacity of atmosphere). volume increment at constant mass causes
decrease in density.

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2. Rising air parcel → Less pressure above increases volume, Boyle's law) due to decreased
(Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude) → pressure → Temperature falls (due to internal
Volume increases (Removing pressure from object changes rather than heat exchange hence adiabatic)

3. The increased volume causes further decrease in

density. The air parcel keeps rising. As there is no • Fall in temperature of a rising air parcel without
interaction of heat, only expansion leads temperature losing any internal heat.
decrement. The rate at which this temperature fall • Air expands and cools adiabatically when it rises.
occurs is called Positive Adiabatic Lapse Rate. • Rate of cooling depends on the water vapor content
of the air. Hence, ALR is usually differentiated as dry
Falling Air Parcel or wet (moist) air.
• Higher the water vapor = Lower the rate of cooling
1. Air parcel at upper level → Heat exchange between due to release of latent heat of condensation.
the air parcel and the surrounding environment (hence • Dry adiabatic rate is about twice of the wet adiabatic
non-adiabatic process) → Temperature falls → rate.
Volume decreases (Charles's law) → Density
increases Wet Adiabatic Lapse Rate (WALR)
o This can also occur if an air parcel comes in
contact with cooler surfaces like mountain slopes. • Saturated air parcel cools down slower than the
2. Air parcel start falling when its density become unsaturated one due to the release of latent heat of
greater than surrounding. condensation.
3. With fall, internal temperature of a falling air parcel • The WALR varies considerably due to the high
increases adiabatically due to the increased variability of water vapor amount in the air.
atmospheric pressure (Gay-Lussac's law). • High amount of vapor = Low ALR
4. The rate at which this temperature rise occurs is called o More release of internal heat in the form of latent
Negative Adiabatic Lapse Rate. heat of condensation, hence less temperature
reduction (Phase change occurs at constant
Adiabatic Lapse rate temperature).

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• Average WALR for the Earth’s atmosphere Atmospheric Stability

= 4°C/km.
• WALR is mainly associated with unstable conditions • Conditional stability: WALR < NALR < DALR
(due to the high moisture content). o Normal moisture conditions = It may or may
not rain
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate (DALR) • Absolute stability: NALR < WALR < DALR
o Little moisture in the air parcel = It won’t rain
• Dry or unsaturated air parcel cools down early than • Absolute instability: WALR < DALR < NALR
the saturated as there is less release of latent heat of o Excess moisture in the air parcel = It will rain
condensation. violently
• Low amount of vapor = High ALR
o Less internal heat release heat in the form of TYPES OF CONDENSATION
latent heat of condensation, hence more
Place of Condensation Outcome
temperature reduction.
• Average DALR for the Earth’s atmosphere = 8°C/km At height Cloud
• DALR is mainly associated with stable At lower level Fog
conditions (because it has less moisture).
On the cold surface Dew
Significance in meteorology On a surface having below freezing point
Frost
temperature
• The difference between the Normal Adiabatic Lapse CLOUDS
Rate (NALR) in the atmosphere and the DALR &
WALR determines the vertical stability of the • A cloud is an aggregation of moisture droplets and ice
atmosphere. crystals that are suspended in air.
• They are great enough in volume and density to be
Weather conditions at different Adiabatic Lapse Rates visible to the naked human eye.
(ALR)
• Each cloud particles diameter ranges from 20 to 50
mm. It is formed around a solid matter called
1. ALR = Adiabatic Lapse Rate of entire atmosphere = condensation nucleus.
6°C/km • They vary from sea level to 13,700 meters.
1. If ALR > 6°C/km = DALR
▪ Less moisture than normal = more stable than
Based on altitude and shape they are given different name
normal
2. If ALR < 6 °C/km = WALR
▪ More moisture than normal = less stable than
normal or instability

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3 shape division

//5466’/ • Flat or layered

• clouds are developed
horizontally

cumuliform • Puffy and globular

• developed vertically

Cirroform • Wispy- hair

• smoke- composed of ice crystals

Four altitudinal divisions

LOW
Stratocumulus • Large globular masses
• Bumpy looking
• Soft and grey in appearance
• Regular and sometimes wavy pattern

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Nimbostratus • Low clouds, dark grey with uniform

base
• Continuous rain or snow
• Nimbus- any cloud from which rain
is falling and dark grey in color

Cumulus • Convection cloud

• Vertical development but lesser than
cumulonimbus
• Appear like cotton balls

Cumulonimbus • Dark grey from beneath and white

from side
• Associated with thunderstorms
• Torrential rain, hail or snow falls

Stratus • Uniform layer, resembling fog

• Dull grey and featureless
• Fractostratus when broken

MEDIUM- 2 TO 6 KM

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Altocumulus • Small, relatively thin, globular

patches
• Sheep clouds or wool pack clouds

Alto-stratus • Continuous sheet, difficult to see sun

or moon
• Associated with cyclone

HIGH ALTITUDE- ABOVE 6 KM

Cirrus • Fibrous or wispy, consisting of tiny
particles of ice
• Indication of approaching depression
• Do not give precipitation

Cirrostratus • Whitish in color

• Solar or lunar halo
• Thickening cirrostratus indicates
approach of warm front

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Cirro cumulus • Made of ice crystals

• Mackerel sky- resembles fish

DEW ▪ Condensation and precipitation take place when

warm air mass is forced to rise over the cold air
• It is the condensation of water vapor on a cold surface mass and cools down.
that causes formation of water droplets. ▪ If the cold air below is near the dew point, its
• Condition => Clear Sky, calm air, high relative temperature falls further and excess moisture
humidity temperature is above freezing point, long condenses as fog.
and cold nights. ▪ It is formed at convergence zone.
• Dew point should be above of freezing point. 4. Upslope Fog
▪ This fog forms adiabatically.
▪ Moist winds up glides while blowing toward a
WHITE FROST mountain and this causes the air to rise and cool.
▪ The cooling of the air from rising causes to meet
• When under dew forming conditions, the dew point up with the dew point temperature.
of the air is below or at 0º C, water vapor condenses ▪ Fog forms on top of the mountains.
as minute ice. This is called white frost. 5. Valley Fog
▪ Valley fog forms in the valley when the soil is
FOG moist from previous rainfall.
▪ As the skies clear, solar energy exits earth and
• Fog is ground level cloud reducing horizontal allow the temperature to cool near to dew point.
visibility to less than 1km. ▪ This form deep and dense fog.
• It consists of very small water droplets in suspension 6. Ocean current
in the lower layer of the atmosphere. ▪ At meeting point of cold current and warm
• Depending on the temperature, the water may be current.
frozen which would result in freezing fog.
• Fog is a real danger for general aviation pilots. MIST

There are several types of fog • Mist is a phenomenon consisting of a large amount of
water droplets/ice crystals present in a layer of the
1. Radiation fog atmosphere.
• When the ground cools rapidly due to radiation and o In mist, each nuceli contains a thicker layer
the adjacent air becomes too cool, its water vapor of moisture.
condenses. o Fogs are drier than mist and they are
▪ Such fog is not very thick. prevalent where warm currents of air come in
2. Advection fog contact with cold currents.
▪ When moist warm air moves horizontally over a • Relative humidity is generally between 60% and
cold surface. 100%.
▪ Such fogs are thick and persistent. • It contains more moisture than fog.
3. Frontal fog • Mist does not represent a real danger for commercial
aviation pilots (visibility is between 1 km and 5 km).

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• Mists are frequent over mountains as the rising warm 2. Photochemical smog or “Los Angeles smog” or “Summer
air up the slopes meets a cold surface. smog”
o Photochemical smog is created when sunlight reacts
HAZE with nitrogen oxides (PP) and at least one volatile
organic compound (VOC, a PP) in the atmosphere.
o Nitrogen oxides are emitted in the atmosphere from
• Contrary to fog and mist, haze is a horizontal
automobiles, power plants, factory emissions.
visibility reduction due to non-aqueous particles.
o Volatile organic compounds are released in the
• Particles can be dust, sand grains, pollen grains,
atmosphere due to paints, gasoline and cleaning
chemical pollution, etc.
solvents.
• These particles are invisible to the naked eye, but
o Occurs most prominently in urban areas or the places
sufficient to give the air an opalescent appearance.
having large numbers of automobiles (Nitrogen
• There is no condensation in haze. Smog is similar to
oxides are the primary emissions).
haze but with condensation.
o This kind of smog requires neither smoke nor fog.
o This Ozone forms near the earth’s surface and causes
GYANBAZI (EXTRA KNOWLEDGE) several ill effects in comparison of stratospheric
Primary Pollutants (PP) and Secondary Pollutants Ozone
(SP)
Effect on Visibility = Mist > Haze > Fog > Smog

TEMPERATURE INVERSION
Temperature inversion

• It is a phenomenon in which the normal behavior of

temperature in the troposphere get reversed. There is a
cooler air mass near the ground and warmer air at higher
altitudes. (Temperature usually decreases with altitude
under the normal conditions).
• This happens when earth surface is able to radiate solar
energy directly into space.
• Negative Lapse Rate = Increase in temperature with
increasing altitude.

Types of Temperature Inversion

Non-advectional Inversion

1. Ground or surface inversion or radiation inversion.

SMOG 2. Upper air inversion.
Smog is a kind of air pollution, originally named for the
mixture of smoke and fog in the air. Advectional Inversion
2 Types
1. Frontal inversion or cyclonic inversion.
1. Sulfurous smog or “London smog” 2. Valley inversion due to vertical air movement.
o Sulfurous smog is the result of a high 3. Surface inversion due to horizontal air movement.
concentration of sulfur oxides in the
atmosphere. Mechanical Inversion
o This is usually caused by the burning of fossil fuels
like coal. 1. Subsidence inversion.
o It is intensified by dampness and a high concentration 2. Turbulence and convective inversion.
of suspended particulate matter in the air.
NON-ADVECTIONAL INVERSION

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Ground surface inversion or radiation inversion Upper air inversion is of two types

• Radiation inversion occurs near the earth’s surface 1. Thermal upper air inversion
due to radiation mechanism. o This warming of the stratosphere with
• It is non-advectional as there is no movement of air altitude.
either vertical or horizontal. o It is caused due to the absorption of solar
• It requires some necessary conditions like energy by ozone.
1. Long cold winter nights. o The temperature of this layer becomes much
2. Cloudless and clear sky. higher than the air layers lying above and
3. Presence of dry air near the surface. below ozone layer.
4. Slow movement of air to avoid mixing. o Occurs only when there is no vertical
5. Snow covered ground surface. movement of air (either ascent or descent of
• Air coming in contact with the cool ground surface air).
also becomes cold while the air layer lying above is • This creates stability condition hence
relatively warm. discouraging rainfall.

