INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS THEORIES

❖ Realism

Realism is the first key perspective from which some theories approach the study of international
politics. The factors on which realists focus most attention are the state and the international
system. For most realists, states are unitary actors that rationally pursue their own national
interests when they act within an anarchic international system.

➢ Definition

• According to "International Relations Theories" by Tim Dunne - a paradigm or

perspective on international politics that explains the behaviour of states in terms of
the pursuit of power and national interest in a world of anarchy.
• According to "Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace" by Hans
Morgenthau – realism is a way of thinking about international politics that stresses its
competitive and conflictual nature.
• According to "Realism and International Relations" edited by Michael Clarke - realism
is an approach to international relations that prioritizes the importance of the state, its
national interests, and the use of power to achieve those interests"

All of these definitions shared the central idea that realism is a pragmatic approach to foreign
policy, emphasizing national self-interest and based on the premise that power is the central
factor in IR.
Realist international theory is, primarily, about power and self-interest. The realist power-politics
model of international politics is based on two core assumptions. First, human nature is
characterized by selfishness and greed. Second, as states operate in context of anarchy, they are
forced to rely on self-help and so prioritize security and survival. Realist theory can therefore be
summed up in the equation: egoism plus anarchy equals power politics.

❖ Realism in History

➢ In Thucydides’s History of the Peloponnesian War (400s BCE)

Even though its direct application to international affairs is more recent, realism is the product
of a long historical and philosophical tradition. At least four of the central assumptions of
realism are found as far back in history as Thucydides’s History of the Peloponnesian War,
which was written in the 400s BCE.
First, for Thucydides, the state is the principal actor in war and in politics in general.
Second, the state is assumed to be unitary actor.
Third, states are assumed to be a unitary actor.
Fourth, the states need to protect itself from enemies both foreign and domestic.
 ➢ Realism in the Twentieth and Twenty-First Centuries
In the aftermath of World War Two, Morgenthau wrote the seminal synthesis of realism in
international politics. For Morgenthau, just as for Thucydides, Augustine, and Hobbes,
international politics is best characterized as a struggle for power. In this context, both military
and economic power matter. Economic power can be used for coercion, in and itself, and can
also be translated into military power.

❖ Morgenthau’s Six Principles of Realism

1. International Politics is Governed by objective Laws

Politics is governed by objective laws, based on human nature. Because state governed by
humans. Human nature have some universal trait.

2. National Interest defined in terms of power.

Human universal trait is self-survival. Similarly, states are selfish and pursue about their
national interest. National interest is always gaining power. Through this we can predict
future state actions.

3. National interest is always dynamic.

National interest is always changing according to political and cultural environment. So
the national interest is not permanent.

4. Abstract Moral Principles cannot be applied to International Politics.

There are some abstract moral principles, such as justice, equality, peace etc. Realist are
aware of these moral principles but it can’t be applied to states action, politics. Because
states prefer the national interest to moral principles.

5. Difference between the moral aspiration of a nation and the universal moral
principle.
Behind cloak of moral inspiration states hide their own national interest. Because states
are selfish, They can’t blind other states.
6. The Autonomy of International Politics.
Lastly, political realism stresses that the political sphere is just as autonomous as the
respective spheres of the economist, or the lawyer or the moralist.

❖ Characteristics of Realism in international politics

• State-centric: Realism places the state as the primary actor in international relations.
States are considered as rational and self-interested entities that pursue their national
interests in a competitive and anarchic international system. That’s why in realism
non-state actor is not important.

• Anarchy: Realism assumes that the international system is anarchic, meaning that
there is no central authority or world government to enforce rules or maintain order
among states. This anarchic nature of international relations is seen as a key driver of
conflict and competition among states.

• Balance of power: Realism often emphasizes the importance of the balance of power
among states as a means of maintaining stability and deterring conflict. Sometimes
 states face a security dilemma due to balance of power, where efforts to increase their
own security can often lead to increased insecurity for other states.

• Self-help system: Realism views the international system as a self-help system,

where states must rely on their own resources and capabilities to survive and thrive.
According to this view, there is no higher authority or global governance structure that
can reliably provide security or welfare for states. States are expected to be self-reliant
and take care of their own interests, including their security and well-being.

• Zero-sum game: Realism often views international relations as a zero-sum game,

where gains by one state are perceived as coming at the expense of other states.
According to this view, international relations are characterized by competition and
conflict over finite resources, and any gain by one state is seen as a loss for other
states.

❖ Classical Realism and Neorealism

Classical realism and neorealism are two theories or paradigms within the field of international
relations that seek to explain how states interact with each other in the global system.

