CHAPTER 1

GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 An overview of computers
1.2 Computer Arithmetic
1.3 Data representation
1.4 Computer System
1.4.1 Hardware
1.4.2 Software
1.4.3 Human ware

1.1 An Overview of Computers

1.1.1 Computers: Mind Tools
Computers have been called “mind tools” because they enhance our ability to perform tasks that
require mental effort. Computers are adept at performing activities such as making calculations
quickly, sorting large lists, and searching through vast information libraries. Human can do all
these activities, but a computer can often accomplish them much more rapidly and more accurately.
Our ability to use a computer complements our mental capabilities and may make us more
productive. The key to making effective use of the computer as a tool is to know what a computer
does, how it works, and how you can use it.

A computer system typically include a computer, peripheral devices, and software. The electronic
and mechanical devices that manipulate data are known as hardware. The term “hardware” refers
to the computer itself and components called peripheral devices that expand the computer’s input,
output, and storage capabilities. Computer hardware in and of itself does not provide a particularly
useful mind tool. To be useful, a computer requires a computer program or software, which is a set
of instructions that tells a computer how to perform a particular task. Computers can become even
more effective when connected to other computers so that people can share information.

1.1.2 Definition of computer

A Computer can be thought of as an electronic device that is capable of doing the following tasks:

 Accept data in some prescribed form as an input

 Process the data according to pre-established instructions or procedures

 Provide the desired information in a suitable output format and medium.

 Store data, instruction, and information (processed data) for further and future use.

A computer accepts input: Examples of the kinds of input a computer can process include the
words and symbols in a document, numbers for a calculation, pictures, audio signals from a
microphone, and instructions for completing a process.

A computer processes data: Data refers to the symbols that represent facts and ideas. Computer
manipulate data in many ways, and we call this manipulation “ processing”. Some of the ways that
a computer can process data include performing calculations, sorting list of words or numbers, etc.

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In the context of computers, then, we can define a process as a systematic series of actions that a
computer uses to manipulate data. A computer process data in a device called the central
processing unit (CPU) which we will see in more detail later.

A computer stores data: A computer must store data so that it will be available for processing.
Computer typically have more than one location for storing data, depending on how the data is
being used. The computer puts data in one place while it is waiting to be processed and in another
place when it is not needed for immediate processing. Memory is an area of a computer that holds
data that is waiting to be processed. Storage is the area where data can be left on a permanent basis
while it is not needed for processing.

A Computer produces output: Computer out put is the results produced by a computer. The
word “output” is also a verb that means the process of producing output. Some examples a
computer output include reports, documents, music, graph, and pictures. An output device displays,
prints or transmits the result of processing.

Research is also being conducted that would replace the keyboard with a means of using voice or
handwriting for input. Currently these types of input are imprecise because people pronounce and
write words very differently, making it difficult for a computer to recognize the same input from
different users. However, advances in this field have led to systems that can recognize a small
number of words spoken by a variety of people. In addition, software has been developed that can
be taught to recognize an individual's handwriting

1.1.3 Characteristics Of Computer

The characteristics of a computer shows the capability and the potential of the computer for
processing data. This saves time, space, money, labour etc.

Some of the basic characteristics of computer are:-

 Speed
The most important characteristic of a computer is its speed. Computer works only one
step at a time.
It’s speed is measured by the amount of time it took to perform or carry out a basic
operation. Computer speed measured in terms of micro second (10 -6 one millionths),
nano second (10-9 one billionths), and pico second (10-12 one trillionths).

 Storage
A computer can store large amount of information in a few numbers of disks. And the
time it took to retrieve or process a single information is not more than a micro or a
nano seconds. In general a computer has a capacity to store a very large amount of
information in organised manner so that accessing information is very fast.

Note:
 Computer is efficient because it can store large amount of information within a
limited space in a very organized manner
 Computer is fast because it can access the stored information in a fraction of a
second

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 Accuracy

Now a days computers are being used for surgical purposes which needs almost
hundred percent accuracy. From this we can understand that computer is accurate and
consistent. Unless there is an error in the input data or unreliable program the computer
processes with a very accurate.
 Automatic
Once necessary information and program is feed to the computer, it performs
processing without human intervention.

 Diligence
A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for hours
without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will
perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers
human being in routine type of work.

 Versatility
It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management
or to prepare electric bills.

