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Mathematical Modelling and Simulation of Electric Vehicles

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 Department of Engineering and Mathematics

Ekenedilichukwu John Emordi

c0034375
B.Eng. Hons. Electrical Engineering

Mathematical Modelling and Simulation of

Electric Vehicles
Supervised by

Dr Ningrong Lei

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Bachelor of Engineering
Preface
This report describes project work carried out within the Engineering Programme at Sheffield Hallam University between
September 2020 and April 2021.
The submission of the report is in accordance with the requirements for the award of the degree of BEng (Hons) Electrical
Engineering under the auspices of the University.

1
Acknowledgement
I would like first to thank my parents for their encouragement and support in all areas of my educational pursuit.
My sincere thanks to my project supervisor, Dr Ningrong Lei, for her practical advice and keen supervision that have
helped me tremendously in my research and writing of this report.
Finally, I would like to thank Alice Boote, Elijah Santos, and Josh Rodgers of SHU Racing for helping me get the vehicle
parameters of the SHU Racing car, used as a case study in this project.

2
Abstract
Fully electric cars have zero tailpipe emissions, making them greener, cleaner, and better for the environment than petrol
or diesel cars. The development of electric vehicles to replace internal combustion engine vehicles has become more
relevant in recent times, with concerns over the negative impact of greenhouse gas emissions. However, internal
combustion engine vehicles generally still have a much longer range than electric vehicles, making them more desirable to
customers.
An electric vehicle is a complex system. Modelling and simulation are crucial to design and analyse such a system. This
project involves the use of MATLAB software to model and simulate an electric vehicle. This project’s modelling and
simulation analyses the power flow during motoring and regeneration operation in electric vehicles. The sub-systems of a
battery-electric vehicle Simulink model are analysed in-depth. As part of this project, the mathematical relationships in an
electric vehicle are thoroughly examined.
The SHU Racing electric car is used as a case study to simulate electric vehicle acceleration and range. From the
simulations carried out in this project, trade-offs have to be made to electric vehicle parameters to have satisfactory
acceleration performance and range. Based on obtained results, recommendations were made to improve the SHU Racing
car.

3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface …………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…1
Acknowledgement ………………………………………………………………………………………………….2
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….3
Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………………………………...4
Table of Figures …………………………………………………………………………………………………….5
List of Tables ………………………………………………………………………………………………….…....6

1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………....…......….7
1.1 Aim and Objectives ……………………………………………………………………………………...…....8

2. Literature Review ………...………………………………………………………………………………………..9

2.1 The Battery, the Supercapacitor, and the Flywheel …………………………………………………………..9
2.2 Regenerative Braking ………………………………………………………………………………………..14
2.3 Modelling and Simulation …………………………………………………………………………….……..16

3. Approach and Methodology ……………………………………………………………………………………....20

4. Simulink Model: Adapted SHU Racing Battery-Electric Vehicle ……………………………………………......21

4.1 Driving Cycle (Input) ……………………………………………………………….………….…...….........22
4.2 Driver Subsystem ……………………………...…………………………………………………….….…....23
4.3 Brake Subsystem ……………………………………………………………………………………...……...24
4.4 Glider Subsystem ……………………………………………………………………………………….…....25
4.5 Motor Subsystem …………………………………………………………………………………………….32
4.6 Battery Subsystem …………………………………………………………….………………….…….…....36
4.7 Driveline Subsystem ………………………………………………………………………………………....41

5. Case Study: Modelling and Simulation of the SHU Racing electric car ...………...……………………….…….42
5.1 Hypothetical Test Drive ……………………………………………………………………………………...43
5.2 Modelling the Acceleration of the SHU Racing electric car ………………...……………………………....45
5.3 Modelling the Range of the SHU Racing electric car …………………………………...……………..……51
5.3.1 Battery Discharging to 10% during the US06 Driving cycle …………………...…………………......52
5.3.2 Battery Discharging to 10% during the ECE R15 Driving cycle ……………...................…….……...54

6. Project Management …………...…….………………………………………….………………………….…….57

7. Future Development ……………………………………………………………………………………………...58
8. Conclusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..59
9. References ……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…60
10. Appendices …………………….………………………………………………………………………………....63
10.1 Appendix A ……………………………………………………………….…………………………….…..63
10.2 Appendix B ……………………………………………………………………………………………........64
10.3 Appendix C …………………………………………………………………………………………….…...67
10.4 Appendix D …………………………………………………………………………………………….…...68
10.5 Appendix E ……………………………………………………………………………………….………...69

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Table of Figures

Figure 2.1 Electric Vehicle Lithium-ion Battery………………………………………………………………………………………………..……..9

Figure 2.2 Supercapacitor Banks………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….11

Figure 2.3 Flywheel Kinetic Energy Recovery System....……………………………………………………………………………………………12

Figure 2.4 Spoked Flywheel……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………..12

Figure 2.5 Modern Automobile Engine Flywheel…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………12

Figure 2.6 Distribution of regenerative and hydraulic braking torques………………………………………………………………………….…..15

Figure 2.7 Analytical modelling……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..17

Figure 2.8 Simulation modelling…………………………………………………………………………………………………...………………………………..18

Figure 3.1 General Electric Vehicle system configuration………………………………………………………………………….………………………..20

Figure 4.1 Modified Battery Electric Vehicle Simulink Model (SHU Racing)……………………………………………………….………………………..21

Figure 4.2 EPA US06 Supplemental FTP Driving Schedule…………………………………………………………………………………………………….22

Figure 4.3 Driver Subsystem……………………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………….…………...23

Figure 4.4 Brake Subsystem………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….24

Figure 4.5 Free-Body diagram of a typical vehicle…………………………………………………………………………………………………………........25

Figure 4.6 A simple arrangement for connecting a motor to a drive wheel……………………………………………………………………………….…..27