Classical Realism: Classical realism, also known as traditional realism or classical

political realism, originated in the works of scholars such as Thucydides, Niccolo Machiavelli,
and Hans Morgenthau. It asserts that states are the primary actors in international relations
and that they are driven by self-interest and the pursuit of power. Classical realists argue that
the international system is inherently anarchic, with no overarching authority to regulate
interactions among states. States are seen as rational actors that prioritize their own survival
and security, and may use military force and diplomacy to achieve their objectives.
Classical realists view power and national interest as central factors in shaping state behaviour,
and they tend to be skeptical of the role of international institutions and norms in influencing
state actions.

Neorealism: Neorealism, also known as structural realism, is a theory of international

relations that emerged in the mid-20th century, most notably associated with scholars such as
Kenneth Waltz. Neorealists argue that states are driven by their relative power positions in the
international system, with the most powerful states seeking to maximize their power and
security.
Unlike classical realism, neorealism tends to downplay the role of human nature and individual
leaders in shaping state behaviour, and instead emphasizes the systemic factors that influence
state interactions. Neorealists also highlight the importance of balancing behaviour, whereby
states seek to align with other states to counterbalance the power of more powerful states and
maintain stability in the international system.
Neorealists also argue that the problem is not in the selfish nature of human but in the
international system. According to Morgenthau, if there is any central authority to maintain
states then there will be stability in international system.

Offensive Realism means, as there is no authority to control the behaviour of states so they are
being too aggressive day by day. And this anarchial system, if any state attack another to think
about their security, it called offensive realism. But there is a problem, The Security Dilemma.
 ❖ Liberalism
Liberalism is a political ideology and philosophy that emphasizes individual freedoms, equality,
and the protection of civil liberties. It is a diverse and complex ideology with different variants
and interpretations.
Definition
➢ According to "The Constitution of Liberty" by Friedrich Hayek - "Liberalism is the belief in
the value of freedom as the fundamental political principle that enables individuals to live
their lives as they choose, within the constraints of a society governed by the rule of law,
and with due recognition of the equal rights of others.

➢ According to the “The Second Treatise of Government" by John Locke - Liberalism is the
doctrine that recognizes individual rights, including life, liberty, and property, as
fundamental and natural rights that pre-exist government, and that the legitimate
purpose of government is to secure and protect these rights.

➢ According to the "On Liberty" by John Stuart Mill - Liberalism is the philosophy that
upholds the principle of individual freedom, which includes the freedom of thought,
speech, action, and the pursuit of one's own happiness, limited only by the harm principle
that prevents one from causing harm to others.

❖ Liberalism in History

The origins of liberal theory are found in eighteenth-century Enlightenment optimism,

nineteenth-century political and economic liberalism, and twentieth-century Wilsonian
idealism.

The writings from the French philosopher Montesquieu (1689-1755), reflect

Enlightenment thinking. He argued that human nature is not defective, but rather,
problems arise as humanity enters civil society and forms separate nations. War is a
product of society, not an attribute inherent in individuals. To overcome defects in society,
education is imperative; it prepares one for civil life.

The writings of Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) form the core of Enlightenment beliefs.
According to Kant, international anarchy can be overcome through a particular kind of
collective action—a federation of republics in which sovereignties would be left intact.

Early-twentieth-century “idealist” theory also contributed to liberalism, finding its greatest

adherent in U.S. president Woodrow Wilson, who authored the covenant of the League of
Nations. The basic proposition of Wilson’s idealism is that war is preventable through the
collective action of states.

❖ Characteristics of Liberalism in International Politics

Rejection of Power Politics: Liberalism promotes the idea that states should engage in
peaceful interactions based on mutual respect, shared interests, and common norms and
rules. It seeks to minimize the use of power disparities or coercion in international relations
and instead advocates for voluntary cooperation and coordination among states.
 Emphasis on individual rights and freedoms: Liberalism places a high value on the
protection of individual rights and freedoms, including civil liberties such as freedom of
speech, religion, and association, as well as political rights such as the right to participate in
free and fair elections. Liberalism promotes the idea that individuals have inherent rights
that should be respected by governments and international actors in their interactions.

Non Zero-Sum Game: Liberalism tends to emphasize the concept of non zero-sum game or
win/win situation and cooperation among individuals and groups, where all parties involved
can benefit. This belief in non-zero-sum games is often linked to the idea of voluntary
exchange and cooperation, where individuals are free to engage in transactions, contracts,
and agreements based on their own self-interest

Limited Government: Liberalism advocates for a limited role of government in people's lives,
emphasizing the importance of a government that is accountable to the people, follows the
rule of law, and protects individual rights and freedoms. It promotes the idea of checks and
balances, separation of powers, and democratic governance.