1.1.4 Limitations of computers

 No IQ
Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user. It
performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you
want to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can.
Hence computers do not think.

 No Feeling
It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does not get
tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.

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  Computers are not self-directing machines:

They can not instruct themselves & they are not independent machines.
Once computers are fed the desired instruction, they can perform what they have been
ordered.
 Computer can not sympathize (feel sorry for)
 Computer can not do by trial and error

1.1.5 Applications of computers

Why we use Computers?
The following are some of the capabilities and potential of Computers, which are reasons
for using Computers.

• Today computers are used almost in any field

• Medicine
– Patient monitoring, diagnosis, controlling parameters etc
• Learning
– Digital libraries, learning tools, etc
• Engineering
– Better drawing, automated manufacturing plants
• Entertainment
– Music composition, movie animations, games
• Data Processing and Data Management:
– E.g. census analysis, weather forecasting
• Operations Control in Real time systems
– E.g. rocket guidance, Production control, booking
• Communication
– Internet, telephone
• Routine tasks of repetitive nature
– Report generation
– Maintenance of accounts
– Letter writing
– Payroll and inventory controls etc

1.2 Computer Arithmetic

This topic deals with the various number systems which are vital for the representation and
manipulation of data in digital computers. We use a decimal number system for our day-
to-day activities. But computers understand only 0’s and 1’s - the machine language. But
using 0’s and 1’s to program a computer is a thing in the past. Now we can use the decimal
numbers. The alphabets and special characters like +,-, (,*/ etc. for programming the
computer. Inside the computer, these decimal numbers, alphabets and special characters are
converted into 0’s and 1’s, so the computer can understand what we are instructing it to do.

Note: A number system is a code that uses Symbols to refer to a number of items.
A number system of base/radix r is a system that uses distinct symbols for r digits.

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NUMBER SYSTEM USED TO UNDERSTAND THE
WORKING OF A COMPUTER (DECIMAL, BINARY,
OCTAL AND HEXADECIMAL NUMBER SYSTEM)
There are four number system which are often used in Digital Electronics.
S/N Number System Symbols used to represent numbers
1 Decimal Number System (BASE 10) 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9
2 Binary Number System (BASE 2) 0,1
3 Octal Number System (BASE 8) 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
4 Hexadecimal Number System (BASE 16) 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,A,B,C,D,E,F

 in digital circuit the binary number system plays a great role. this is because, a digital
circuit has two states, HIGH and LOW. Hence it can represent the two digits of the
binary number system 0 and 1.
 A single binary digit is called a BIT (shortened from Binary digIT). The binary
number (101101) therefore has 6 bits

Note: given n bits, 2n unique combinations will exist. The byte is an important unit of
digital information.

Note:

1 kilobyte (KB) is approximately 1000 bytes. It is exactly 1024 bytes. This is because
computers use binary number system rather than the decimal system. 1024=210

1 Megabyte = 1024 bytes x 1024 bytes

=1048576 bytes
=1024 Kbytes
Similarly 1 Gigabyte = 1024 bytes x 1024 bytes x 1024 bytes
= 1,073,741,824 bytes
= 1024 Mbytes
 Unlike computers, peoples find binary numbers that consist of long strings of zeros and
ones difficult to read, so most programmers use hexadecimal (base-16) or octal
(base-8) number system instead.

CONVERSION OF BASES/RADIX
I. to convert a number form base r to base 10 (DEC)

Algorithm 1
1. get the place value of each digit
2. find the sum of the place values

Examples:
Convert:

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 a. (10100.111)Bin to ( )Dec
b. (4536.774)Oct to ( )Dec
c. (15DCA.BDA)Hex to ( ) Dec

II. To convert a number from base 10 to base r

Algorithm 2
1. Separate the number into it’s integer and fraction part
2. Divide the integer part successively by r and accumulate the remainders bottom up
3. Multiply the fraction successively by r and accumulate the integer digits top down

Examples:
(41)Dec to ( )Bin
(69.28)Dec to ( )Bin
(0.513)Dec to ( )oct
(7562)Dec to ( )Hex
NOTE: Algorithm is a problem-solving procedure (i.e. A logical step-by-step procedure
for solving a certain problem in a finite number of steps.
Conversion Table

