Activity 2.

3: CLIL and learning theory

Which learning theories are important in CLIL?
1. Constructivism

Constructivism as a theory of learning developed from cognitivist psychology.

Cognitivists focus on understanding how people gain their understanding of concepts
and how these influence subsequent behaviour (cognize: to gain knowledge and
organize it). Cognitivists propose that an individual interprets a stimulus which leads
to a response, but each response will be unique to the individual, and knowledge is
constructed through interaction with their environment. Learning therefore depends
on the individual’s ‘view’ of the world. Learning is also influenced by our early
socialisation, our environment, our attitudes and prejudices, our values and our
interests.

Constructivism draws on the sociocultural theory of learning developed by Lev

Vygotsky (1978, 1986) and understands learning as the process whereby individuals
construct new ideas or concepts, building on prior knowledge and/or experience.
This involves comparing new ideas and language with what is already known.
Constructivism emphasizes that this process must involve the learner at the centre,
undertaking this construction of understanding and knowledge by themselves.

Jerome Bruner (1986), drawing on Vygotsky’s work, promoted the idea of discovery
learning. For Bruner, the learning process is the acquisition of new knowledge, and
the checking of that new information against a new situation. Learning is therefore an
active process and requires active learners who learn by doing. For Bruner, and
other constructivists, the concept of scaffolding is extremely important within this
process of active learning. Scaffolding is the support given to a learner to help them
carry out activities and solve problems; it is gradually taken away so that learners
can eventually work without it. Examples of scaffolding include: simplifying tasks by
breaking them down into smaller steps, keeping pupils focused on completing the
task by reminding them of what the goal is, and showing other ways of doing tasks.
In a CLIL context, scaffolding also includes support strategies for language
production. Examples of this are the use of speaking and writing frames to support
spoken and written language production.

According to Geoff Petty, constructivism has now become ‘almost universally

accepted by all experts on the brain or the mind’ (2014, p.12). We now know from
neuroscience, for example, that learning is a physical process that requires neurons

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Activity 2.3: CLIL and learning theory

in the brain to connect with each other in order to create a network encoding new
learning. For this new learning to become deep learning it needs to be connected
with existing neural networks.

Key constructivist principles of learning include:

Active learning: learners need to be actively involved in constructing their own

meanings or constructs, then applying, testing and reflecting on these
constructs in order to decide what to do next.
Ladders of tasks: tasks are designed to move learners from lower order
thinking to higher order thinking. Lower-order thinking skills (LOTS) such as
remembering information and defining objects require surface learning. For
deeper learning to take place higher-order thinking skills (HOTS) are needed.
If learners are challenged and encouraged to work harder on a task then they
are more likely to remember what they have learnt. Higher-order thinking skills
include analysis and evaluation. They are often used in the classroom to
develop reasoning skills, encourage enquiry and discussion and to develop
creative thinking.
Making learning fun: tasks are designed so that learners find them enjoyable.
Tasks need to engage learners’ interest in order to ensure there is as much
cognitive involvement from learners as possible.

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Activity 2.3: CLIL and learning theory

2. Bilingualism

Jim Cummins, a researcher in bilingual education, uses the image of an iceberg to

describe how bilinguals’ brains work (see illustration below). Above the water the first
and second language are visible as separate icebergs. However, these surface
features actually belong to the same ‘common underlying proficiency’ beneath the
water. This proficiency is a bilingual’s knowledge and experience of the world,
together with their understanding of how to express their thoughts regardless of
which language they choose to express themselves in. According to Cummins
(2000), certain first language knowledge can be positively transferred during the
process of second language acquisition because of this common underlying
proficiency.

(taken from https://wiki.rit.edu/display/msse704012135/Linguistic+Interdependence+Theory)

However, as Shatz and Wilkinson (2013, pp. 33-34) point out, concepts underlying
language expressions in different languages can vary so that translation equivalents
do not always exists. This makes learning new vocabulary more demanding than
might be recognised by teachers. However, drawing attention to these differences
can also help learners to relate different concepts across languages.

Shatz and Wilkinson (2013) also give a helpful overview of recent research into
bilingualism. For example, some of this research has studied the time required by
bilinguals to process language. According to this research, whilst processing of

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Activity 2.3: CLIL and learning theory

language takes longer for bilinguals, this is not a sign of language deficiency.
Likewise, research into code switching by bilinguals (the moving between two or
more languages, sometimes within a single sentence) is not a sign of language
impairment.

Shatz and Wilkinson (2013, pp. 34-38) also summarise recent research that points to
advantages of bilingualism:

Bilingual children do better than monolinguals in theory of mind tasks

(understanding the beliefs and attitudes of others). Other research also shows
that bilingual children outperform monolinguals on executive function tasks
(abstract thinking and self-regulation tasks). This research suggests that
bilingualism supports an understanding of the mind and executive function in
young learners, although it is not clear how this develops into later years.
Bilinguals are exposed from an early age to different ways in which language
use can vary according to context. This may give them an advantage over
monolinguals in understanding the uses of academic English.

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Activity 2.3: CLIL and learning theory

3. Second Language Acquisition Theory

Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theory refers to the study of individuals and
groups who are learning a second or additional language to their first language
(referred to as the L1). This second language is referred in SLA theory as the L2 or
target language.

A useful overview of four areas of SLA theory that are relevant for CLIL teachers to
know about is provided by Dale, van der Es, and Tanner (2010, pp. 20-21). These
areas are: input theory, intake theory, output theory, and social models of second
language acquisition.

Language input theories of SLA emphasize that the input given to learners, the
language they read and hear needs to be meaningful, relevant and realistic. It should
also be at a slightly higher level than the current level of the learner (i+1, with i
representing the current language level). Input theory also recognises that learners
will be able to understand more language than they are able to produce in the target
language. Intake theory also focuses on the input learners receive but places more
focus on the need for learners to encounter the L2 frequently, as well as the time
needed to process this language.

Output theory argues that learners have to produce the second language in order to
learn it. By speaking or writing learners can then notice the difference between what
they can produce and what they want to produce. Furthermore, output theory
emphasizes the need for learners to be creative and make mistakes with the second
language. Experimenting with language production is key to learning the L2
according to output theories of SLA.

In recent years there has been a shift in SLA research from focusing on individual
processes of language acquisition to a wider social and cultural perspective on
language development. According to this view, learning a second language is not a
process taking place within the individual mind of a learner but happens as a result
of the social interactions between learners and ‘the kinds of identities these activities

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Activity 2.3: CLIL and learning theory

make possible’ (Llinares, Morton and Whittaker, 2012, p. 12). This area of SLA
theory sees language learning as a social process.

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Activity 2.3: CLIL and learning theory

References

Bruner, J. (1986) Actual minds, possible worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
Press.

Cummins, J. (2000) Language power and pedagogy: Bilingual children in the

Crossfire. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters

Dale, L., van der Es, W. and Tanner, R. (2010) CLIL skills. Leiden: ICLON, Leiden
University.

Llinares, A., Morton, T. and Whittaker, R. (2012) The roles of language in CLIL.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Petty, G. (2014) Teaching today: A practical guide. Fifth Edition, Oxford: Oxford
University Press.

Shatz, M. and Wilkinson, L. C. (2013) Understanding language in diverse

classrooms. New York and London: Routledge.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978) Mind in society: The development of higher psychological

processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1986) Thought and language. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.