The heat of the day is radiated off during the night by the
earth. By early morning, the air near the surface becomes
cool due to conduction and settles. The air above it
remains warm as convectional currents are not possible.
Over polar areas, temperature inversion is normal 2. Mechanical upper air inversion
throughout the year. o At higher heights in the atmosphere due to
subsidence of air.
Dew Formation (GRAMMER) o This inversion also relates to anti-cyclones.
o Inversion results when the upper layer of air
• Temperature inversion results cooler surface of earth moves down during an initial anti-cyclone.
than the above air.
• Moisture laden air comes into the contact of cold
surface and releases heat.
• At a certain point, the release of heat becomes unable ADVECTIONAL INVERSION
to further reduce the temperature of air due to which
phase change occurs. • Also called as dynamic inversion because it is always
• The change of phase causes condensation that result caused due to either horizontal or vertical movements
in dew formation leading low visibility. of air.
• Strong wind movement and unstable conditions of the
Upper Air Inversion atmosphere are prerequisite conditions for
advectional inversion of temperature.

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Frontal or cyclonic inversion • Such inversion is caused when warm air invades the
area of cold air or cold air moves into the area of
• It is caused in the temperate zones due to temperate warm air.
cyclones. o Warm air being lighter is pushed upward by
o Temperate Cyclones = Formed due to the relatively denser cold air.
convergence of warm westerlies and cold o When the warm air moves, such inversion is
polar winds in the northern hemisphere. caused over the continents during winter and
• The warm air is pushed up by the cold polar air and over the oceans during summer.
thus the warm air overlies the cold air because it is o When the cold air becomes active and
lighter than the cold air. invades the areas of warm air, such inversion
• The existence of warm air above and cold air below occurs over the continents during summer
reverses the normal lapse rate and inversion of and over the oceans during winter.
temperature occurs. • Such surface inversion occurs generally in the low
• It is important to note that air moisture increases latitudes.
upward in frontal inversion of temperature while it • The convergence of cold and warm ocean currents
decreases upward in other types of temperature also causes such inversion of temperature.
inversion.
Valley inversion

Surface inversion of temperature

• Inversion takes place in hills and mountains due to

katabatically air drainage.
o A katabatic wind (or fall/downslope/gravity
wind) is the technical name for a drainage
wind.
o Katabatic wind carries high-density air from
a higher elevation down a slope under the
force of gravity.
• The temperature of the upper parts of the mountains
becomes cold because of rapid rate of loss of heat
whereas the valley temperature does not reduce
because of slow loss of heat.
• The warmer valley air ascends and the cooler air
descends.
• It is caused by horizontal movement of air occurs in o This situation is responsible for severe frost
several situations. in the valley floors leading great damage to
fruit orchards and agricultural crops whereas

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the upper parts of the valleys are free from Snow Fall due to the
frost. condensation at higher levels
o This is why the valley floors are avoided for below freezing temperature
human settlements while the upper parts are
inhabited in the mountainous valleys of
middle latitudes. Snow melts due to the layer of
warm air between the cold layers
above and below
THEORIES OF PRECIPITATION
THEORIES OF PRECIPITATION

1. Collision-Coalescence hypothesis of precipitation: Refreezing after entering in cold

layer again
This explains precipitation in tropical areas where the
temperature in clouds is too high for the formation of Hail
ice. So water droplets condense, positive charge
attracts negative charge, they come together, become • Precipitation in form of hard round pellets.
big and fall.
• Strong ascending currents take water vapor to great
2. Ice crystal hypothesis / Bergeron-Findesein
heights where it condenses and precipitates as snow.
hypothesis: Saturation vapor pressure is lower over
• As it comes down, it melts but strong currents push
ice than over water surface. Initially a cloud may
contain both ice and water. Since vapor pressure is them up again increasing the size. Thus size keeps on
lower over ice, it attracts more water vapor in the increasing until it becomes very hard and big.
cloud. Thus the vapor present in the cloud begins to
decrease and the water droplets evaporate to replenish
the diminishing vapor. So ice crystals grow at the
expense of water droplets. As they descend, they may
melt and form as rain else snow.

PRECIPITATION TYPES
Rain

• This is the wet stuff that nourishes plants and for

which umbrellas were invented.
• It occurs when both the cloud temperature and ground
temperature are above freezing.
• It can take three forms.
1. Simple rain = When the drops are about 0.5 RAINFALL TYPES
mm (0.02 in) in diameter.
2. Drizzle = When the drops are smaller than
Rainfall has been classified into three main types based
Simple Rain.
on their origin
3. Virga = When the drops are so small they
don't reach the ground (Evaporated).
1. Convectional Rainfall
2. Orographic or Relief Rainfall
Sleet
3. Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall
1. They are refrozen ice.
Convectional Rainfall

• Occurs mostly in tropics where it is hot.

• Air naturally rises up in convection current when it
heats up.

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• The cloud becomes almost exhausted by the time they

reach another side (known as leeward side) so it rains
very little there.
o This makes leeward sides of a mountain very
sheltered from rain and they hardly ever get
much rain.

Cyclonic or Frontal Rainfall

o It cools and condenses due to the expansion

while moving higher altitude leading
cumulus clouds formation.
• Heavy rainfall with lightning and thunder takes place
which does not last long.
o If the air is hot enough, it rises very quickly
• Frontal rainfall occurs when warm air is forced to rise
and can cause thunderstorms.
over cold air.
• Such rain is usual in the summer or in the hotter
• The moisture in the warm air condenses as it cools
session of the day.
which causes clouds and rain.
• This can happen over land or water as long as
moisture is present.
• When it happens over tropical oceans (where the air ATMOSPHERIC CIRCULATION
is saturated with water), the combination of wind and
moisture can create a tropical cyclone or hurricane.
ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE
Orographic or Relief Rainfall
• The weight of a column of air contained in a unit area
from the mean sea level to the top of the atmosphere
is called the atmospheric pressure.
• It is expressed in units of milibar (mb).
• Due to gravity the air at the surface is denser and
hence has higher pressure.
• Wind = It is horizontal movement of air which flows
from high pressure areas to low pressure areas.
• Air current = The vertical or nearly vertical
movement of air is called air current.
• Relief rainfall occurs very frequently near mountains
beside the sea. Air Pressure at ground surface
• The moisture-laden air is forced to rise on
encountering a mountain range. As it rises upwards, • The atmospheric pressure = 1013.25 mb = 76 cm of
it is cooled and cloud is formed. Mercury (Hg) column.
• The cloud becomes saturated with water vapor and it • It normally falls at a rate of 34 mb per 300 meters of
begins to precipitate on the side of the mountain ascent.
facing the sea (known as windward side)
o The cloud precipitates the most on the Vertical Variation of Pressure
windward side of the mountain.

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• The pressure decreases rapidly with height in the Pressure and wind
lower atmosphere.
o It does not always decrease at the same rate Important Laws of atmospheric circulation
due to the variations in the factors controlling
air density (temperature, amount of water • Buys Ballot Law: If you stand with your back to the
vapor and gravity). wind in the Northern Hemisphere, air pressure is
• The vertical pressure gradient force is much larger lower on your left than on your right.
than that of the horizontal pressure gradient. • Winds are strong where isobars are crowded and
• We do not experience these strong upward winds as weak where they are spread.
they are generally balanced by a nearly equal but • Pressure distribution affects wind speed in high and
opposite gravitational force. mid latitudes. Between 10 N and 10 S, it is difficult to
• A rising pressure indicates stable weather whereas a relate winds to pressure distribution.
falling pressure indicates cloudy and unstable • Near Earth’s surface, wind direction is influenced by
weather. surface features.
• Maximum speed of wind at noon and minimum just
Horizontal Distribution of Pressure before sunrise.
• Winds are named after the direction they come from.
• It is studied by drawing isobars at constant levels. • The wind circulation around a low pressure is called
1. Isobars are lines connecting places having cyclonic circulation. Around a high pressure it is
equal pressure after being reduced to sea called anti cyclonic circulation.
level. • Generally, over low pressure area the air will
• Low pressure system is enclosed by one or more converge and rise. Over high pressure area the air will
isobars with the lowest pressure in the centre. subside from above and diverge at the surface.
• High pressure system is enclosed by one or more
isobars with the highest pressure in the centre.

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• It is not a force, but an effect causes due to rotation of

the earth.
• It turns the object to right or clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left or anti-clockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
• It affects wind direction and not the speed.
• Higher the wind speed greater is the coriolis effect.
• Maximum at poles as poles rotate slow and becomes
zero at the equator.
• It always acts at right angle to the direction of the
wind.

Frictional Force

• Friction is the resistance to motion of one object

moving relative to another.
FORCES AFFECTING THE VELOCITY AND • The friction force drags the wind as it moves across
DIRECTION OF WIND surfaces.
• As the surface friction decrease wind speed, it reduces
the effect of Coriolis force.
• Horizontal winds near the earth surface respond to the
combined effect of three forces in addition with
Pressure Gradient Force (PGF)
downward gravitational force
1. Frictional Force
2. Coriolis Force • The rate of change of pressure with respect to distance
3. Pressure Gradient Force (PGF) is the pressure gradient.
• Pressure Gradient is denoted by the spacing of isobars
that expresses the rate and direction of pressure
Coriolis Force
changes
It is given by the formula 2vw sinX (v = Wind velocity; w
o Close spacing = Steep or strong pressure
= Earth's particular point angular speed, X = Angle of
gradient
o Wide spacing = Weak gradient

• PGF is produced by the differences in atmospheric

pressure.
• It operates from the high pressure area to a low
pressure area.
latitude) • The Pressure Gradient Force acts perpendicular to the
Coriolis force and to an isobar.

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• The higher the pressure gradient force, the more is the

velocity of the wind and the larger is the deflection in
the direction of wind.