Decimal Binary Octal Hexadecimal

0 0000 0 0
1 0001 1 1
2 0010 2 2
3 0011 3 3
4 0100 4 4
5 0101 5 5
6 0110 6 6
7 0111 7 7
8 1000 10 8
9 1001 11 9
10 1010 12 A
11 1011 13 B
12 1100 14 C
13 1101 15 D
14 1110 16 E
15 1111 17 F

The conversion from and to binary, octal, and hexadecimal plays an important role in
digital computers. Since 23 = 8, and 24 = 16

 Each octal digit corresponds three binary digits

 Each hexadecimal digit corresponds to four binary digits

Binary to Octal conversion (Bin2oct)

Example: (10 110 001 101 011.111 100 000 110)Bin = (26153.7406)Oct
 
Octal to binary conversion (Oct2bin)
 

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 Example: (26153.7406)Oct to ( )Bin
 
Binary to hexadecimal conversion (Bin2hex)
 
Example: (10 1100 0110 1011 . 1111 0010)Bin = ( 2C6B.F2)Hex
 
Hexadecimal to binary conversion (Hex2bin)
Example: ( 2C6B.F2)Hex to ( )Bin

1.3 Data Representation

Data in a computer system is represented by a flow of an electric current through a circuit. The
presence (on) or absence (off) of this current is interpreted as 1 and 0. Any data that is manipulated
or stored in a computer is treated as a combination of 0 and 1. This is called a binary system as
only two digits (0 and 1) are used.

1.3.1 Units Of Data Representation

 When data is stored, processed or communicated within the computer system, it is packed
in units;
 Arranged from the smallest to the largest, the units are called bit, byte and word;
 These units are based on the binary number system;
BIT
 Bit (derived from binary digit) is the basic unit of data storage
 Bits are the smallest units and can convey only two possible states 0 or 1;
 In the computer “ON” is represented by the existence of current and “OFF” is represented
by the non existence of current
 On a magnetic disk, the same information is stored by changing the polarity or magnetised
particles on the disk’s surface;

BYTE
 Bits can be organised into large units to make them represent more and meaningful
information;
 This large unit is called a byte and is the basic “unit of data representation” in a computer
system;
 The commonly used byte contains 8 bits;
 Since each bit has two states and there are 8 bits in a byte, the total amount of data that can
be represented is 28 or 256 possible combinations;
 Each byte can represent a character(a character is either a letter, a number or a special
symbol such as +,-,?,*, $, etc
 A byte is then used as a unit of measurement in the computer memory, processing unit,
external storage and during communication;
 In order to expand the measuring capacity of byte we use prefixes listed below

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  Kilo (K) ≈ 10 3
= 1 Thousand
 Mega (M) ≈ 10 6
=1 Million
 Giga (G) ≈ 10 9
= 1 Billion
 Tera (T) ≈ 10 12
= 1 Trillion
 Peta (P) ≈ 10 15
= 1 Quadrillion

Note: 1 KB = 1024 = 210

 1 KB = 210 bytes
 1 MB = 220 bytes
 1 GB =230 bytes
 1 TB = 240 bytes
 1 PB = 250 bytes

Example :

4MB is approximately equal to ( ≈) 4 X106 bytes

4MB is exactly equal to ( = ) 4 X2 bytes
20

WORD

 Word refers the number of bits that a computer process at a time or a transmission media
transmits at a time
 Although bytes can store or transmit information, the process can even be faster if more
than one byte is processed at a once;
 A combination of bytes, then form a “word”
 A word can contain one, two, three or four bytes based on the capacity of the computer;
 Word length is usually given in bits
 We say that a computer is an 8-bits, a 16 bit, a 32 bit or a 64 bit computer to indicate that
the amount of data it can process at a time;
 The large the word length a computer has the more powerful and faster it is.

1.3.2 Data Representation Standards

The number of characters that can be represented using the binary system in a computer system is
dependent on the number of digits (bits) used for representing a single character.
Various countries or organisations have adopted different data representation standards at different
times. For example the ASCII standard is discussed below.

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  American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) ASCII standard is a
coding method that has been adopted in USA for data communication.
 Microcomputers using 8-bit word length use 7-bits to represent the basic code.
 The 8th bit can be permanently 1 or 0
 with 7 bits up to 128 (27 )characters can be coded
COMPACT REFERENCE TO THE ASCII CODE

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 1.4 Computer System
A computer system is the integration of
1) Data
2) Hardware
3) Software
4) Human ware

Through the interaction of the entire component, a computer system is used to accept input from
users, to process the input data, and finally to generate output that will be used by the user.