Figure 4.7 Glider Subsystem…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………29

Figure 4.8 Preliminary simulation of vehicle velocity compared with the US06 Driving Cycle………………………………………………………...….30

Figure 4.9 Vehicle Performance Envelope…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………31

Figure 4.10 Motor Subsystem………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….32

Figure 4.11 Motor Torque Speed Envelope………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….34

Figure 4.12 Battery model with Internal Resistance……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….36

Figure 4.13 Battery Subsystem……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......37

Figure 4.14 Current Subsystem………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…...38

Figure 4.15 State Of Charge vs Time…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………......…39

Figure 4.16 Driveline Subsystem………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….….41

Figure 5.1 Full power (WOT) acceleration simulation of the SHU racing car..……………………………………………………………………………...48

Figure 5.2 Comparison between different masses of the SHU racing car with similar vehicle parameters during the full power (WOT) acceleration
simulation.……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….....……..50

Figure 5.3 Modified Battery Electric Vehicle Powertrain Blockset model (SHU Racing)………………………………………………………..…..…….51

Figure 5.4 Sony 18650 VT6 Battery Subsystem: Battery Discharging to 10%..............................................………………………………….………....52

Figure 5.5 Repeat cycles of the US06 Drive Cycle as the Battery Discharges to 10%...............................................................................................53

Figure 5.6 State Of Charge during the US06 Drive Cycle as the Battery Discharges to 10%...................................................................................53

Figure 5.7 Simulation of one cycle of the ECE R15 Driving cycle ………...............................................................…………………………………....54

5
Figure 5.8 Repeat cycles of the ECE R15 Driving cycle as the Battery Discharges to 10% .....................................................................................55

Figure 5.9 State Of Charge during the ECE R15 Driving cycle as the Battery Discharges to 10%................................................................….......55

List of Tables
Table 2.1 Comparison between Battery, Supercapacitor and Flywheel System…………………………………………………………………………...13

Table 4.1 𝐶𝑟r (KR) = 𝑟𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛t……………………………………………………………………………………………………...28

Table 4.2 𝐶𝑑 (KW) = 𝐶𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑔…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………...28

6
1. Introduction
Electric vehicles (EVs) have not been as popular as internal combustion (IC) engine vehicles. That is probably because IC engine vehicles have a
much longer range and are very easy to refuel. Still, electric vehicles remain a promising alternative for sustainable and cleaner transportation. The
first electric vehicles of the 1830s used non-rechargeable batteries. Half a century was to elapse before batteries had developed sufficiently to be used
in commercial electric vehicles. By the end of the 19th century, with the mass production of rechargeable batteries, electric vehicles became quite
popular. Though rare, private cars were likely to be electric, as were other vehicles such as taxis. If performance was required, the electric cars were
preferred to their internal combustion or steam-powered rivals at the start of the twentieth century. The electric vehicle was relatively reliable and
started instantly. In contrast, internal combustion engine vehicles were at the time unreliable, smelly, and needed to be manually cranked to start. The
other major contender, the steam engine vehicle, needed lighting, and the thermal efficiency of its engines was relatively low. However, despite the
promise of the early electric vehicles, once cheap crude oil was widely available and the self-starter for the internal combustion engine (invented in
1911) had arrived, the IC engine proved a more attractive option for powering vehicles (Larminie & Lowry, 2003).

One drawback has been making a cheap battery that can power the electric vehicle over long distances on one charge. The specific energy of
petroleum fuels for IC engines is considerably higher than that of batteries. Another major problem with electric vehicles is that it takes considerable
time to recharge batteries, even when adequate electrical power is available. Additionally, batteries are expensive. Any battery-electric vehicle is
likely to have a limited range and be more costly than an internal combustion engine vehicle of similar size and build quality. Still, electric vehicles
have certain advantages over combustion engines, mainly that they produce no exhaust emissions in their immediate environment, and secondly that
they are inherently quiet.

An IC engine vehicle has both an engine and an alternator. A battery powers the engine, which powers the gears and wheels. The wheels’ rotation
then powers the alternator in the car, and the alternator recharges the battery. That is why, after jump-starting a conventional car, a driver drives the
car for a period of time. The battery needs to be recharged to function appropriately. On the other hand, there is no alternator in an electric car.
Instead, the motor in an electric car acts as both motor and alternator. That is due to the AC signal’s alternating nature that allows the voltage to be
easily stepped up or stepped down to different values. In an electric vehicle, the battery starts the motor, which supplies energy to the gears, which
rotates the tyres. This process happens when the driver’s foot is on the accelerator—the rotor is pulled along by the rotating magnetic field, requiring
more torque. When the driver’s foot comes off the accelerator, the rotating magnetic field stops, and the rotor starts spinning faster (as opposed to
being pulled along by the magnetic field). When the rotor spins faster than the rotating magnetic field in the stator, this action recharges the battery,
acting as an alternator (How an Electric Motor Works in a Car - Electric Motor Engineering, n.d.).

For an internal combustion engine to move a vehicle down the road, it must convert the energy stored in the fuel into mechanical energy to drive the
wheels. This process produces carbon dioxide (Natural Resources Canada, 2014). Carbon dioxide (CO2) is a naturally occurring greenhouse gas.
Greenhouse gases help keep the earth warm by absorbing the sun’s energy and redirecting energy back to the earth’s surface. However, an increase in
the amount of carbon dioxide from IC engine vehicles creates an overabundance of greenhouse gases that trap additional heat. This trapped heat leads
to melting ice caps and rising ocean levels, which cause flooding. This causes harm to the environment. Combustible fossil fuels used in internal
combustion engine vehicles are primary sources of carbon dioxide (How Does Carbon Dioxide Affect the Environment?, n.d.).

On the other hand, purely electric cars do not require petroleum fuels to run. While this presents a new problem with the additional burden on
electricity generation, it reduces the strain from millions of cars, putting toxins into the air.