Geostrophic Wind

• Geostrophic winds come about because pressure Dynamic Factors

gradient force and Coriolis force come into balance
after the air begins to move. • Arising out of Pressure Gradient Forces and rotation
o Under the influence of both the Pressure of the earth (Coriolis Force).
Gradient Force and Coriolis Force, air tends
to move parallel to isobars in conditions Equatorial Low Pressure Belt or ‘Doldrums’
where friction is low (1000 meters above the
surface of the Earth) and isobars are straight.
• These winds are roughly in between 5° N and S.
• At the surface level wind blows at an angle, but above
• The belt is generally known as doldrums (zone of
it becomes parallel to isobars.
calm and weak winds).
o Doldrums = Characterized by convergence,
PRESSURE BELTS rising air, and heavy rainfall
• This area is called the Inter Tropical Convergence
• There are distinctly identifiable zones of Zone (ITCZ) or the thermal equator or the
homogeneous horizontal pressure regimes “equatorial belt of variable winds and calms”.
or ‘pressure belts’. • The trade winds converge in the equatorial trough (or
• On the earth’s surface, there are in all seven pressure tropical low).
belts.
1. equatorial low Weather
2. 2 sub-tropical highs
3. 2 sub-polar lows • A very moist air heated by the sun tends to expand
4. 2 polar highs and rise creating the area of low pressure.
• Due to the convergence of trade winds, only vertical
Two Main Factors Controlling Pressure Systems current creates and the moisture laden air rises
upward. This forms cumulonimbus clouds leading to
Thermal Factors thunderstorms.
• This region coincides with the world’s latitudinal belt
• Heating and cooling of air causes expansion (density of heaviest precipitation and most persistent cloud
decreases hence pressure reduces) and contraction cover.
(density increases hence pressure increases) • Old sailing ships often remained becalmed in the
respectively. doldrums for days at a time.

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Sub-Tropical Highs Pressure Belt or Horse Latitudes o Ascent of air (due to the convergence of
Westerlies and polar easterlies).
• Areas of sinking and settling air from higher altitudes. • Polar Jet Streams are formed due to the contrasting
o Winds blow poleward to become the areas between cold and warm air masses.
westerlies and equator-ward as the trade
winds. Weather
• These areas located between latitudes 25° N and S.
• Often called the subtropical belts of variable winds, • Temperate cyclones are produced in this region due
or the “horse latitudes.” to a great contrast between the temperatures of the
o Name comes from the occasional need by the winds from sub-tropical and polar source regions.
Spanish sea captains to throw their horses
overboard in order to conserve drinking Polar High Pressure Belt
water and lighten the weight when their ships
were becalmed in these latitudes. • These are small area extends around the poles (lie
• The subtropical highs are areas like the doldrums in around poles between 80°-90° North and South
which there are no strong prevailing winds. latitudes).
• The saturated dry air from the sub-polar low pressure
Weather belts becomes cold while moving towards poles
through upper troposphere. This air subsides and
• Weather conditions are typically clear, sunny, and diverge near pole creating high pressure belt at the
rainless, especially over the eastern portions of the surface of earth.
oceans where the high pressure cells are strongest. • The lowest temperatures are found over the poles.
• As the subsiding air is warm and dry, most of the
deserts are present along this belt. Season shift of pressure belts
• Tropical and extra-tropical disturbances are frequent
in this belt. 1. The shift is less in Southern hemisphere due
to abundant water.
Reasons for sub-tropical high belt 2. The shift of the pressure belts is also higher
in lower latitudes than in higher ones.
• The warm air rises from low pressure equator and 3. The ITCZ can shift about 20º N and only 10º
starts cooling. It begins to move towards poles after S of equator.
reaching the upper layers. It further cools down,
becomes dense and by 25-35º latitude it begins to World Distribution of Sea Level Pressure
subside.
• Due to Coriolis Effect, the movement of air becomes • The continents and oceans distribution influence
effectively west to east instead of going north in these the distribution of pressure.
latitudes. This produces a blocking effect and the • In winter, the continents are cooler than the
dense air begins to subside heavily. oceans causing development of high pressure
• Hence, sub-tropical high belt is dynamically (reverse with the oceans).
produced Pressure Belt due to • In summer, continents are relatively warmer
1. Coriolis Force (Produced by rotation of the causing development of low pressure (reverse
earth on its axis). with the oceans).
2. Descent of air (due to the convergence of
Trade winds and Westerlies). July

Sub-Polar Low Pressure Belt • The equatorial low pressure belt shifts towards
the north (Apparent northward movement of the
• Located between 45° N&S latitudes and the Arctic sun). This shift is maximum in Asia.
and the Antarctic circles (66.5° N and S latitudes) • The landmasses of the northern hemisphere
• This is dynamically produced Pressure Belt due to become excessively hot and low pressure areas
o Coriolis Force (Produced by rotation of the develop over them.
earth on its axis).

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• The sub-tropical high pressure belt of the • Sub-polar low is deep and continuous in the
southern hemisphere extends continuously. In southern hemisphere, while there is only a faint
contrast, it is broken over the continents and oceanic low in the northern hemisphere.
remains confined to the North Atlantic and North
Pacific Oceans in the northern hemisphere.

January
• The equatorial low pressure belt shifts a little south of • Sub-tropical high pressure belt of the southern
its mean equatorial position (due to the apparent hemisphere is broken over the continents and remains
southward movement of the sun). confined to the oceans only.
• The lowest pressure pockets occur on the land masses
of Southern Hemisphere (because land masses
become much hotter than the adjoining oceans).

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GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Headley's Model
1. The cell between equator low pressure belt and sub-
tropical highs.
2. The one between sub-tropical high and sub-polar low
is called Ferrel cell and the one between sub-polar
low and poles is called polar cell.
3. It assumes a rotating earth, uniform surface (i.e. either
land or water throughout) and sun being stationary
overhead at equator.

1. His model assumed only one cell in each hemisphere.

2. Low pressure at equator and high pressure at pole
with air from pole flowing towards equator.
3. It assumed a non-rotating earth and uniform earth
surface.

Ferrel's Model

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PRESSURE CELLS • They meet cold air (drifting from the poles) at around
60° N& S.
• Due to the relative light weight of
warm air mass from the tropics in comparison of cold
air mass, it rises as the two air masses meet. This air
upliftment causes low pressure at the surface.
o The unstable weather conditions are
associated with this mid-latitude
depressions.

The Polar cell

Occurs between 60° N and S to pole.

• At the poles, air is cooled and sinks towards the

ground forming high pressure known as the Polar
high. It then flows towards the lower latitudes.
• At about 60° degrees N&S, the cold polar air mixes
with warmer tropical air and rises upwards, creating a
zone of low pressure called the sub-polar low.
• The boundary between the warm and cold air is called
the polar front.
o It accounts for a great deal of the unstable
weather experienced in these latitudes.

The Hadley cell EL-NINO SOUTHERN OSCILLATION (ENSO)

Occurs between ITCZ and 30° N&S Normal year condition and the Horizontal Pressure
Belt (Walker Cell)
• Ground is intensely heated by the
sun. This leads to the rise of air which creates a low-
pressure zone on the Earth's surface.
• The air separates and starts to moving towards pole in
both north and south hemispheres.
• The air cools and sinks towards the ground
after reaching about 30° north and south forming the
subtropical high-pressure zone.
• The sinking air becomes warmer and drier. This
creates the region of little cloud and low rainfall
(where deserts are found).
• The air completes the cycle by flowing back to the
equator as the trade winds.

The Ferrel cell

Occurs between 30° to 60° N and S

• Air on the surface is pulled towards the poles forming • The easterly trade winds move water and warmed air
o warm south-westerly winds in the northern towards the west.
hemisphere • The western side of the equatorial Pacific is
o north-westerly winds in the southern characterized by low pressure weather with warm and
hemisphere wet air.
• These winds gain moisture while travelling through o The Walker circulation leads movement of
the oceans. warm and wet air from western side of

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equatorial Pacific to Eastern side of El-Nino Southern Oscillation (ENSO)

Equatorial Pacific.
• The oceanic cycle develops below the water surface.
o Warm water starts moving from Western
side of Equatorial Pacific to Eastern side of
Equatorial Pacific.
• Cold water upwelling brings nutrient to surface at
Peru which helps in Plankton development and
pisciculture.
• This is how water and air are returned to the east. Both
are now much cooler, and the air is much drier.

El-Nino

• El Nino means The Little Boy, or Christ Child in

Spanish.
• El Nino is an Oceanic and Atmospheric
phenomenon that leads to reversal of normal year
conditions by unusual warming of water in the Peru
coast.
• Prevailing conditions
o Warm water as well as low pressure
condition develops in the Eastern Pacific
(Peru)
o Cold condition as well as high pressure in • The El-Nino event is closely associated with the
Western Pacific (Australia). pressure variations in the Eastern and Western
• Due to the inverse relationship (increase of one Pacific. This change in pressure condition over
causes decrease in another) between Pressure and Pacific is known as the southern oscillation.
amount of rainfall, El Nino creates draught situation • The combined phenomenon of southern oscillation
in Australia and South East Asia. and El Nino is known as ENSO.
o Only El-Nino = Warm water in Eastern
La-Nina Pacific + Cold water in Western Pacific
o Only SO = Low Pressure over Eastern Pacific
• La Nina means The Little Girl in Spanish. + High Pressure over Western Pacific
• It is a climate pattern that intensifies the normal year o ENSO = Warm water and Low Pressure
conditions. near Eastern Pacific + Cold water and High
• It creates cooling effect on surface ocean waters along Pressure near Western Pacific
the tropical west coast of South America. • El Nino and La Nina are opposite phases of what is
• Effect of La Nina year on winter temperatures known as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO)
o Warmer than normal in the Southeast cycle.
o Cooler than normal in the Northwest

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o La-Nina is sometimes referred to as the cold o Northern trades move in a clockwise

phase of ENSO and El-Nino as the warm direction out of the northeast.
phase of ENSO. o Southern trades move in a counter-clockwise
o The ENSO cycle is a scientific term that direction out of the southeast.
describes the fluctuations in temperature • Also known as the tropical easterlies (Because the
between the ocean and atmosphere in the trades tend to blow out of the east)
east-central Equatorial Pacific. • It tends to be constant, steady winds, consistent in
• This deviation from normal surface temperatures their direction. This is most true when they cross the
causes large-scale impacts not only on ocean eastern sides of the oceans (near the eastern portion
processes, but also on global weather and climate. of the subtropical high).
• While their frequency can be quite irregular, El-Nino • The area of the trades varies during the solar year. It
and La-Nina events occur on average every two to moves north and south a few degrees of latitude with
seven years. Typically, El-Nino occurs more the sun.
frequently than La-Nina. • The weather of the trades is clear and dry near their
source in the subtropical highs, but the trades have a
WIND TYPES high potential for stormy weather after crossing large
expanses of ocean.
• Early Spanish sea captains depended on the northeast
PRIMARY WINDS OR PREVAILING WINDS OR trade winds to drive their galleons to destinations in
PERMANENT WINDS OR PLANETARY WINDS Central and South America in search of gold, spices,
and new lands.
• Going eastward toward home, navigators usually
tried to plot a course using the westerlies to the north.