1. Data
WHAT IS DATA?

Text, numbers, sound (audio), graphics (images), and video that describe people, events, things,
ideas etc

Unprocessedà Text , numbers, sound (audio), graphics (images), and video

WHAT IS INFORMATION ?

Text, numbers, sound (audio), graphics (images), and video used as the basis for human action or
decisions.

Processedà Text , numbers, sound (audio), graphics (images), and video

2. Hardware
Hardware is the general term for the physical devices that carry out the activities of
capturing, processing, storing, and communicating data and information.

The hardware of a computer system is categorized into six parts.

These are:
1. Input unit/Devices
2. Output unit/Devices
3. Central processing Unit
4. Memory unit (primary Storage)
5. Secondary Storage Unit
6. Communication hardware

The following figure shows block diagram representation of the microcomputer system

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a. Input unit/ Devices

Input devices are the physical components that the user uses to capture and enter data and
instructions into the computer system. Input devices translate user data and instructions into a form
that the computer can understand. There are several types of input devices.
 Keyboard – usually for character input
 Pointing devices
o Mouse, trackball, touchpad, touch screen, light pen, joystick –usually for
instruction input
 Reading devices
o Scanner (for graphic input), OCR reader, barcode reader
 Sound, image and video input devices
o Microphone, Digital Video Camera, Digital Video Camera, Web Cam

b. Output Devices

Output devices are the components that are used to present the processed output or information in a
form that is communicable to the user.
The most common output types are:
 Display Devices
 Display devices are the components that are used to generate output (texts,
graphics and video output) in a visual form.
o Examples of display devices include

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  Ordinary CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) screens that look like ordinary TV
screens
 LCD (Liquid Crystal Displays) flat screen such as those used with laptop
computers.
 Plasma Screens
 Data and video projectors
 Printer
o Device that is used to generate hard copy – printed-paper materials. Printers can be
categorised depending on:
 How images are made (impact and non-impact printers)
 Impact printers are those that make physical contact with the paper,
like traditional typewriter. Dot Matrix printer is an example of
impact printer.
 Non-impact printers use a different technology (without physical
contact with the paper) to produce prints on hardcopy. Inkjet and
Laser printers are example of non-impact printers.
 Speaker
o Speakers are used to generate sound output

C. Central processing Unit

The CPU is the core component of the computer system where the major task of processing data
(converting data into information is carried out). .

Central Processing Unit – (CPU) of a computer is the brain of the computer that actually converts
data into information. It manages and controls the overall functionality of the computer and is a
measure of the computing power of the computer system.
The main components of the processing unit are:

 Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

o Performs the mathematical (addition, subtraction, division and multiplication),
comparison (greater than, less than, equal), and logical (and, or, not) operation.

 Control unit
o Responsible for directing the system to carryout various internal tasks, such
interpreting and executing program instructions
o Controls the electronic flow of information, fetching and storing data and
instruction from/to registers and memory
 Registers
o Under the direction of the control unit, registers are the high-speed storage area
used by the CPU. They are used to temporarily store data and instruction that
relate to the process being executed.

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Usually computer speed is measured using the system clock speed expressed in the number of clock
ticks per second. Clock speed is expressed in megahertz or gigahertz (one million or billion clock
ticks per second). The speed of system clock determines the speed at which the processor executes
instructions. Other things being equal, computer speed increases with increase in clock speed.
Today’s personal computers have clock speed greater than 2.0 GHz, which is still increasing.

d. Memory unit (primary Storage)

Memory is an internal primary data storage device that is used by the computer system in start-up
and during operation. As the CPU cannot process data directly from input device or secondary
storage devices, data and instructions have to be loaded to the internal memory before the CPU can
process them. Internal memory stores:
 Whole or part of the program under execution
 Data that is being processed
 Operating system that is used to manage the operation of the computer

There are two major types of memory, Read Only Memory (ROM) and Random Access Memory
(RAM).

 ROM is a read-only memory that provides start-up instruction when the computer starts.
Information stored in ROM is written only once by the manufacture and cannot be changed
by the user.
In general:
 ROM is memory that cannot be changed.
 It can be read, but not modified in any way other than replacing the memory chips
themselves.
 ROM is used in situations where information must be saved and not altered. 
 The primary use of ROM in the computer is during the boot process.
 The ROM on the computer's motherboard contains instructions that tell the machine how
to execute the "boot process".
 ROM is not volatile; data stored there are kept permanently.