Environmental issues may well be the deciding factor in the adoption of electric vehicles. Leaded petrol has been banned, and there have been
attempts in some cities to force the introduction of zero-emission vehicles. The United Kingdom aims to end its contribution to global warming by
2050 (UK Becomes First Major Economy to Pass Net Zero Emissions Law - GOV.UK, n.d.). The UK’s 2050 net-zero target—one of the most
ambitious in the world—provides perhaps a clear path for electric vehicles to cruise.

The global vehicle population stood at 1.32 billion cars and trucks at the end of 2016, nearly double the volume 20 years prior when vehicles-in-
operation totalled 670 million in 1996. Coincidently, the fleet grew at about the same pace in the 20 years through 1996 by roughly doubling 1976’s
342 million (Petit, 2017). With the continued rapid use of vehicular transport, sustainable vehicles such as electric cars must play a more prominent
role.

Modelling and simulation are crucial in designing and analysing an electric vehicle. This project would involve the use of MATLAB/Simulink to
model and simulate an electric vehicle. This project’s modelling and simulation would analyse the power flow during motoring and regeneration
operation in electric cars.

7
 1.1 Aim and Objectives
This project aims to use mathematical methods to model and simulate the flow of power in the electric vehicle energy system.

The project’s measurable objectives are:

● To analyse design considerations in an electric vehicle

● To mathematically model and simulate an electric vehicle using software such as MATLAB/Simulink

● To analyse the power supply and distribution in an electric vehicle

In this report, Chapter one introduces the project with the aim and objectives of the project also presented. In chapter two, the theory related to the
project is explained in the literature review. Relevant literature detailing energy storage devices, regenerative braking, modelling and simulation are
presented cohesively in this chapter. Chapter three is concerned with the approach and methodology to be implemented in this project. In Chapter
four, the various subsystems in a Simulink model of a typical battery-powered electric vehicle are explained. The associated mathematical
relationships with each subsystem are also presented. Chapter five provides results from modelling the acceleration and range of the SHU Racing car,
used as a case study. Recommendations were made to improve the SHU Racing car in this chapter. Chapter six delves into the way this project was
managed successfully. Chapter seven looks at future project-related developments worth considering, while conclusions are made in chapter eight.

8
2. Literature Review
2.1 The Battery, the Supercapacitor, and the Flywheel
Alessandro Volta invented the first battery. In 1800, he built the voltaic pile and discovered the first practical method of generating electricity. The
voltaic pile was constructed of alternating discs of zinc and copper with pieces of cardboard soaked in brine between the metals. The metallic
conducting arc was used to carry the electricity over a greater distance. Volta’s voltaic pile was the first battery that produced a reliable, steady
electricity current (Alessandro Volta - Inventor of the Voltaic Pile, n.d.). Volta discovered that if two insulated pieces of different metals are put in
contact and then separated, they acquire electric charges of opposite sign (Crompton, 2000).

A battery consists of electrochemical cells with external connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile phones, and electric
cars. When a battery is supplying electric power, its positive terminal is the cathode, and its negative terminal is the anode. The terminal marked
negative is the source of electrons that will flow through an external electric circuit to the positive terminal. When a battery is connected to an
external electric load, a redox reaction converts high-energy reactants to lower-energy products, and the free-energy difference is delivered to the
external circuit as electrical energy. Primary (single-use or “disposable”) batteries are used once and discarded, as the electrode materials are
irreversibly changed during discharge; a typical example is an alkaline battery used for flashlights and a multitude of portable electronic devices.
Secondary (rechargeable) batteries can be discharged and recharged multiple times using an applied electric current; the original composition of the
electrodes can be restored by reverse current. Examples include the lead-acid batteries used in vehicles and lithium-ion batteries used for portable
electronics such as laptops and mobile phones. Batteries have much lower specific energy (energy per unit mass) than common fuels such as
gasoline. In automobiles, this is somewhat offset by the higher efficiency of electric motors in converting chemical energy to mechanical work,
compared to combustion engines (Electric Battery - Wikipedia, n.d.). A lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery (Figure 2.1) is a type of rechargeable battery used
in electric vehicles and portable electronics. They have a higher energy density than typical lead-acid or nickel-cadmium rechargeable batteries. That
means that battery manufacturers can save space, reducing the battery pack’s overall size (Electric Car Battery Life, Cost of Replacement, Recycling
& Leasing | EDF, n.d.).

Figure 2.1

Electric Vehicle Lithium-ion Battery

Note: Reprinted from “Electric Car Battery Life, Cost of Replacement, Recycling & Leasing” by EDF Energy, (https://www.edfenergy.com/electric-
cars/batteries). Copyright by EDF Energy. Reprinted with permission.

Lithium-ion batteries work by using layers of cells with positive and negative electrodes separated by an electrolyte. They generate a charge as
lithium ions move from negative to positive when discharging, and the reverse happens when charging. (What Is a Supercapacitor? The next Step for
EVs and Hybrids Explained | CAR Magazine, n.d.).

Although lithium-ion technology came to replace nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries as the preeminent focus of electric vehicle development
efforts, scientists at Argonne National Laboratory and around the world are currently investigating several different approaches for energy storage
that could help to bring down the cost of plug-in hybrids (National Laboratory, n.d.).

9
In addition to conventional electrical power sources for electric vehicles, such as batteries, there is a range of alternative options, including
supercapacitors, flywheels, fuel cells, solar photovoltaics, and wind-driven generators. There are also older systems that may be important in the
development of electric vehicles, particularly electric supply rails, either with mechanical pick-ups or modern ones with an inductive supply
(Larminie & Lowry, 2003).