Westerlies

• Occur between about 35° and 65° North and South

latitudes.
• Winds flows poleward out of the subtropical high
pressure cells deflected to the right in the Northern
Hemisphere and to the left in the
Southern Hemisphere.
o Northern Hemisphere = Blow from the
southwest
o Southern Hemisphere = Blow out of the
northwest
• Tend to be less consistent in direction than the trades.
• Usually stronger winds and may be associated with
stormy weather.
• Westerlies of Southern hemisphere are stronger
• Prevailing as they prevail throughout the year. (known as Roaring forties, Furious fifties, and
• Planetary because they are almost global in nature. Screaming sixties) and more consistent in direction
due to predominance of water.
• The westerlies attain their greatest consistency and
Trade Winds
strength in the Southern Hemisphere due to the less
land than in the Northern Hemisphere.
• Occur is in the vicinity of the subtropical highs.
• Can be identified between latitudes 5° and 25° North
and South latitudes. Polar Easterlies
• On Earth’s surface, it blows out of the subtropical
highs toward the equatorial trough in both the • Dry, cold prevailing winds that blow from the high-
Northern and Southern Hemispheres pressure areas of the polar highs at the North and
• Because of the Coriolis effect, the South Poles towards low-pressure areas.

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• Cold air subsides at the poles creating the high • More regular in the southern hemisphere than in the
pressure, forcing an equator-ward outflow of air that northern hemisphere.
deflect westward by the Coriolis Effect. • Unlike the westerlies in the middle latitudes, the polar
• They are extremely cold winds as they blow from the easterlies are often weak and irregular.
Tundra and Icecap regions.

LOCAL WINDS Siroco Hot, moist wind Sahara to the

Mediterranean
• Differences in the heating and cooling of earth Sea
surfaces creates local differences of temperature and Solano Hot, moist wind Sahara to the
pressure. This develops daily or annual cycles that Iberian Peninsula
can create several common, local or regional winds.
Harmattan Hot, dry wind West Africa
Name Nature of wind Place (Guinea
Doctor)
Chinook Hot, dry wind The Rockies
(Snow mountains Bora Cold, dry wind Blows from
eaters) Hungary to North
Italy
Foehn Hot, dry wind The Alps
Mistral Cold wind The Alps and
Khamsin Hot, dry wind Egypt France

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Punas Cold dry wind Western side of • Sea being less warm → High pressure develops at
Andes Mountain sea → Winds blow from sea to land causing sea
breeze
Blizzard Cold wind Tundra region Land Breeze
Purga Cold wind Russia • Night time = Land cools faster than sea → High
pressure over land (Low pressure over ocean)
Levanter Cold wind Spain • Winds blow from land towards sea.

Norwester Hot wind New Zealand Diurnal Mountain Wind Systems (Valley and
Santa Ana Hot wind South California Mountain Breeze)
Katabatic Wind (Mountain Breeze)
Karaburun Hot dusty wind Central Asia • During the night, the slopes get cooled and the dense
(black storm) air descends into the valley as the mountain wind.
• This cool air of the high plateaus and ice fields
Calima Dust-laden dry Saharan Air Layer draining into the valley is called Katabatic wind.
wind across the Canary Anabatic Wind (Valley Breeze)
Islands • In mountainous regions, the slopes get heated
Elephanta Moist wind in Malabar coast up during the day and air moves upslope.
• The air from the valley blows up the valley to fill the
monsoon
resulting gap.
• This air flow travelling up on an orographic surface is
PERIODIC WINDS known as anabatic wind.

Sea and Land Breeze

Due to differential heating of land surface and sea water.

SEASONAL WIND
Sea Breeze
• Day time = Land gets heated → Warm air rises up → • The pattern of wind circulation is modified in
Low pressure develops different seasons due to the shifting of regions of
maximum heating, pressure and wind belts.

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• The most pronounced effect of such a shift is noticed • It blows from the south-west between May and
in the monsoons, especially over Southeast Asia. September and bringing rain (the wet monsoon), or
from the north-east between October and April (the
Monsoon dry monsoon).
• The rainy season in SE Asia accompanying the wet
• A seasonal prevailing wind in the region of South and monsoon.
South-East Asia. • The winds reverse again at the end of the monsoon
• It arises due to a difference in temperatures between season.
a land mass and the adjacent ocean.

AIR MASSES

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AIR MASS ▪ Winter = Mild temperatures,

overcast skies with fog
• It is a large mass of air that has ▪ Summer = High temperatures and
similar characteristics of temperature and humidity humidity, cumulous clouds, and
within it along with little horizontal variations. convectional rainfall.
• It forms an integral part of the global planetary wind 2. Continental tropical (cT) = The subtropical
system. hot deserts
▪ Dry, hot and stable
▪ Do not extend beyond the source
Source Region ▪ Dry throughout the year
3. Maritime polar (mP) = The relatively cold
• The area (land or water) above which air mass lies high latitude oceans
and acquire its characteristics. ▪ Cool, moist and unstable
• Air mass picks up the distinct temperature and ▪ These are the regions which cannot
humidity characteristics of the region over which lie stagnant for long.
it sits for several days. ▪ Weather
• Ideal Source Regions = High pressure areas with ▪ Winters = High humidity,
little pressure difference (pressure gradient) overcast skies, and occasional
o sub tropics (the source for tropical fog and precipitation.
air masses) ▪ Summer = Clear and stable
o poles (the source for polar air 4. Continental polar (cP) = The very cold snow
masses) covered continents in high latitudes
• Mid-latitudes have no major source regions due to the ▪ Dry, cold and stable conditions
dominance of cyclonic and other disturbance. ▪ Weather
▪ Winter = Frigid, clear, and stable
Geographical Classification of Air Masses ▪ Summer = less stable
5. Continental arctic (cA) = Permanently ice
• They are classified based on the source region and air covered continents in the Arctic and
mass modification. Antarctica
• Types of air masses are recognized: • Tropical air masses are warm and polar air masses are
1. Maritime tropical (mT) = Warm tropical and cold.
subtropical oceans
▪ Warm, humid and unstable
▪ Weather

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• Frontogenesis: The process associated with creation

of new fronts or the regeneration of decaying fronts
already in existence.
o Requires certain necessary conditions:
1. Temperature Difference
2. Opposite directions of Air Masses
• Frontolysis: The process of destruction or dying of
existing fronts.

Cold Front

• When the cold air moves towards the warm air mass,
its contact zone is called the cold front.
Thermodynamic Modification in Air Mass • As the cold front nears your region, the barometer
falls.
• When the air mass is heated or cooled from the • The cold air behind the front wedges under the warm
surface below, it is a thermodynamic change. air and lifts it sharply off the ground.
• A warm air moves over a cold surface leads • Large cumulonimbus clouds appear (often bring
temperature inversion. It inhibits further thunderstorms and rain showers).
vertical cooling. • As the cold front passes, the wind changes direction.
• A cold air mass moving over a warm surface • The weather becomes clear and colder and the
creates convectional currents. This leads to barometer rises again.
formation of vertical clouds (cumulus) and • Cold front moves up at about double speed than
air turbulence. warm fronts.
• Addition or loss of latent heat also is an
example of thermodynamic modification.

Dynamic Modification in Air Mass

• These modifications are independent of surface

heating or cooling.
• Examples are subsidence caused by anti-cyclones or
cyclones.
• Surface friction adds to the turbulence of air flow
aiding the upward transfer of the effect of
thermodynamic modifications.

FRONTS AND FRONTOGENESIS

Warm front
• Front is that slopping boundary which separates two
opposing air masses having contrasting • If the warm air mass moves towards the cold air mass,
characteristics. the contact zone is a warm front.
• The frontal activities are invariably associated • The warm air behind the front rises up over the cold
with cloudiness and precipitation due to the ascent air.
of warm air which cools down adiabatically, • The barometer falls leading to a long, steady rain.
• The front passes gradually and the sky clears.
condenses and causes rainfall.
• As the warm air moves up the slope, it condenses and
• Frontal zone is neither parallel nor vertical to ground
causes precipitation.
surface, rather it is inclined at low angle.
• Unlike a cold front, the changes in temperature and
• The intensity of precipitation depends on the slope of
wind direction are gradual.
ascent and amount of water vapor present in • Such fronts bring moderate to gentle
ascending air. precipitation over a large area for several hours.

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• Cirrostratus clouds ahead of the warm front create a

halo around sun and moon.

JET STREAM
Occluded Front

• It results when a cold air front overtakes a warm front

and lifts the warm air mass completely off the ground.
• Steady rain falls at an occluded front.
• The occluded front causes complex weather - a mix
of cold and warm front type weather. These fronts are
common in west Europe.
• A combination of clouds formed at cold front and
warm front.
• The formation Mid-latitude cyclones involve the
formation of occluded front.

• The Jet Stream is a geostrophic wind which meanders

with high velocity in the upper layers of the
troposphere and encircles the globe.
o The meandering or the whirl movement of
the Jet Stream is called ‘Rossby Wave’. (We
will read about Rossby wave ahead)
• Reason that causes high velocity
Stationary Front o Low friction at upper troposphere due to less
air density.
• A stationary front forms when a cold front or o Higher air temperature difference enhances
warm front stops moving. speed (The Jet stream have high velocity in
• The surface position of a front does not change. winter in comparison of summer).
• This happens when two masses of air are pushing • These slim strips of strong winds are like rivers of
against each other but neither is powerful enough to wind high above in the atmosphere.
move the other. • Generally, blow from west to east near tropopause at
• Winds blowing parallel to the front instead of very high speeds (120 kmph in winters and 50 kmph
perpendicular can help it stay in place. in summers). That is why it is also referred as
westerlies or upper level westerlies.
o Polar jet streams flows 6-9 km above the
ground.