 RAM is a temporary volatile memory space used to store data and instructions by the
computer while performing operations. Data stored in RAM exists as long as power is on.
When a computer is turned-off, all the data stored in RAM is flashed forever. Having a
large RAM size increases the processing power of the computer as more powerful
instructions can be run.

The performance of memory is by the amount of bits it can store and speed at which data can be
accessed from the memory.
 The storage capacity is often expressed in MB (megabytes). Today’s personal computer
memory can store hundreds of megabytes.

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  The speed at which data is accessed is measured as a fraction of a second, often in
nanoseconds (one-billionth of a second).
In General:
 RAM is where data and instructions are temporarily stored while waiting to be processed.
 It is also where results of execution are stored. 
 It is where instructions and data are stored before being executed, and where the results are
placed after execution.
 RAM is volatile; data stored there are not kept permanently. When the data are executed,
they move from the CPU back to RAM, and then are sent to the designated output device.
If power to RAM is lost, so is the data contained there: nothing in RAM is permanently
stored. 

e. Secondary Storage unit/devices

Secondary storage devices are internal or external storage devices that are used to store programs
and user data for later access.
Why Secondary Storage?
 Convenience – data store on a secondary storage can be accessed at a latter time, unlike
primary storage which stores data temporarily
 Economical – secondary storage media is less expensive and hence users can store vast
amount data that can be accessed at a latter stage
 Reliability – Data on a secondary storage is usually physically safe

There are different types of secondary storage devices. The most common storage devices are
discussed below.

a) Magnetic Storage Devices

Storage devices coated with a magnetic material that can be electrically influenced to hold
information recorded in digital (binary) form. Examples are given below

Floppy Disk
A storage medium that is made from a disk of flexible plastic (the "floppy" part) covered
with a magnetic material. The floppy disk is many decades old. The standard floppy disk
can hold 1.44MB of data and has 3.5 inch diameter. Floppy disks are slow, unreliable and
can hold much less data than the other storage devices.

Hard Disk
A hard disk contains both the disk and the drive (the slot) that is used to read and write data
on the disk. A hard disk uses rigid turning disks to store data and programs. They have

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read/write heads which can read data from the hard disk and write data to the hard disk.
The hard disk drive is sealed. This protects the hard disk drive internals from dust,
condensation, and other sources of contamination. Hard disks can store much more data
than floppy disks, and access and transmit it faster. Currently an average hard disk can store
60 to 80 GB of data. For both hard disks and floppy disks, data is stored on the surface in
sectors and tracks.
Magnetic Tape
A tape drive, also known as a streamer, is a device that reads data from and writes data to a
magnetic tape. It is typically used for archiving or backing up of data stored on hard disks.
Magnetic tapes are long lasting and inexpensive storage media.

Magnetic tapes are made of thin plastic material coated with magnetic coding. Magnetic tapes look
like an audiocassette, but are used to store data.
o Data is expressed in terms of density, the number of (bytes) or characters per inch
o Usually can store very large amount of data – tape cartridges can store giga bytes and
tetra bytes
o Sequential data storage and access
o Very slow read/write operation
 Example of magnetic tape include backup Tape Cartridge
 Reel-to-reel magnetic tape is commonly used to store information (backup)

b) Optical Storage Devices

Optical storage is a newer storage technology using a high-power laser beam to burn small
holes in a disk's surface coating. Data is represented by the presence and absence of holes
in the disk’s surface.
Optical media are more durable than tape and less vulnerable to environmental conditions.
On the other hand, they tend to be slower than typical hard disks, and hold less data.
Compact Disk (CD)