The supercapacitor (Figure 2.2), also known as ultracapacitor or double-layer capacitor, differs from a regular capacitor in that it has very high
capacitance. A capacitor stores energy using a static charge as opposed to an electrochemical reaction. Applying a voltage differential on the positive
and negative plates charges the capacitor. That is similar to the build-up of electrical charge when walking on a carpet. Touching an object releases
energy through the finger. Engineers at General Electric first experimented with an early version of supercapacitors in 1957, but there were no known
commercial applications. In 1966, Standard Oil of Ohio rediscovered the effect of the double-layer capacitor by accident while working on
experimental fuel cell designs. The double-layer significantly improved the ability to store energy. The company did not commercialise the invention
and licensed it to NEC Corporation, which in 1978 marketed the technology as “supercapacitor” for computer memory backup. It was not until the
1990s that advances in materials and manufacturing methods led to improved performance and lower cost (Supercapacitor Information – Battery
University, n.d.).

Supercapacitors (Electrochemical Capacitors) consist of two electrodes separated by an ion-permeable membrane (separator) and an electrolyte
ionically connecting both electrodes. When the electrodes are polarised by an applied voltage, ions in the electrolyte form electric double layers of
opposite polarity to the electrode’s polarity. For example, positively polarised electrodes will have a layer of negative ions at the electrode/electrolyte
interface along with a charge-balancing layer of positive ions adsorbing onto the negative layer. The opposite is true for the negatively polarised
electrode (Supercapacitor - Wikipedia, n.d.).

Supercapacitors provide solutions to some lingering problems with battery-powered all-electric cars and have added benefits for hybrids, too. In
many ways, a supercapacitor is simply a larger capacitor with bigger electrode plates and less distance between them, allowing for a greater charge to
be stored in the form of electrical potential energy. Supercapacitors already exist in cars with regenerative braking systems. That is thanks to their
greater power density than chemical reaction-based batteries. The greater power density allows them to store and discharge electricity rapidly, which
is handy for collecting energy generated under braking and quickly releasing it upon acceleration. However, they have yet to take over from lithium-
ion batteries as the primary power source. Still, electric and hybrid vehicles are advancing year on year, so there is a lot of promise for
supercapacitors to play a more significant role in next-generation electric cars and charging infrastructure to support them. As supercapacitors pretty
much rely on physics rather than chemistry to store their energy, they do not degrade in the same fashion as lithium-ion batteries. That could present
a huge opportunity to improve an electric car’s lifespan and reduce the environmental impact of using lithium-ion power cells. The most considerable
advantage of supercapacitors over lithium-ion and nickel-cadmium batteries is their ability to charge and discharge rapidly, charging in minutes
rather than hours. So, supercapacitors could be the panacea to reduce the hours it currently takes to recharge an all-electric car—or offer a boost of
speed to hybrids. Supercapacitors also handle wireless charging very well, which, when combined with their ability to charge at speed, could remove
the need to plug electric vehicles into power points and make charging a more seamless process (What Is a Supercapacitor? The next Step for EVs
and Hybrids Explained | CAR Magazine, n.d.).

Another lure towards supercapacitors is that they (highly flexible electrochemical double-layer capacitors) can now be manufactured by 3D printing
technology, making them versatile for any shape without setting up a production line. (Areir et al., 2017). Although supercapacitors can charge fast,
last far longer, hold more power and operate at temperature extremes most other chemistries could not cope with, they are poor at providing constant
power over long periods. While a supercapacitor that is the same weight as a battery can hold more power—its power density (Watts/kg) is up to ten
times better than lithium-ion batteries—its inability to discharge slowly means its energy density (Watt Hours/kg or Wh/kg) is a fraction of that
offered by lithium-ion. Supercapacitors are poor at holding onto their charge, self-discharging to half their capacity within 40 days when not in use. If
a supercapacitor-powered electric vehicle were left in the garage for a fortnight, for example, it would likely be found with no charge when needed.
That kind of feature would not be desirable under the hood of a car (Supercapacitors versus Batteries – BatteryGuy.Com Knowledge Base, n.d.).
Still, supercapacitors will likely work in tandem with batteries. They are not a replacement for batteries, as of yet (Supercapacitors Amp Up as an
Alternative to Batteries, n.d.).

10
Figure 2.2

Supercapacitor Banks

Note: Supercapacitors will dramatically boost the power of lithium-ion batteries, enabling plug-in vehicles to travel much further on a single charge.
Reprinted from “TransForum” by Transportation Technology R&D Center, Argonne National Laboratory, 2010, TransForum Volume 10, No. 1 -
Spring 2010, (p. 6). Copyright 2010 by Argonne National Laboratory. Reprinted with permission.

A flywheel is a mechanical device specifically designed to use the conservation of angular momentum to store rotational energy (Flywheel -
Wikipedia, n.d.). The history of flywheel goes back thousands of years. The potter’s wheel and the spinning wheel are two examples where the
flywheel, with its inertia, has converted a pulsating input power to smooth output power. Flywheels can also be used oppositely by converting a
smooth input to an irregular output. Hydropower generators are examples of this. A mechanical flywheel is already used in almost every vehicle with
an internal combustion engine, mounted on the outgoing engine shaft to suppress the explosion impulses from the piston in each valve during
combustion stroke. Another common flywheel application is UPS (uninterruptible power supply) to prevent sensitive equipment or processes from
being damaged by a power failure. The flywheel’s main advantage over the other energy storages available is its almost unlimited lifetime in terms of
cycles. It can also be produced harmlessly by abundant materials easy to recycle. The flywheel does not produce any hazardous gases, radiation, or
other potentially dangerous emissions. Even though the energy density of a flywheel is lower than that of batteries—a complete flywheel system
commercially available today would have an energy density of around 20 Wh/kg—there are no fundamental limits to a significant increase. For
example, a new material with three times higher tensile strength would allow a three times higher rotational speed, increasing the energy density for
the complete flywheel system by nine times, and so even the best batteries would be left behind. The drawback for the flywheel is mainly the self-
discharge time which is—at its very best—ten times higher than that of batteries, but more likely a thousand times higher. For long-time energy
storage, the flywheel is therefore not a good option at the time being. However, low-pressure operation and magnetic bearings can change the
flywheels’ competitiveness as an option even for long-time energy storage (Lundin, n.d.).