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▪ It flows from temperate region towards • They are seasonal jet streams flowing east to west.
polar region and get deflected right in the • These are in only found northern hemisphere and
northern hemisphere and left in the generates only in summer season.
southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis • These are also thermally induced.
Effect. • The reason for the establishment and maintenance of
o Sub-tropical jet streams flows 10-16 km the TEJ is still not clear.
above the grounds. o It is believed that these jet may be developing
▪ It flows from sub-tropical region towards due to uniquely high temperatures and
temperate region and get deflected right heights over the Tibetan Plateau during
in the northern hemisphere and left in the summer.
southern hemisphere due to the Coriolis • The TEJ is the upper-level venting system for the
Effect. strong southwest monsoon.

WEATHER SYSTEM OF MID-LATITUDES AND

HIGH LATITUDES

• The weather of mid and high latitude regions is more

complex than the equatorial or tropical regions.
• The heat surplus areas of equatorial or tropical
regions create thermally induced weather system.
• The higher latitudes weather systems are dynamically
induced. They consist of localised and upper
troposphere circulations known as Jet Streams.
o Jet Stream have a huge influence on climate
as it can push air masses around and affect
weather patterns.
• These differences of thermally and dynamically
induced weather system create convectional and
Sub-Tropical Jet (STJ) Stream frontal rainfall system respectively.

• They prevail over the lower latitudes of westerlies. EXTRA-TROPICAL / MIDDLE-LATITUDE /

• It is produced by the rotation of earth and its spherical TEMPERATE CYCLONES
shape (dynamically induced).
• The air over equator has the highest velocity.
• The system develops in the mid and high latitude
• As it rises and moves towards north, it has a higher
velocity than the air at lower altitude prevailing at (beyond the tropics).
• The passage of front causes abrupt changes in the
same latitude. So it begins to flow from west to east
around 30º latitude. weather conditions over the area in the middle and
• It flows all-round the year. high latitudes.
• They flow to conserve the angular momentum in
upper atmosphere. Stages of formation and disappearance
• The sub-tropical westerly jet does not seem to affect
surface weather as much as the polar fronts jets do. • Front is stationary initially.
o Warm air blows northern hemisphere from
Mid-latitude or Polar Front Jet (PFJ) Stream the south.
o Cold air blows from the north of the front.
• It is more variable and is produced by a temperature
difference (thermally induced).
• Its position shifts towards poles in summers and
towards equator in winters.

Tropical Easterly Jet (TEJ)

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• There are pockets of warm air or warm sector wedged

between the forward and the rear cold air or cold
sector.
o The warm air glides over the cold air. A
sequence of clouds appears over the sky
ahead of the warm front and cause
precipitation.
• Pressure drops along the front leads movement of the o The cold front approaches the warm air from
warm air northwards and the cold air southward. behind and pushes the warm air up. As a
o Results in counter-clockwise cyclonic result, cumulus clouds develop along the cold
circulation. front.
• The cyclonic circulation leads to a well-developed • The cold front moves faster than the warm front
extra tropical cyclone (consisting of a warm front and ultimately overtaking the warm front.
a cold front). • The warm air is completely lifted up and the front is
occluded. Ultimately the cyclone gets dissipates.

Path of Extra-Tropical Cyclones

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Distribution of Extra-Tropical Cyclones

TROPICAL CYCLONE

• Violent storms that originate and intensify over warm • Favorable conditions for the formation and
tropical oceans. intensification tropical cyclone are:
• It moves towards the coastal areas and causes large 1. Large sea surface with temperature higher
scale destruction due to violent winds, very heavy than 27° C.
rainfall and storm surges. 2. Presence of the Coriolis force.
• This is one of the most devastating natural 3. Small variations in the vertical wind speed.
calamities.

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4. A pre-existing weak-low-pressure area or deflection due to Coriolis force creating a cyclonic

low-level-cyclonic circulation. vortex (spiraling air column).
5. Upper divergence above the sea level system. • The new “cool” air becomes warm and moist and
• The place where a tropical cyclone crosses the coast rises too and the cycle continues.
is called the landfall of the cyclone. • The condensation of the rising warmed, moist air
• Cyclones that cross 20° N latitude generally recurve leads to the formation of clouds.
and they are more destructive. • Heat is emitted during this process and a reaction
• A mature tropical cyclone is characterized by the between the moisture from the evaporation of water
strong spirally circulating wind around the centre. takes place that produces Thunderstorms.
This centre is called the eye. • The whole system of clouds as well as wind spins and
• The diameter of the circulating system can vary grows, fed by the ocean’s heat and water evaporating
between 150 and 250 km. from the ocean surface.

Eye and Eye-wall

Cyclone formation

• The air in the vortex is forced to form a region of

calmness called an eye at the center of the cyclone
due to the centripetal acceleration.
• Higher pressure air from above flows down into the
eye.
• The inner surface of the vortex forms the eye wall. It
is the most violent region of the cyclone.

Regional names of Tropical Cyclone

• Warm, moist air over the ocean rises upward leaving

less air near the surface. This causes low air pressure
area below.
• Air from surrounding areas with higher air pressure
pushes in to the low pressure area and undergoes

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Path of Tropical Cyclones Temperature The temperature All the sectors of

distribution at the centre is the cyclone have
• Start with a westward movement because of almost equally different
o Earth rotation from west to east distributed temperatures
o Zone of cyclone formation is under the Calm region The centre (Eye) No single place
influence of easterlies that have no where winds and
• Turn northwards around 20° latitude and further rainfall rain is inactive
north-eastwards around 25° latitude (Deflection Driving force Latent heat of Densities of air
towards right due to the Coriolis force). condensation masses
• Eastwards turn around 30° latitude because of Influence on Both coasts are Bring rain to North-
westerly winds. India affected but West India
• Loss of energy and subsidence because of eastern is more (Associated
o Ocean water at 30° latitude is not warm vulnerable instability is called
enough to sustain a cyclone. 'Western
o Increasing wind shear due to westerlies Disturbance')
doesn’t facilitate the formation of cyclonic THUNDERSTORMS
vortex.

Differences between Tropical and Extra-Tropical

Cyclone

Dimension Tropical Extra-Tropical

Origin Thermal Dynamic (Air
masses movement
and Coriolis Force)
Latitude Confined to 10°- Confined to 35°-
30° N&S of 65° N&S of
Equator Equator
Formation Only on seas Land as well as seas
having
temperature more
than 26°-27° C
(On reaching the
land the moisture • It is a well-grown cumulonimbus cloud which
supply is cut off produces thunder and lightning.
and the storm • It is caused by intense convection on moist hot days.
dissipates) • Since thunder comes from lightning, all
Season Late summers Irregular (Few in thunderstorms have lightning.
(August-October) summers and more • When the clouds extend to heights where sub-zero
in winters) temperature prevails, hails are formed and they come
Shape Elliptical Inverted 'V' down as hailstorm.
Rainfall Heavy but does Slow and continues • If there is insufficient moisture, a thunderstorm can
not last beyond a for many days, generate duststorms.
few hours sometimes even
weeks Three basic ingredients required to form a
Size Limited to small Cover a large area thunderstorm
area 1. Moisture
Path East → West West → East 2. Rising unstable air (air that keeps rising when given a
Wind velocity Much greater Comparatively low nudge)
and (Flood causes more 3. Lifting mechanism to provide the “nudge”
destruction destruction than
winds) Formation of thunderstorm

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• The sun heats the surface of the earth, which warms THREE STAGES OF THUNDERSTORM LIFE
the air above it. CYCLE
• This warm surface air is forced to rise— Developing stage
1. Hills or mountains (Orographic • Marked by a cumulus cloud that is being pushed
thunderstorm) upward by a rising column of air (updraft).
2. Areas where warm/cold or wet/dry air bump • The cumulus cloud soon looks like a tower (called
together can cause rising motion (Frontal towering cumulus) as the updraft continues to
thunderstorm) develop.
• It will continue to rise as long as it weighs less and • There is little to no rain during this stage but
stays warmer than the air around it. occasional lightning.
• The rising air transfers heat from the surface of the Mature stage
earth to the upper levels of the atmosphere (the • The updraft continues to feed the storm, but
process of convection). precipitation begins to fall out of the storm, creating
• The water vapor it contains begins to cool, releases a downdraft (a column of air pushing downward).
the heat, condenses and forms a cloud. • The downdraft and rain-cooled air spreads out along
• The cloud eventually grows upward into areas where the ground and forms a gust front, or a line of gusty
the temperature is below freezing. winds.
• As a storm rises into freezing air, different types of • The mature stage is the most likely time for hail,
ice particles can be created from freezing liquid heavy rain, frequent lightning, strong winds, and
drops. tornadoes.
• The ice particles can grow by condensing vapor (like Dissipating stage
frost) and by collecting smaller liquid drops that • Eventually, a large amount of precipitation is
haven't frozen yet (a state called "supercooled"). produced and the updraft is overcome by the
• When two ice particles collide, they usually bounce downdraft beginning the dissipating stage.
off each other. During this the particle can rip off a • At the ground, the gust front moves out a long
little bit of ice from each other and grab some electric distance from the storm and cuts off the warm moist
charge. air that was feeding the thunderstorm.
• Lots of these collisions build up big regions of electric • Rainfall decreases in intensity, but lightning remains
charges to cause a bolt of lightning, which creates the a danger.
sound waves we hear as thunder.

Types of thunderstorm heavy rainfall and occasionally weak

1. Single Cell Storms tornadoes.
o Typically last 20-30 minutes. 2. Multicell Cluster Storms
o Pulse storms can produce severe weather o A group of cells moving as a single unit, with
elements such as downbursts, hail, some each cell in a different stage of the
thunderstorm life cycle.