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A compact disc (CD) is an optical disk used to store digital data.
It was originally developed for storing digital audio.
Types of CDs
The different types of CDs include: CD-ROM, CD-R, and CD-RW:
CD-ROM (Compact Disc – Read Only Memory): is a version of the CD that allows the
information to be stored so that the user can only read from the disks. Once data is recorded
on a CD-ROM, new data cannot be stored and the disc cannot be erased.
Although CD-ROMs look like music discs, they can only be used with a computer
equipped with a CD-ROM drive.
CD-R (Compact Disc - Recordable): refers to compact disks that can be recorded only
once, but read many times. If the recorded content is no longer wanted, additional material
can be recorded only on the remaining space on the disk. The disks themselves are
constructed differently from ordinary CDs.
CD-RW (Compact Disc - Rewritable): is an extension of CD-R whereby you can rewrite
data or audio to the same CD many times. Not all CD drives can read CDRWs.
Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
DVD is an optical disc storage media that can be used for storing data, including movies
with high video and sound quality. DVDs resemble CD: their physical dimensions are the
same – 12 cm or the mini 8cm - but they are encoded in a different format. This enables
DVDs to store more data than that of CDs. A typical DVD can often hold more data than 6
CDs. DVDs can store an entire movie, or several hours of audio.
Common Types of DVDs
DVD-ROM: These DVDs are read-only disks. They are accessed using a special DVD
drive attached to a personal computer. They are often used for movies (which are more
specifically referred to as DVD-Video) and computer games.
DVD-R: It offers a write-once, read-many time’s storage format similar to CDR, but can
hold more information than a CD-R.
DVD-RW: A Rewritable DVD format similar to CD-RW.

c. Flash disk/memory
Sometimes called (data traveller)/USB Flash/disk-on-key. It is a very
convenient secondary storage device. It is pproduced from flash memory chips

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Note: Data and instructions are moved around inside the computer by means of a bus. The bus
carries the data between RAM and the CPU as well as within the CPU itself. 

d. Microfilm and Microfiche

 Store microscopic images of documents on roll or sheet of film
 Images recorded using computer output microfilm recorder

Microfilm — 100- to Microfiche — small

215-foot roll of film sheet of film, usually 4”
 6”

The picture below shows computer output microfilm recorder and rolled microfilm

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 Storage media Life Expectancies

f. Communication hardware

The hardware used for communication purposes.

Example: Network interface card, modem, router, switch etc.

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 3. Software

Computer software
Software is a term for computer programs. A program is a set of instructions that enables a
computer to operate or instructions that tell the computer how to perform a specific task.
Computer software has two major categories:
 System software
 Application software

Systems software
Systems software includes the computer's basic operating system and language software.
The term also usually covers any software used to manage the computer and the network.
Thus we can say that systems software includes operating systems, device drivers,
programming tools, utilities and more.
Operating Systems

Operating System or Operating software is a program or a set of programs that

serves as an Interface between the users, application programs and the hardware
of a computer system.

Operating System (OS) is the basic software that controls a computer. It

coordinates and manipulates computer hardware, such as computer memory,
printers, disks, keyboard, mouse, and monitor; it organizes files on a variety of
storage media, such as floppy disk, hard drive, compact disc, digital video disc,
and tape; and it manages hardware errors and the loss of data.

Operating systems control different computer processes, such as running a

spreadsheet program or accessing information from the computer's memory .

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NOTE: In the absence of an operating system a computer equipment will be there
with out doing nothing

Functions of operating system

Operating system has several functions. Some of the major operating system functions are
discussed below.

I. For Initial set up of the computer

II. Checking and managing of the hardware (peripherals, disk drives, memory...)

III. Primary Memory Management

Memory management is the process of allocating memory to different application. In memory
management, the operating system is responsible for:
 Keeping track of memory:- the operating system keeps record of the memory usage,
including which areas are in use by whom and which areas are available
 Deciding which programs to load to memory: – The operating system decides which
programs or data to load by allocating and de-allocating memory space to programs
 Keeping track of each application separately in memory and preventing the programs from
mixing each other.

IV. Secondary storage Management

The operating system is responsible for the management of the secondary data storage devices, such
as magnetic tapes and disks, optical disks.
The main function under this area includes:
 Supplies all the necessary disk information, such as disk capacity, the
space occupied by data and programs, the damaged area in the disk,
formatting a disk and informing the available free space on a disk.

 Provide tools for efficient use of the secondary storage media–such as disk
defragmentation, scandisk, cleanup disk, and backup

V. File Management
Data stored in any storage device are stored as files, regardless of the different characteristics and
physical organisation of the storage devices. The operating system provides a simpler standard
logical view of the files stored in the storage devices.
The operating system also provides different routines for the management of files including:
 Creation and deletion of files and folders
 Manipulation of files and folders – copying, renaming, deleting, printing
 Backing up files on permanent storage devices

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 VI. It provides language for users

Examples of operating system software: Unix, Windows 95/98/2000/me/xp, MS-DOS

Windows NT, PASCAL P6, PC-DOS etc.