Compared with supercapacitor and batteries, the flywheel energy storage system has the longest use-life, the highest energy storage density, the
shortest charging time, and the most effortless maintenance. Moreover, it has the least demand for the working environment and will cause no
pollution. The key point of energy storage with the flywheel is to reduce the loss of mechanical energy, namely the loss of kinetic energy that
consists of air friction resistance and rotary resistance. According to the different means for reducing energy loss, flywheel energy storage systems
can be divided into low-speed flywheel and high-speed flywheel systems. The first reduces air friction by increasing the flywheel’s mass, while the
second reduces the air pressure of the flywheel’s operating environment. The high-speed flywheel system benefits from the use of high strength
compound material (carbonic fibre). It has characteristics of small mass, low volume, and high speed. Thus, it is fit for vehicle use. The high-speed
flywheel system consists mainly of a flywheel, a motor, and a generator. It is connected with external electrical systems through input or output
electronic equipment. The power transported from the external systems is converted from electric energy into mechanical energy by raising the
flywheel’s rotary speed. When it is needed to output power, mechanical energy is converted back into electric energy through the generator and
meantime, the flywheel’s rotary speed is reduced. The motor and generator are usually integrated, and magnetic suspension bearings are adopted by
the flywheel system, through which the flywheel is fixed in a vacuum container. The excessively high cost is yet another drawback preventing
flywheel energy storage systems from popularising. Its cost is about 1.5 times that of the supercapacitor and is about 6 ~ 7 times that of a chemical

11
battery. Nevertheless, the flywheel system’s use-life is ten times or more than that of batteries and needs no recall. The cost of installation and
maintenance is also much lower than the battery and supercapacitor. So if the use-life of each vehicle were accounted for ten years, the annual
expenditure consumed on flywheel energy storage systems would be slightly higher than that consumed on batteries (He et al., n.d.).

Figure 2.3

Flywheel Kinetic Energy Recovery System

Note: Flybrid KERS (Kinetic Energy Recovery System). The energy recovery system could reduce fuel consumption by as much as 25 per cent.
Reprinted from “(Volvo’s New KERS System to Reduce Fuel Use by 25 per Cent | Autocar, n.d.)” by Autocar, n.d. (https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-
news/industry/volvos-new-kers-system-reduce-fuel-use-25-cent). Copyright by Autocar. Reprinted with permission.

Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

Spoked Flywheel Modern Automobile Engine Flywheel

Note: Reprinted from “(Machine Guarding ETool | Animation-Spoked Flywheel)” Note: Reprinted from “File: P307.Jpg–Wikimedia Commons”
by the Occupational Safety & Health Administration by (Adrianyuki, 2008)
(https://www.osha.gov/SLTC/etools/machineguarding/animations/flywhl.html). (https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:P307.jpg).
Copyright by the US Department of Labour. Reprinted with permission. Copyright 2008 by Adrianyuki, Public domain,
via Wikimedia Commons. Reprinted with permission.

12
A kinetic energy recovery system (KERS), as depicted in Figure 2.3, is an automotive system for recovering a moving vehicle’s kinetic energy under
braking. The recovered energy is stored in a reservoir (for example, a flywheel or high voltage batteries) for later use under acceleration (Kinetic
Energy Recovery System - Wikipedia, n.d.).

Industrial flywheels are often made of steel, but the weight—and shrapnel effect should something go wrong—make metal a non-starter at high rpm
in cars. Carbon fibre could be used instead to build the flywheel, and the housing could be reinforced in case the flywheel disintegrates. Carbon fibre
is far less dangerous should that happen. In addition, the KERS system takes up less room than hybrid batteries (Volvo Hybrid Drive: 60,000 Rpm
Flywheel, 25% Boost to Mpg - ExtremeTech, n.d.).

Table 2.1

Comparison between Battery, Supercapacitor and Flywheel System

Battery Supercapacitor Flywheel System

Storage Mechanism Chemical Electric Mechanical
Life (years in service) 3~5 years 12~18years >20 years

Temperature Range Limited Limited Less Limited

Environmental Serious Less Serious Slight

Concerns
Relative mass Large Medium Small
(Equivalent energy)
Practical time to hold a Months Days Hours
charge

Note: Comparison between Battery, Supercapacitor and Flywheel System. Adapted from “FLYWHEEL BATTERIES COME AROUND AGAIN,”
by Hebner et al., 2002, In IEEE Spectrum (Vol. 39, Issue 4), p. 48. Copyright 2002 by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. Adapted
with permission.

13
 2.2 Regenerative Braking
One of the benefits of hybrid and electric vehicles is their potential to recuperate braking energy, otherwise known as regenerative braking. The law
of conservation of energy states that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant; it is said to be conserved over time. This law, first
proposed and tested by Émilie du Châtelet, means that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; rather, it can only be transformed or transferred
from one form to another (Conservation of Energy - Wikipedia, n.d.). The same principle applies to braking. For a car to stop, the kinetic energy built
up whilst moving must go somewhere. In a conventional hydraulic braking system, that means using the friction created between the brake pad and
disc, or drum and shoe, to convert the vehicle’s kinetic energy into heat. The heat is then dissipated into the atmosphere, and the car slows. In hybrid
and electric vehicles with regenerative braking, the kinetic energy is put to much better use. Instead of simply releasing it into the air, the vehicle
turns it into electrical energy stored in the vehicle’s batteries (Regenerative Braking Explained | Delphi Auto Parts, n.d.). The conversion in electric
vehicles is done by reversing the motor drive circuitry, which causes the drive motors to act as generators (Hebner et al., 2002). As well as helping to
stop the car, the stored energy provides electricity to the electric motor for future driving, increasing its efficiency.