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o Multicell storms can produce moderate size • Because wind is invisible, it is hard to see a tornado
hail, flash floods and weak tornadoes. unless it forms a condensation funnel made up of
3. Multicell Line Storms water droplets, dust and debris.
o Multicell line storms consist of a line of • Tornadoes can be among the most violent phenomena
storms with a continuous, well developed of all atmospheric storms we experience.
gust front at the leading edge of the line. • The U.S. typically has more tornadoes than anywhere
o Also known as squall lines. else in the world, though they can occur almost
o These storms can produce small to moderate anywhere.
size hail, occasional flash floods and weak • Most tornadoes come from rotating thunderstorms,
tornadoes. called supercells.
4. Supercells • Tornadoes generally occur in middle latitudes.
o Defined as a thunderstorm with a rotating • The tornado over the sea is called Water Sprouts.
updraft.
o These storms can produce strong downbursts, GYANBAZI
large hail, occasional flash floods and weak Rossby Waves
to violent tornadoes.
• Rossby waves are naturally occurring planetary
TORNADOES/TWISTERS waves in rotating fluids.
• They are of two types – Oceanic and Atmospheric
Rossby waves
• These waves affect the planet's weather and climate.

Atmospheric Rossby waves

• It forms primarily as a result of the Earth's geography.

• Rossby waves help transfer heat from the tropics
toward the poles and cold air toward the tropics in an
attempt to return atmosphere to balance.
• They also help locate the jet stream and mark out the
track of surface low pressure systems.
• The slow motion of these waves often results in fairly
long, persistent weather patterns.

POLAR VORTEX

• The term "vortex" refers to the counter-clockwise

flow of air that helps keep the colder air near the
Poles.
• The polar vortex is a large area of low pressure and
cold air surrounding both of the Earth’s poles.
• It develops at upper troposphere or stratosphere.
• Much about tornadoes remains a mystery. They are
• It always exists near the poles, but weakens in
rare, unpredictable and deadly.
summer and strengthens in winter.
• Tornado is a narrow, violently rotating column of air
that extends from a thunderstorm to the ground.
Disruption of Polar Vortex

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• Rossby Waves can disrupt the circulation around the

polar vortex.
• It originated during winters due to sharp temperature
differential created between poles and equator.

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• Many times during winter in the northern hemisphere, • The Kigali Agreement amends 1987 Montreal
the polar vortex will expand, sending cold air Protocol to phase out Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), a
southward with the jet stream. family of potent greenhouse gases by the late 2040s.
• This occurs fairly regularly during wintertime and is o Montreal Protocol conceived only to phasing
often associated with large outbreaks of Arctic air in out gases that were destroying the ozone
the United States. layer.
o This move will help to prevent a potential 0.5
OZONE HOLE degree Celsius rise in global temperature by
the end of the century.
• It is an area of depleted layers of ozone above the
Antarctic region. POLAR STRATOSPHERIC CLOUDS (PSCS)
• Manufactured chemicals deplete the ozone layer.
• Atmospheric ozone is destroyed by chemical • Polar stratospheric clouds are clouds that form in the
processes in each spring over Antarctica. polar regions during the winter.
• This creates the ozone hole, which occurs because of • Type-I PSCs
special meteorological and chemical conditions that o Form when the stratospheric temperature
exist in that region. drops below -78°C.
o They are primarily composed of nitric acid,
Factors responsible for the depletion of ozone water, and sulfuric acid.
• Type-II PSCs
• Depletion of ozone is due to many factors. The most o Form when the stratospheric temperature
dominant of which is the release of chlorine from drops below -83°C.
CFCs (Chlorofluorocarbons) which destroys the o They are composed of crystals of water ice.
ozone. • They are referred as nacre clouds or mother-of-pearl
• CFCs are released by products such as hairsprays, old clouds due to their iridescence.
refrigerators etc. o Only Type-II clouds are necessarily nacreous
whereas Type-I clouds can be iridescent
Vienna Convention under certain conditions, just as any other
cloud.
• PSCs play a critical role in facilitating ozone
• A Multilateral Environmental Agreement.
• It was agreed upon at the 1985 Vienna Conference depletion during the polar spring and summer.
o Type I clouds are now known as sites of
and entered into force in 1988.
• It is one of the most successful treaties of all time. harmful destruction of stratospheric ozone
• It has been ratified by 197 states. over the Antarctic and Arctic.
o Their surfaces act as catalysts that convert
• It acts as a framework for the international efforts to
protect the ozone layer. human-made chlorine into active free
• These are laid out in the accompanying Montreal radicals (for example ClO, chlorine
Protocol. monoxide).
o These radicals destroy many ozone
• It is not legally binding.
molecules in a series of chain reactions
during the return of spring sunlight.
Montreal Protocol on Ozone Depleting Substances
o Cloud formation is doubly harmful because it
also removes gaseous nitric acid from the
• It is a protocol to Vienna Convention for the stratosphere that can combine with ClO to
Protection of Ozone Layer. form less reactive forms of chlorine.
• It was the first treaty in history to achieve universal
ratification (i.e. ratified by every member state of the
United Nations).
• It is an international treaty and aims to protect the
ozone layer by phasing out ozone depleting gases.

Kigali Agreement

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Cause of occurrence

AURORA
• These light shows are the result of interaction
between sun energy (in the form of solar wind) and
electrically charged particles trapped in Earth’s
magnetic field.
• It is an outcome of collisions between the oxygen and
nitrogen in Earth’s upper atmosphere with the fast-
moving electrons from space.
o The electrons coming from the Earth’s
magnetosphere (region of space controlled by
Earth’s magnetic field) enhances the energy
of oxygen and nitrogen atoms and makes
them “excited”.
• During returning to their normal state, these gases
emit photons and small bursts of energy in the form
of light.
• The color of the aurora depends on
o Which gas - oxygen or nitrogen - is being
excited by the electrons, and on how excited
it becomes and by what extent.
o How fast the electrons are moving, or how
much energy they possess at the time of their
collisions.

• An Aurora is a display of light in the sky which

predominantly seen in the higher latitude of northern
and southern regions (Arctic and Antarctic). Due to
this, it is also known as a Polar Light.
• It is less frequent at mid-latitudes and seldom seen
near the equator.
• 2 Types
o Aurora Borealis (Northern Lights)
o Aurora Australis (Southern Lights)
• It is usually milky greenish in color but can also be
seen in red, blue, violet, pink, and white colors.
• Auroras affect communication lines, radio lines and
power lines.

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CH-7 CLIMATIC REGIONS

TOPICS TO BE COVERED

1. Equatorial Climate
2. Tropical Monsoon Climate
3. Tropical Marine Climate
4. Desert Climate
5. Tropical Savanna / Sudan Climate
6. Warm Temperate / Mediterranean Climate
7. Temperate Continental Grasslands / Steppe
Climate
8. Warm Temperate / China Climate / Natal
Type / Gulf Type
9. Cool Temperate Western Margin / British
Climate
10. Cool Temperate Eastern / Laurentian Climate
11. Boreal Climate / Taiga Climate / Siberian
Climate / Cool Temperate Continental
Climate / Continental Sub-Polar Climate
12. Tundra Climate / Polar Climate / Arctic
Climate

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EQUATORIAL CLIMATE • As one goes north from the equatorial regions, the
rainfall pattern starts to get disturbed by monsoon
winds.
• Not good for habitation due to hot and moist climate
(High incidents of malaria and other tropical
diseases).

Distribution

• Main regions are Amazon belt, Congo-Zaire basin,

South-East Asia between 10º N-S.
• Further away from equator, the influence of trade
winds leads to monsoonal influences.

Vegetation

• Dense tropical rain

forests (called selvas in
Amazon) are found.
o Trees compete
for the sunlight
because of the
huge density and
closeness.
o Epiphytes
Temperature development.
o Forest is
• Consistently high and uniform throughout the year arranged in 3
with annual range of less than 2 ºC. canopy layers
o Even on highlands the annual range of vertically.
temperature < 2ºC o Growing season is entire year.
• Due to great heat in equatorial belts, mornings are o No distinct season of seeding, flowering,
brighter and sunny. shedding of leaves.
• Many species of trees are intermixed, and hardwood
Rainfall logs sink in water so that commercial logging is not
feasible. e.g. mahogany, ebony, dyewoods etc.
o Cutting and transportation of the hardwood is
• This region experiences convectional rainfall (4 pm
a difficult task.
rainfall) through cumulonimbus clouds which comes
o Many parts of the tropical rain forests have
with a thunderstorm.
been cleared either for lumbering or shifting
• No month is without rain. cultivation.
• Rainfall has twin monthly peaks (equinoxes) - in • In the coastal areas and brackish swamps, mangrove
March and September forests thrive.
o Because the sun is directly overhead during
these times and rainfall is convectional.
Epiphytes: They are plants that grow upon other
o Rainfall is least on solstices.
plants non-parasitically. They usually derive only
physical support and not nutrition from their host.

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They use photosynthesis for energy obtain moisture • South and South-East Asia and North Australia.
from the air or from dampness on the surface of their o Outside this zone the climate is modified by
hosts. the onshore trade winds and rainfall is
distributed more evenly throughout the year
(tropical marine climate).

Temperature

• It experiences warm to hot summers due to the

region's proximity to the tropics.
• Average monthly temperature is above 18 ºC, but in
summers the maximum temperature can reach as high
as 45 ºC.
• The average temperature in the summer is around 30
ºC, with an overall temperature range of 30-45 ºC.
• Mean temperature during winters is around 25 ºC
Economic activities with temperature range of 15-30 ºC.

• Main crops are plantation crops like rubber (SE

Asia), cocoa (W Africa - Ghana & Nigeria), coconuts,
sugar, coffee, tobacco, spices, banana.
• Belukar is the secondary forest growing as a result
of shifting cultivation activities in Malaysia.
• Agriculture and developmental activities are difficult
because thick grass and undergrowth grows as soon
as the forest is cut.

Seasons

Seasons are chief characteristics of monsoon climate.

• Cool, dry winters (October - February).

• Hot, dry summers (March - June).
TROPICAL MONSOON CLIMATE • Rainy season (June-September).
o Orographic rainfall

The cool, dry season (October to February)

• The North-East Monsoon (Out blowing dry winds)

bring little or no rain to the Indian sub-continent.
o However, a small amount of rain falls in
Punjab from cyclonic sources (Western
Disturbances)

Distribution

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• North-East Monsoons blowing over the Bay of

Bengal acquires moisture and bring rains to the
south-eastern regions of Indian peninsula during
Nov-Dec of the year.