Types of operating system

Several factors can be considered in classifying operating system. Few of factors to consider
include:
1. Based on the interface provided by the operating system
o Command line Interface (CLI) - users have to enter instruction one by one using
the keyboard.
 Example: Microsoft Disk Operating System – MS-DOS

o Graphical User Interface (GUI) – these operating systems offer an easy to use
graphical interface where users can use mouse to enter instruction to the system.
With a GUI, a computer user can easily execute commands by clicking on
pictures, words, or icons with a pointing device known as a mouse

 Example: Windows 95, 98, 2000…, Unix

Note: GUI OS generally have the disadvantage of requiring more hardware—such as faster CPUs,
more memory, and higher-quality monitors—than do CLI operating systems .

2. Based on the process that they can run at a time

I. Single-tasking OS

The more primitive single-tasking operating systems can run only one process at a time. For
instance, when the computer is printing a document, it cannot start another process or respond to
new commands until the printing is completed.

II. Multi-tasking OS

All modern operating systems are multitasking and can run several processes simultaneously. In

most computers, however, there is only one central processing unit (CPU; the computational and
control unit of the computer), so a multitasking OS creates the illusion of several processes running
simultaneously on the CPU. The most common mechanism used to create this illusion is time-slice
multitasking, whereby each process is run individually for a fixed period of time. If the process is
not completed within the allotted time, it is suspended and another process is run. The processes
appear to run simultaneously because the user's sense of time is much slower than the processing
speed of the computer.

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Multi-tasking OS can use a technique known as virtual memory to run processes that require more
main memory than is actually available. To implement this technique, space on the hard drive is
used to mimic the extra memory needed. Accessing the hard drive is more time-consuming than
accessing main memory, however, so performance of the computer slows.

Working on MS-Windows xx/xxxx environment

In this course, Windows 2000 Professional/Windows XP will be used to demonstrate the practical
application of operating systems.
Windows 2000 professional/ Windows XP is a user-friendly desktop operating system that provides
a graphical user interface. Below is the desktop environment of a typical Windows 2000.

Desktop

Icons

Taskbar

 Desktop – is the front area of the computer that provides working area for users
 Icon - icons are the shortcuts that may be found on the desktop pointing to files and
folder. Some of icons that are found on a typical desktop are: My Computer, Recycle
Bin

Starting Programs
To launch an application or run program:
 Click on the start button on the bottom left corner.

To access recently accessed files

To Configure computer and printer

For searching files and folders

To access help files on windows

Start Button

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  Point to (move the mouse pointer to) Programs – a list of programs (or group of
programs) that are in the computer will be displayed
 Click on the program name to launch the application

Minimising, Maximizing, Closing Programs

The following buttons are available on the top right corner of a running application.
 Click on the Minimize button to minimize a window. Minimised programs are
accessible from the taskbar.
 Click on the restoring button to restore down or maximize a window.
 Click on the close button to close a running application

Shutting down the Computer

It is very important to shut down computers properly as inappropriate shutdown mechanisms can
corrupt operating system files.
Example: for Windows 2000 professional

 Click on the start button on the bottom left cornet using your mouse
 Click on the shutdown/turn off computer icon at the bottom of the list
 Make sure to select the shutdown option from the choices provided
 Click Ok to confirm the shutdown process.
Using desktop
The desktop contains several icons that are shortcuts to different programs. For Windows 2000
professional the following are few of the default icons.

Mydocuments: a shortcut to the Mydocuments folder that is used as a default

to store user files (documents)
MyComputer: gives access to the overall resources of the computer,
including shortcut to all the storage device available and to that vital operating
system programs, such as the Control Panel
Network Neighbourhood: required to view/access the resource that are
available in the network.
Recycle bin: a trash bin used as a storage area for deleted files. Deleted files
can be restored from the recycle bin to their original location. A files is
completely removed from the computer when it is deleted from the recycle
bin.
Internet Explorer: an application program shortcut for launching a browser to
access resources on the internet.

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Organising files

My Computer
My computer gives an easy to work environment. Few of the operations that can be performed
from the My Computers window are:
 Create files and folders
 View files and folders
 Manipulate files – open, copy, delete
The following windows is displayedwhen you double-click on the My Computer icon on the
desktop.