One of the more interesting properties of an electric motor is that when it is run in one direction, it converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
that can be used to perform work (such as turning the wheels of a car). However, when the motor runs in the opposite direction, a properly designed
motor becomes an electric generator, converting mechanical energy into electrical energy. When the wheels spin without acceleration, the rotation
induces a reverse flow of energy, producing a generator effect. A back emf is induced in the motor (Deepika Lakshmi et al., 2017).

In a traditional braking system, brake pads produce friction with the brake rotors to slow or stop the vehicle. Additional friction is produced between
the slowed wheels and the surface of the road. This friction is what turns the car’s kinetic energy into heat. On the other hand, with regenerative
brakes, the vehicle system that drives the vehicle does most of the braking. When the driver steps on the brake pedal of an electric or hybrid vehicle,
these types of brakes put the vehicle’s electric motor into reverse mode, causing it to run backwards, thus slowing the car’s wheels. While running
backwards, the motor also acts as an electric generator, producing the electricity fed into the vehicle’s batteries. This electrical energy can then be fed
into a charging system for the car’s batteries. In a regenerative braking system, the trick to getting the motor to run backwards is to use the vehicle’s
momentum as the mechanical energy that puts the motor into reverse. Momentum is the property that keeps the vehicle moving forward once it has
been brought up to speed. Once the motor has been reversed, the electricity generated by the motor is fed back into the batteries, where it can be used
to accelerate the car again after it stops. Sophisticated electronic circuitry is necessary to decide when the motor should reverse, while specialised
electric circuits route the motor’s electricity into the vehicle’s batteries. In some cases, the energy produced by these types of brakes is stored in a
series of capacitors for later use. These types of brakes work better at certain speeds than at others. They are most effective in stop-and-go driving
situations and are therefore best suited for city use. Nevertheless, hybrids and fully electric cars also have friction brakes (conventional brakes) as a
kind of backup system in situations where regenerative braking will not supply enough stopping power. In these instances, drivers must be aware of
the fact that the brake pedal might respond differently to pressure. The pedal will sometimes depress farther towards the floor than usual, and this
sensation can cause momentary panic in drivers (How Regenerative Braking Works | HowStuffWorks, n.d.).

The hydraulic braking torque is applied whenever the regenerative braking torque is insufficient to offer the same deceleration rate as available in
conventional vehicles. The control of their distribution, depicted in Figure 2.6, aims to provide the driver with the same braking feel experienced in
conventional vehicles while maintaining maximum regenerative braking. During low brake pedal force, only the regenerative braking torque is
applied on the driving wheels and is proportional to the pedal pressing force. The braking torque on the non-driving wheels is always due to
hydraulic braking, which is also proportional to the pedal pressing force. When the pedal force is beyond a specific limit, the maximum regenerative
braking torque is applied on the driving wheels. The hydraulic braking torque is simultaneously applied on the driving wheels to top up the desired
braking torque. Meanwhile, the maximum regenerative braking torque is kept constant to recover the kinetic energy fully (Chau, 2014).

Kinetic energy recovery systems (KERS) are systems used to recover kinetic energy for future use. There are two main implementations of KERS,
and they differ in how the energy is stored. The electrical KERS uses an electromagnet to transfer kinetic energy to electric potential energy that is
eventually converted to chemical energy and stored in a battery. It then redelivers the stored energy to the drive train by powering a motor. However,
the battery used to store the energy is very prone to battery fires and can cause electric shocks. That is deemed unsafe. Supercapacitors could replace
batteries because they have a cooler operation. On the other hand, the mechanical KERS uses the braking energy to turn a flywheel, as depicted in
Figure 2.3, which acts as the energy reservoir to harvest energy upon braking. When needed, the redelivery of the energy is similar to that of the
electric KERS implementation. The rotating flywheel is connected to the car’s wheels, and when called upon, it provides a power boost. The
mechanical implementation of KERS is more efficient than the electric equivalent due to the fewer conversions of the energy taking place. The
electric KERS implementation is relatively heavier than the mechanical KERS implementation (Kinetic Energy Recovery Systems in Formula 1,
n.d.).

KERS uses three main components to do its job:

• Motor/Generator Unit (MGU): this converts mechanical energy into electricity and vice versa.
• Power Control Unit (PCU): controls the switching of electric current between the MGU and the battery (energy storage device).
• Storage device: This can be a battery, supercapacitor, or flywheel.

The KERS uses a “charge cycle” and a “boost cycle”—the former occurring upon deceleration to store the kinetic energy, and the latter occurs when
the driver presses the KERS button (Kinetic Energy Recovery System - Energy Education, n.d.).
14
Figure 2.6

Distribution of regenerative and hydraulic braking torques

Note: Distribution of regenerative and hydraulic braking torques. Reprinted from Pure electric vehicles. In “Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle
Technologies for Improved Environmental Performance: Towards Zero Carbon Transportation” (p. 672), by Chau, K. T. (2014), Elsevier Inc.
Copyright 2014 by the Elsevier Inc. Reprinted with permission.

15
 2.3 Modelling and Simulation
A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of developing a mathematical model is
termed mathematical modelling (Mathematical Model - Wikipedia, n.d.). Models are used to predict or compare the future performance of a new
system, a modified system, or an existing system under new conditions. It is essential to know whether a model has sufficient accuracy. Sufficient
accuracy means that the model can be used as a substitute for the real system for experimentation and analysis, assuming that it was possible to
experiment with the actual system (Carson II, 2002).