The hot dry season (March to mid-June)

• The sun’s northward shift to the Tropic of Cancer

causes sharp rise in temperature.
• Coastal districts are a little relieved by sea breezes
and little rain.

• The forests are more open and less luxuriant than

the equatorial region forest and there are far fewer
species.

The rainy season (mid-June to September)

• Torrential downpours sweep across the country

with the ‘burst’ of the South-West
• Almost all the rain for the year falls within this rainy
season (this concentrated heavy rainfall in summer
is a chief characteristic of the Tropical Monsoon
Climate).

Economic activities
Vegetation
• The region supports high population density.
• Deciduous due to marked dry season during which • Subsistence farming is the main occupation (crops
leaves are shed. grown with an intention to secure food for the season
• Forests are generally logged but the vegetation differs and not sold as the production is very low).
with the rainfall. • Intensive cultivation is common in regions with
• Broad-leaved hardwood trees. irrigational facilities.
• Shifting cultivation is prevalent in North-East India
and South-East countries.
• Main crops are rice, sugar, jute (hemp in Manilla),
cotton. Coffee is grown in Brazil. Tea requires
modest temperatures (15 - 20ºC), heavy rainfall (150
cm) and well drained slopes.
• Cattle and sheep rearing are carried out for domestic
and commercial purposes, but livestock industry is
not as profitable as in temperate regions.

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Shifting cultivation TROPICAL MARINE CLIMATE

It is a'slash and burn' agriculture. Farmers clear a patch

of land and produce cereals and other food crops to
sustain their family. When the soil fertility decreases, the
farmers shift and clear a fresh patch of land for
cultivation. This type of shifting allows Nature to
replenish the fertility of the soil through natural processes;
land productivity in this type of agriculture is low as the
farmer does not use fertilisers or other modern inputs. It
is known by different names in different parts of the
country. Distribution

• Occurs on the eastern coasts in tropics under the

Region Name of Shifting
influence of trade winds. Philippines, Central
Cultivation
America, NE Australia, Madagascar, East Africa and
Malaysia Lacking East Brazil.
Burma Taungya
Rainfall
Thailand Tamrai
• It is both orographic and convectional. It is
Philippines Caingin maximum in summer season but without any
distinct dry season.
Java Humah
• It is prone to severe tropical storms and typhoons.
Sri Lanka Chena

Africa and Central Milpa

America

North-east India Jhum

DESERT CLIMATE

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Rainfall

• Whatever occurs, occurs mostly because of

convectional rainfall and with thunderstorms.
• In cold deserts in Asia, whatever rainfall happens
occurs because of occasional western disturbances
and in form of snow.

Temperature

• Temperature is high throughout the year (due to clear

cloudless sky, intense insolation, high rate of
evaporation). No winter.
• Average temperature is around 30-35°C.
Distribution • Diurnal and annual range is high.
• Coastal deserts generally have less temperature than
• Areas having less than 25 cm of annual precipitation interiors due to cold currents. Ranges are also high in
known as deserts (whether hot or cold). interiors.
• Major hot deserts are located on the western side of • Annual range of temperature is higher in cold deserts
tropics (i.e. on 15º-30º latitude range of continent). compared to hot deserts (because they are mostly
located in mid-latitudes where variation in insolation
o Hot desert is highest and because they are located deep inside
o Aridity of hot deserts is mainly due to continents).
offshore trade winds.
o Lie in the horse latitude belt where the air
is subsiding - a condition least favorable
to precipitation. Further winds blow from
cooler to hotter regions, hence the lack of
water content.
o Cold deserts
o Aridity of cold deserts is because of
offshore westerlies or leeward side
effects.
o Cold deserts are also generally located on
high plateaus.
o Atacama/Peruvian desert (driest place Vegetation
on earth) is the driest of all deserts (<
1.25 cm p.a.). • Vegetation is xerophytes / drought resistant scrubs
(like cactus)
• Cold currents have the effect of cooling the air. When • Shrubs remain dormant for years waiting for rainfall.
this comes in contact with the hot air on the land mass, They also have long roots, modified leaves and stems.
relative humidity drops further. Seeds have thick tough skins and lie dormant until it
rains.
• High evaporation means salts are brought upwards
and they accumulate on the surface forming hard
pans. Soil is also deficient in humus.

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• Annual range of temperature is about 10ºC and the

range increases as we move polewards.
o Highest temperatures don't coincide with
period of highest sun but fall just below the
onset of rains.
• These conditions are best developed in Sudan hence
it is called Sudan type of climate.

Minerals

• Gold is mined in Australia, diamonds and copper in

Kalahari Desert, copper and nitrates in Atacama
Desert.

TROPICAL SAVANNA / SUDAN CLIMATE

Local Winds

Harmattan (the doctor) are the north east trades which

blow from interior Africa to the Atlantic coast in Guinea.
They come from deserts and humidity rarely exceeds
30%. It is called the doctor because it gives relief from
moist sea winds.

Vegetation
Distribution

• It is found between equatorial forests and the trade

wind hot deserts.
• The grasses are called llanos in Orinoco basin and
campos in Brazil.

Seasons

• Distinct wet and dry season with extreme diurnal

range of temperature.
o Hot, rainy season (May-September in
Northern hemisphere, October-March in
Southern hemisphere).
o The amount of rainfall and the length of the
rainy season decreases from equator to pole-
wards towards the desert fringes.
o Trade winds bring rains to the eastern coasts
but become dry by the time they reach
interiors of the continents.
• Cool, dry season.

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• Tall savanna grasses (elephant grass). Grasses have

deep roots. It lays dormant during cool, dry season.
• Trees decrease in height and density polewards.
• Some trees are deciduous shedding their leaves in
cool, dry season to prevent water loss.
• Some trees have broad trunks with water storing
devices (like Acacia tree).

• Many trees are umbrella shaped exposing only a

narrow edge to the winds.
• Heavy rainfall in hot, wet season lead to intense
leaching of the soil and all the nutrients are washed
away.
• Domestication of animals is popular in Australia.
• Grass fire occurs during dry season that also burn the
seeds of trees which are ready to germinate.

Animal Life of the Savanna

• The savanna is the home large variety of animals and

known as the 'big game country' due to the
prevalence of hunting.
• There are mainly two groups of animals in the
savanna, one is the grass-eating herbivorous animals
and second is the fleshing-eating carnivorous
animals.
o Herbivorous = zebra, antelope, giraffe, deer,
gazelle, elephant etc.
o Carnivorous = lion, tiger, leopard, hyena,
panther, jaguar, jackal etc.

WARM TEMPERATE / MEDITERRANEAN CLIMATE

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Distribution
• The Westerlies belt shifts equator ward in the winter
• It is confined between 30 - 45º latitudes on the and the Mediterranean regions are under the influence
western margins of the continents. of on-shore Westerlies.
• It is caused by shifting of pressure belts and comes • Hence, these lands receive almost all of their
under the effect of trade winds during summers precipitation during the winter months.
(continental trades and hence dry) and westerlies • The rain comes in heavy downpours and causes
during winters (onshore winds and hence wet). floods in the months of September and October in
Mediterranean Europe.
Temperature
Local Winds
• Highest temperatures are experienced as we move
inland away from maritime influence. • Sirocco: They are the south-westerlies blowing from
• Climate is not extreme because of cooling effect by Sahara Desert into the mediterranean climate. They
water bodies. are hot and dry and remain dry even after passing
above Mediterranean Sea. It is most frequent during
Rainfall spring and is bad for crops.
• Mistral: It is a cold wind from north in Alps region
which rushes down in winter into the valleys to fill
the low pressure towards the sea.It is fast and may
take the temperature below the freezing point.
• Bora: In the Adriatic coast, the cold winds blowing
from the continent to the sea in winters are called
Bora. They are very fast.

• Cyclonic rainfall is prevalent from westerlies. The

rain comes as heavy showers and only on few days
with bright sunny intervening days.
• The region experiences dry warm summers and wet
cold winter.

Dry, warm summers with offshore Tradewinds: Vegetation

• The sun is overhead the Tropic of Cancer and Tropic • Mediterranean evergreen forests: They are found in
of Capricorn during the summer months. regions of high rainfall. Cork oak trees are common
• The belt of influence of the Westerlies is shifted a in Europe while eucalyptus are grown in Australia.
little polewards. Rain bearing winds are therefore not • Evergreen coniferous forests: They are found in
likely to reach the Mediterranean lands. highlands.
• Hence the regions are practically rainless in summers • Mediterranean shrubs: They are the dominant
and remain dry. vegetation.
• The heat is intense, and the days are excessively • Orchard farming: Fruit trees have long roots enabling
warm. them to fetch water in hot summer season as well. The
• In the interiors, prolonged droughts are common. The thick leathery skin of the fruits also prevents
relative humidity is generally low. transpiration.
Wet, cold winters with on-shore Westerlies: Agriculture

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Downs Australia (Murray-Darling

basin of southern Australia)
Canterbury New Zealand

Distribution (30° - 45°)

• They border the deserts and lie in the interiors of the

continents in Northern hemisphere and near the
oceans in Southern hemisphere. Though they lie in
the westerly belt, they are far removed from the
maritime influence.
• Summer is dry hence monsoon crops are not grown. • Mostly they are grassland / treeless because of
• This region is not suitable for agriculture, but some absence of maritime influence. They are extensive in
regions do cultivate using irrigation methods. northern hemisphere.
• Citrus fruits are mostly grown and viticulture • Grasslands in Southern hemisphere are less
(wine making) is mostly done here. continental due to proximity to oceans. They have
less extreme temperatures (milder winters and less
annual range) and rainfall is higher as well.
TEMPERATE CONTINENTAL GRASSLANDS /
STEPPE CLIMATE
Temperature (Continental Climate)

• Warm summers and cold winters. Extreme variation

of temperature.
• Wetter and cooler than Savannah.
• Annual range is very high in northern hemisphere.
• Southern hemisphere climate is never severe (effect
of ocean).