Menu bar

Tool bar

Click on icon… To view the contents

Working with files and folders

To create a folder
 Open My computer
 Double-click on the disk drive or folder in which you want to create a folder
 Click on the file menu on the top left corner of the My computer window and select New
Folder
 Write the folder name on the space provided
 Press Enter on the keyboard
Copying and Moving
 Open My computer
 Double-click on the folder to locate the file/folder which you want to copy or move to
another location
 Select the file/folder by clicking on it only once
 Click on Edit on the menu bar and
o Click on Copy – to copy the file or folder
o Click on Cut – to Move the files or folder
 Double Click on the destination folder where you want to put the file or folder
 Click on Edit on the menu bar and click Paste

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Deleting files and folders
 Open My computer
 Double-click on folder to locate the file which you want to delete
 Click on File on the menu, and click on Delete from the menu choice
 Click OK to confirm the deletion of the file or folder
NB. Do not delete files from the computer that are not created by you
Exercise
1. Create a folder named Sales on the root D:\ Drive
2. Create two new sub folders named Products and Services with in the Sales folder
created in question 1 above
3. Create a new text file named test1 within the Products folder
4. Copy the file test1 from Products to the Services sub folder
5. Delete the original file test1 from the Products sub folder
Elements of windows
Observe these elements practically.

1. Work Area
2. Scroll Box (Thumb)
3. Windows Border
4. Scroll Bar
5. Scroll Arrows
6. Windows Corner
7. Control Menu Icon

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 8. Title Bar
9. Menu Bar
10. Tool Bar
11. Minimize Button
12. Restore/Maximize Button
13. Close Button
14. Status Bar

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

are the mediums used by human beings to communicate their instruction to computers.
PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES are also classified as
Machine Languages
Low Level Languages
High Level Languages
Examples of programming languages:
FORTRAN, COBOL, PL/one, BASIC,FOCUS, NOMAD,PASCAL,C,C+, etc ....
SYSTEM SOFTWARE

Application Software
Application software is a set of computer programs (instruction) that are developed to address the
user needs to perform specific function or solve specific problems. Some of the major application
software categories are discussed below:
 Word Processing – such application are used for processing and manipulating text-based
data, such as writing documents.
o Example: Microsoft Word
 Spreadsheet - such applications are built-in with various routines that are used for
processing numerical data. Applications that fall in this category are often used in
financial, statistical, mathematical problem solving.
o Example: Microsoft Excel, SPSS, PeachTree
 Data Management – These applications provide a structured system to manage data that
enable to store, retrieve, and manipulate data.
o Microsoft Access, Paradox, Oracle, Sybase
 Desktop Publishing - these applications are similar to word processors providing a powerful
sophisticated routines for creating publications, such as high quality newsletters,
advertising and marketing materials.
o Example: Microsoft Publisher, Quark Express
 Graphics – such software are used in creating, storing, analysing, displaying, printing of
charts, graphs, maps, design drawings. Examples of graphics applications are:
o Presentation software
o CAD (computer Aided Design) – such as AutoCAD
 Multimedia – multimedia applications are used for processing audio, animation, video,
graphics and images.

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 4.Human ware
Information technology professional are responsible for acquiring, developing, maintain or
operating the hardware and software associated with computers and communication networks. The
following IT professionals have the highest profile:
IT PROFESSIONAL DUTY
Programmers use programming languages to create computer and
(software Engineer) communications network software

Systems Analysts work with users to determine the requirements an application

must meet. As part of their job, they may specify the purchase
of software package that gets the job done or order the
development of custom software.
Project Managers coordinate the development of a project and manage the team of
programmer/analysts
Network Specialists design, operate, and manage computer communications
networks
Trainers work with end-users, helping them to become comfortable and
skilled in using hardware or software
Computer Operators oversee the operations of computers in data centre sometimes
called computer centres(facilities at which large and midrange
computers systems are located). These systems are shared by
many users who are interconnected with the system through
communications links. Computer operators also perform
support activities, such starting application, loading magnetic
tape, and anything else that will ensure the smooth operation of
computer facilities.
Computer Engineer the IT professionals who design, develop and oversee the
manufacturing of computer equipment
Systems Engineers The IT professionals who install and maintain hardware.

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