If the dynamic behaviour of a physical system can be represented by an equation or a set of equations, this is referred to as the mathematical model of
the system. Such models can be constructed from knowledge of the physical characteristics of the system. Alternatively, a mathematical model may
be determined by experimentation by measuring how the system output responds to known inputs (Burns, 2001).

(Torres & Santos, 2015) described a model as a conceptual or mathematical representation of a system that serves to understand and quantify it. The
difference between conceptual and mathematical resides only in the way the representation is formulated. A model is always a simplified
representation of the reference system, which the scientist wishes to understand and quantify. It ultimately serves to systematise the available
knowledge and understanding of a given phenomenon and the facts concerning it. The usefulness of mathematical models in physics and technology
is well documented; they can be traced back to the very origins of physics. Since the days of Galileo, Kepler and Newton, scientists have striven to
develop their models by means of mathematical formalism.

Despite its usefulness, (Marion & Scotland, 2008) argued that there is a large element of compromise in mathematical modelling. The majority of
interacting systems in the real world are far too complicated to model in their entirety. Hence the first level of compromise is to identify the most
important parts of the system. These will be included in the model; the rest will be excluded. The second level of compromise concerns the amount of
mathematical manipulation, which is worthwhile. Although mathematics has the potential to prove general results, these results depend critically on
the form of equations used. Small changes in the structure of equations may require enormous changes in the mathematical methods. Using
computers, therefore, to handle the model equations may never lead to elegant results, but it is much more robust against alterations.

(Carson II, 2002, p.53) quoted well-known statistician George Box as saying: “All models are wrong. Some are useful”. Verifying and validating a
model, therefore, is required in improving a model’s credibility. So, while verifying models, Carson II advised keeping the first part of Box’s
quotation in mind in order to maximise the likelihood of the second part becoming true—and to maintain a sense of humour and perspective about
one’s own creative (model building) activities and the all-too-human tendency to overlook errors in one’s work.

The range of objectives and reasons for modelling as outlined by (Marion & Scotland, 2008) includes:

• Develop scientific understanding: through the quantitative expression of current knowledge of a system (as well as displaying what we
know, this may also show up what we do not know)
• Test the effect of changes in a system
• Aid decision making

A mathematical model differs from the more tangible physical model in that “reality” is represented by an equation or series of equations. Two
important elements of equations are variables and parameters. Variables or unknowns represent the elements of the system being modelled.
Parameters or constants or coefficients of an equation are factors that qualify the variables (Limitations on the Use of Mathematical Models in
Transportation Policy Analysis, n.d.). Parameters are assumed to be known.

Banks, Barry, Carson II, David, Nelson, and Nicol (2010) defined simulation as an approximate imitation of the operation of a real-world process or
system over time. Whether done by hand or on a computer, simulation involves the generation of an artificial history of a system and the observation
of that artificial history to draw inferences concerning the operating characteristics of the real system. The behaviour of a system as it evolves over
time is studied by developing a simulation model. This model usually takes the form of a set of assumptions concerning the operation of the system.
These assumptions are expressed in mathematical, logical, and symbolic relationships between the entities or objects of interest of the system.

It is necessary to understand the concept of a system and the system boundary in order to model a system. A system is defined as a group of objects
or elements joined together in some regular interaction or interdependence toward accomplishing some purpose. Systems can be categorised as
discrete or continuous. A discrete system is one in which the state variable(s) change only at a discrete set of points. A continuous system is one in
which the state variable(s) change continuously over time. A system is often affected by changes occurring outside the system. Such changes are said
to occur in the system environment. In modelling systems, it is necessary to decide on the boundary between the system and its environment. This
decision may depend on the purpose of the study.

(Banks et al., 2010) went on further to classify simulation models as static or dynamic, deterministic or stochastic, and discrete or continuous. A
static simulation model, sometimes called a Monte Carlo simulation, represents a system at a particular point in time. Dynamic simulation models
represent systems as they change over time. Simulation models that contain no random variables are classified as deterministic. Deterministic models
have a known set of inputs that will result in a unique set of outputs. A stochastic simulation model has one or more random variables as inputs.
Random inputs lead to random outcomes. Since the outputs are random, they can be considered only as estimates of the true characteristics of a
model.

16
Simulation of a system as defined by (Maria, 1997) is simply the operation of a model of the system. Maria organised, in sequential order, the steps
involved in developing a simulation model, designing a simulation experiment, and performing simulation analysis:

Step 1. Identify the problem.

Step 2. Formulate the problem.

Step 3. Collect and process real system data.

Step 4. Formulate and develop a model.

Step 5. Validate the model.

Step 6. Document model for future use.

Step 7. Select the appropriate experimental design.

Step 8. Establish experimental conditions for runs.

Step 9. Perform simulation runs.

Step 10. Interpret and present results.

Step 11. Recommend a further course of action.

(Sanchez, 2007) attempted to differentiate between analytical modelling and simulation modelling. In practice, modelling is an iterative process with
feedback. A system might be described as a set of differential equations or as a set of constraints and objectives in some optimisation formulation or
use distribution modelling from probability or stochastic processes. The result from the system description is referred to as a formal model. A model
developer would like to find analytical solutions to the formal model if it were possible to do so. Suppose a formal model has a high degree of
conformance with the real-world system being modelled. In that case, analytic models and their solutions will allow the model developer to obtain
insights and draw inferences about the real system (Figure 2.7). However, it is often the case that in the quest for a good model, the model developer
adds components that make the formal model intractable (uncontrollable). That is one of the occasions where simulation might enter the process.

In many cases, the behaviours in a system can be described algorithmically, producing a computer simulation as a model. If the simulation model
uses randomness as part of the modelling process, its output is a random variable. A very common and grave mistake that first-time simulators make
is to run a stochastic model one time and believe that they have found “the answer”. The proper way to describe or analyse a stochastic system is with
statistics. In other words, it is imperative to build a statistical model of the computer model, built from the formal model. The resulting process is
illustrated in Figure 2.8. As a result, simulation modelling involves a longer chain of inference than does analytical modelling.