Rainfall

• Annual precipitation (conventional sources) is light

Name of the Region with maximum rainfall in summers. Winters get
Temperate occasional rains from western disturbances and in the
Grassland form of snow.
• Annual precipitation is higher in Southern
Pustaz Hungary and surrounding
hemisphere due to proximity to ocean and warm
regions ocean currents.
Prairies North America (between the
foothills of the Rockies and
the Great Lakes)
Pampas Argentina and Uruguay
(Rain-shadow effect)]
Bush-veld Northern South Africa
(more tropical)
High Veld Southern South Africa
(more
temperate)

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Local Winds • Polewards, an increase in precipitation gives way to

coniferous trees while equatorward they merge with
• Chinooks: They are south-westerly winds pulled desert shrubs.
over from the Rockies. They are hot winds and can
raise the temperatures by 20º C in 20 minutes.

Vegetation

• Nutritious grasses (No trees).

Economic Development

• Prairies would have wheat, cotton, maize

cultivation
• Steppes are one of the major producers of wheat
• Pampas region would have wheat cultivation, animal
husbandry livestock ranching (alfa-alfa a nutritious
grass is found here).
• Downs of Australia would have sheep rearing
• Complete grasslands are converted into agricultural (Marino sheep famous for wool).
lands. • Veldts are famous for sheep rearing (agora goat is
o Truck farming is done (mostly in prairies). famous for wool production).
o Heavily mechanised farming (Aeroplane
used for dropping fertilizers).
WARM TEMPERATE / CHINA CLIMATE /
NATAL TYPE / GULF TYPE

• Per person productivity is high, per acre productivity

is low (because of absence of intense farming). Distribution- Eastern margin in warm temperate zone
(30°- 45°)
• The grasses lie dormant in the winters and become
active in the spring when the temperature is hot
enough. In summers they get scorched but in autumn • China type
they grow again. o East and central China.
o Rainfall throughout the year.
o Trade winds take the warm current moist air
inside and causes rain in summers. Typhoons are
carried in by the trades in late summers.
o In winters, however there is a reversal of
wind direction due to cooling of Asian
land mass and temperatures plummet
(rain through moisture gain by Siberian

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plateau wind while passing yellow). So o Rainfall in summer is maximum.

annual range of temperature is high. o In winter season this type will experience
temperate cyclone while in late summers they
experience tropical cyclones (hurricane).
• Natal type
o In southern hemisphere like South Africa (Natal
province), Eastern Australia, Southern Brazil.
o These lands have no monsoonal climate due to
thinness of the land masses which is not sufficient
to cause any wind change.
o More dominance of maritime climate. So annual
range of temperature is less, rainfall is more and
distributed throughout the year.

Rainfall & Temperature

• It has more rainfall than Mediterranean climates for

same latitude because of influence of warm currents.
They are under the influence of trade winds.
• Summers are warm and winters are cool. Rainfall
varies from 60-150 cm.

Natural Vegetation

• The region supports luxurious vegetation due to

heavier rainfall.
• There are perennial plants, a well-suited condition for
the rich variety of plant life.
• The lowlands carry both evergreen broad-leaved
forests and deciduous trees, like tropical monsoon
forests.
• The highlands carry various important softwoods
species of conifers such as pines and cypresses.
• Eastern Australia = Eucalyptus
• South-Eastern Brazil, eastern Paraguay, north-eastern
Argentina = Parana pine, the quebracho, wild yerba
mate trees.
• Natal = palm trees

• Gulf type
o SE USA, Gulf of Maxico.
o The monsoonal characteristics are less here as the
pressure gradient between continental North
America and the Atlantic Ocean is never high
enough to reverse the wind direction completely.

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Economic Development • Low annual range of temperature. Moderate

temperature best suited for human habitation.
• These regions are the most productive part of the Summers are never very warm.
middle latitudes due to the adequate rainfall; no • Rainfall is throughout the year with winter or
prolonged drought and the cold season is warm. autumn maximum because of cyclonic conditions.
• This shows almost continuous growing season. o Rainfall from westerlies in summer.
• The temperate monsoon regions are the most o Western coast receives most rainfall and rain
intensively tilled parts of the world. decreases towards interior.
• Temperature have much oceanic influence, mostly
Agriculture Development warm ocean currents influence.

COOL TEMPERATE WESTERN MARGIN /

BRITISH CLIMATE Natural Vegetation

• Deciduous forests are found, and they shed their

leaves in autumn to prepare for the cold season.
• Tall trees with good canopy cover, mostly give
softwood.
• Trees are social species and are in pure stand,
multiple species are not found (hence commercially
viable).
• Example - Oak, Birch, Beech, Elm

Distribution

• Located to the western margin in cool temperate zone

(45°-65°) North and South.
• They are under the influence of westerlies all through
the year, but westerly influence is blocked by Rockies
and Andes in N and S America, respectively.
• Britain, Northern France, Northern
Germany, Norway, Western Canada (Vancouver
provinces) Tasmania and New Zealand, Southern
Chile.
• British type will experience four seasons.

Temperature &Precipitation

• Cool moderate climate.

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Economic activities Distribution

• Lumbering (cutting of trees for commercial • It is the intermediate types and has both maritime and
purpose) in systematic way. Winter cutting is done continental traits.
where they would make wood logs float on frozen • It is extended in cool temperate eastern margin (45°-
river. 65°) of northern hemisphere.
• It extends in eastern Canada (Newfoundland), North-
East USA (new England states) regions, Korea,
Northern Japan present beyond 40° latitude).
• It also extends in Eastern Siberia, North china,
Manchurian regions.
• In southern hemisphere this climatic type is absent
(land is not present beyond 40°latitude).

Rainfall and Temperature

• Winters are cold and dry while summers are warm

and wet. Summers would be warmer but for the cold
continental winds.
• Rainfall throughout the year.
o In summer, westerlies bring rain fall in
North America region because they catch
• Market gardening is a type of agricultural practice. moisture from great lakes. In winter, gulf
stream increases moisture content which
results in rainfall from polar easterly wind.
o In china, we have summer maximum rainfall
because of intense heating of land leading
winds penetration come from pacific (south-
east monsoon). In winter, anti cyclonic
conditions in central Asia exists hence cold
wind blows out and create some rainfall
(Borrowing moisture from Yellow Sea).

COOL TEMPERATE EASTERN / LAURENTIAN

CLIMATE

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BOREAL CLIMATE / TAIGA CLIMATE /

SIBERIAN CLIMATE / COOL TEMPERATE
CONTINENTAL CLIMATE / CONTINENTAL
SUB-POLAR CLIMATE

Distribution
Natural Vegetation
• It has tundra towards the north and steppes
• Mixed forestry (coniferous and deciduous). towards the south. Taiga is the Russian name.
o Deciduous would spread below 50° latitude, • It stretches along a continuous belt across central
Coniferous would spread above 50° latitude. Canada, some parts of Scandinavian Europe and most
• Oak, birch beech maple are principle trees. of central and southern Russian (50° to 70° N).
• Found only in the northern hemisphere (due to great
east-west extent).
• Absent in the southern hemisphere (Because of the
narrowness in the high latitudes. Also, the strong
oceanic influence reduces the severity of the winter).

Temperature

• Summers are brief and warm reaching whereas

winters are long and brutally cold.
• Annual temperature range of the Siberian Climate is
the greatest (Almost 50-60 °C in Siberia).
• In North America, the extremes are less severe,
because of the continent’s lesser east-west stretch.
• Occasionally cold, northerly polar local winds such as
• Agriculture: potatoes, oats, barley, soya beans the Blizzards of Canada and Buran of Eurasia blow
(mostly china) are grown. violently.
o Nova Scotia of Canada is famous for apple
• Permafrosts (a thick subsurface layer of soil that
farming. remains below freezing point throughout the year) are
generally absent as snow is a poor conductor of heat
Economic activities and protects the ground from the severe cold above.

• Lumbering and its associated timber, paper and Precipitation

pulp industries are the most important economic
activity. • Rainfall annually is not high as maritime influence in
• Fishing is also an important economic activity. the interiors is absent.
• Agriculture is less important because of long and • Frontal disturbances might occur in winter.
severe winters. • It is quite well distributed throughout the year, with a
• Farmers are engaged in dairy farming in the North summer maximum (convectional rain in mid-summer
American region. – 15 °C to 24 °C).

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• In winter, the precipitation is in the form of snow as

mean temperatures are well below freezing all the
time.

Distribution

• Found in regions north of the Arctic Circle and south

of Antarctic Circle.
• The icecaps are confined to highlands and high
latitude regions of Greenland and Antarctica.
Natural Vegetation • In the southern hemisphere, Antarctica is the greatest
single stretch of ice-cap.
• The predominant type of vegetation is evergreen • The lowlands – coastal strip of Greenland, the barren
coniferous forest. grounds of northern Canada and Alaska and the
• The conifers are best suited to this type of sub-Arctic Arctic seaboard of Eurasia, have tundra climate.
climate as they require little moisture
o Juniper, spruce, fir, pine are example Temperature
species of coniferous
• The greatest single band of the coniferous forest is • The tundra climate is characterized by a very low
the taiga (a Russian word for coniferous forest) in mean annual temperature (most of the year
Siberia. below freezing point).
• These coniferous belts are rich source of softwood o Temperatures are as low as 40-50 °C below
(used in furniture, construction, paper making freezing in mid-winter whereas summers are
industries). relatively warmer.

Precipitation

• Precipitation is mainly in the form of snow and sleet.

• Frequent blizzards reaching a velocity of 130 miles
an hour.
• Convectional rainfall is generally absent.

TUNDRA CLIMATE / POLAR CLIMATE /

ARCTIC CLIMATE

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Natural Vegetation

• There are no trees in the tundra.

• Lowest form of vegetation like mosses, lichens etc.
are found in patches.
• Climatic conditions along the coastal lowlands are a
little favorable.
• Coastal lowlands support hardy grasses and the
reindeer moss which provide the only pasturage for
reindeers.
• Berry-bearing bushes and Arctic flowers bloom in the
brief summer.
• In the summer, Birds migrate north to prey on the
numerous insects which emerge when the snow
thaws.
• ResidingMammals = Wolves, foxes, muskox, Arctic
hare and lemmings.
• Penguins live only in Antarctic regions.

Human Activities

• People live a semi-nomadic life and largely confined

to the coast.
• In Greenland, northern Canada and Alaska live the
sEskimos.
• During winter they live in igloos.
• Fish, seals, walruses, and polar bears are their major
food.

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