Figure 2.7

Analytical modelling

Note: A model yields insights and inferences. Reprinted from “Fundamentals of Simulation Modelling” by Sanchez, 2007, Calhoun: The NPS
Institutional Archive, (p. 55). Copyright 2010 by The Naval Postgraduate School, Dudley Knox Library. Reprinted with permission.

17
Figure 2.8

Simulation modelling

Note: Simulation has a longer chain of inference. Reprinted from “Fundamentals of Simulation Modelling” by Sanchez, 2007, Calhoun: The NPS
Institutional Archive, (p. 56). Copyright 2010 by The Naval Postgraduate School, Dudley Knox Library. Reprinted with permission.

Feedback enters the modelling process in the form of verification and validation. Verification constitutes a feedback loop between the computer
model and the formal model, as depicted in Figure 2.8.

The formal model is the expression of the model developer’s intent. Verification corresponds to the computer science task of debugging, which is
considered a challenging problem indeed. Validation constitutes a feedback loop between the computer model and reality. It should be clear that the
verification feedback loop is contained within the validation loop. In general, a model developer can expect to go through multiple iterations of
verification and validation before being satisfied with a model.

(Chemouil, n.d.) differentiated between an analytic and simulation model in much simpler terms: An analytic model is a mathematical abstraction
that can be extended to address various working conditions, thanks to some assumptions about the way a process is evolving. In some cases, an exact
solution can be derived, and a result can be obtained in various conditions. The beauty of the analytical model is that it provides a generic way to get
performance results in various conditions through a mathematical formulation. The accuracy of the model is to be considered through the validity of
the assumption to derive the mathematical formulation. Some uncertainties can be handled through a stochastic model to account for the modelling
and measurement model.

On the other hand, a simulation model also makes assumptions of a model and some assumptions about the behaviour of the process. It is used when
an analytical formulation cannot be derived (for example, when the size of the model is too large or when no exact solution can be derived).
Simulation models provide results for a specific use case and should be run many times to counterbalance the effect of numerical calculations. For a
different functioning use case, the simulation should be run over again. A simulation model can be accepted when results are validated in a number of
working conditions under various input assumptions.

Chemouil concluded by recommending that when the two approaches could be used, preference should be given to the analytical approach while
simulation could be used to validate the assumptions and the models. For better analysis, the simulation model could be used with assumptions
slightly different from the analytical model since the simulation is not aimed at validating the model but the reality of the modelled process.

In the computer application of modelling and simulation, a computer is used to build a mathematical model which contains key parameters of the
physical model. The mathematical model represents the physical model in virtual form. Conditions are applied to set up the experiment of interest.
The simulation starts with the computer calculating the results of the conditions on the mathematical model—and outputs results in a machine or
human-readable format, depending upon the implementation.

Modelling and simulation help reduce costs, increase the quality of products and systems, and document and archive lessons learned. Because the
results of a simulation are only as good as the underlying model(s), engineers, operators, and analysts must pay particular attention to its construction.
To ensure that the results of the simulation are applicable to the real world, the user must understand the assumptions, conceptualisations, and
constraints of its implementation. Additionally, models may be updated and improved using the results of actual experiments.

18
The use of such mathematical models and simulations avoids actual experimentation (prototypes), which can be costly and time-consuming. Instead,
mathematical knowledge and computational power are used to solve real-world problems cheaply and in a time-efficient manner. As such, modelling
and simulation can facilitate understanding a system’s behaviour without actually testing the system in the real world. In addition, simulation can
support experimentation that occurs totally in software or in human-in-the-loop environments where simulation represents systems or generates data
needed to meet experiment objectives. Furthermore, simulation can be used to train persons using a virtual environment that would otherwise be
difficult or expensive to produce (Modeling and Simulation - Wikipedia, n.d.).

19
3. Approach and Methodology
The general configuration of the electric vehicle, as depicted in Figure 3.1, consists of three major subsystems: Energy Storage, Electric
Propulsion, and Auxiliary. The Electric Propulsion comprises the electronic controller, power converter, electric motor, mechanical transmission
and driving wheels. The Energy Storage subsystem involves the energy storage device (battery, supercapacitor, or the flywheel), energy management
unit and charging unit. The Auxiliary consists of the power steering unit, temperature control unit and auxiliary power supply. The electrical link is
represented by thick arrows, and the control link by thin arrows. Based on the control inputs from the brake and accelerator pedals, the electronic
controller provides proper control signals to switch on or off the power devices of the power converter, which functions to regulate power flow
between the electric motor and energy storage device. The energy management unit cooperates with the electronic controller to control regenerative
braking and its energy recovery. It also works with the charging unit to control charging and monitor the usability of the energy storage device. The
Auxiliary power supply provides the necessary power with different voltage levels for all EV auxiliaries, especially the temperature control and
power steering units. The steering wheel is another crucial control input. Based on its angular position, the power steering unit can determine how
sharply the vehicle should turn (Chau, 2014).

Figure 3.1

General Electric Vehicle system configuration

Note: General EV system configuration. Reprinted from Pure electric vehicles. In “Alternative Fuels and Advanced Vehicle Technologies for
Improved Environmental Performance: Towards Zero Carbon Transportation” (p. 672), by Chau, K. T. (2014), Elsevier Inc. Copyright 2014 by the
Elsevier Inc. Reprinted with permission.

The use of modelling software is an essential part of modelling and simulation. MATLAB/Simulink would be used to analyse an electric vehicle’s
performance and range.

The methodology to be implemented involves breaking down the electric vehicle system into subsystems, analysing/testing the subsystems, and
considering the whole system’s operation.

20
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