Free markets and economic liberalism: Liberalism supports free markets and economic
liberalism, which emphasize the importance of private property, market competition, and
voluntary exchange in economic activities. Liberalism promotes the idea of economic freedom,
where individuals and businesses have the autonomy to make their own economic choices
and pursue economic prosperity through open trade and investment.

International cooperation: Liberalism promotes the idea of international cooperation, where

states work together through institutions such as international organizations, treaties, and
agreements to address common challenges and pursue shared goals. Liberalism emphasizes
the benefits of collective action and diplomacy in resolving disputes and promoting peaceful
relations among states.

Neo Liberalism
neoliberalism is an economic and political ideology characterized by a belief in free market
capitalism, globalization and free trade, broader role for government in certain areas such as
infrastructure, education, and healthcare. Neoliberalist says that, states focus not only in
security but also on other issues on which they might share common interest. They care about
absolute gains as well.

➢ Characteristics of Neoliberalism

▪ Neoliberalism values free markets, deregulation, and reduced government intervention

in the economy.
▪ Neoliberalism emphasizes the importance of international institutions and cooperation
among states in addressing global challenges.
▪ Neoliberalism emphasizes the importance of individual freedom and protection of
private property rights.
▪ Neoliberalism promotes economic integration and interdependence among states
through free trade, investment treaties, and economic cooperation.
 ❖ Constructivism
A late-twentieth-century addition to international relations, constructivism explains events in
international politics through a focus on norms and identities— both of individuals and of
states. It has returned international relations scholars to foundational questions, including
the nature of the state itself, how state interests are formed, and the nature of key concepts
such as sovereignty.

➢ Definition

• According to the “Constructivism in International Relations: The Politics of Reality" by Maja

Zehfuss - Constructivism is a theoretical approach that seeks to understand international
relations by examining how ideas, norms, and social structures shape state behaviour,
identity formation, and international interactions. It emphasizes that international relations
are not solely determined by material interests and power dynamics, but also by socially
constructed factors that influence how states perceive and respond to the international
system.

• According to the "Social Theory of International Politics" by Alexander Wendt -Constructivism

is a theoretical perspective that focuses on how shared ideas, norms, and social structures
shape state behaviour and international relations. It emphasizes that states and other actors
in the international system are not solely driven by material interests and power struggles,
but also by non-material factors that influence their perceptions, preferences, and actions.
Constructivism challenges realist and liberal theories by emphasizing the role of ideas,
norms, and socialization in shaping state behaviour and international outcomes.

• According to the "The Power of Identity: The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture"
by Manuel Castells - Constructivism argues that identities are socially constructed and shape
state behaviour and international relations. It emphasizes the role of ideas, values, and
norms in shaping how states define themselves and others. Constructivism challenges
deterministic perspectives by highlighting the agency of actors in shaping social structures
and norms. It underscores the importance of non-material factors in shaping international
relations and understanding the complexities of identity formation in the modern information
age.

➢ How Constructivism works?

International politics is shaped by persuasive ideas, collective values, culture, and social
identities. -Emanuel Kant

According to Constructivism theory, relationship between two states depend on three major
things. And we can also analyse present situation of two states relationship and predict the
future. These three things are –

1. Historical Relationship
Historical relationship between two states is an important factor in shaping their relationship
according to constructivism. Historical experiences, memories, and narratives can influence how
states perceive and interpret each other's actions, and shape their attitudes and behaviour
towards each other.
For example, if two states have a history of conflicts, rivalries, or cooperation, it may impact their
current relationship. Past grievances, unresolved conflicts, or historical mistrust can shape how
states view each other and influence their interactions. On the other hand, if two states have a
history of cooperation, shared experiences, or positive interactions, it may foster mutual
understanding and cooperation in their current relationship. In summary – History defines
international structure.

2. Identities
Constructivism emphasizes that states construct their identities, which can influence their
relationship with other states. Identity refers to a state's perception of itself, its values, beliefs,
and historical experiences. Self-perception refers to how a state views itself in relation to other
states and the broader international system.
For example, if two states share a sense of common identity, cultural affinity, or historical
experience, it may foster a cooperative relationship between them. Common identities can create
a sense of trust, mutual understanding, and cooperation, as states may perceive each other as
similar and share common interests. In summary – Identity defines international structure.

3. Norms and Beliefs

Norms are shared expectations about appropriate behaviour in international relations.
Constructivism argues that norms are socially constructed and can shape state behaviour. The
norms that two states share or contest can shape their relationship.
For example, if two states share norms of respect for international law, human rights, or
environmental protection, it may foster a cooperative relationship between them. Conversely, if
they have conflicting norms or contest each other's norms, it may result in a contentious
relationship. In summary – Peoples defines international structure.
-source: The Anatomy of World Politics by Mohammad Miraj Mia

In summary, according to constructivism, the relationship between two states is defined by the
shared ideas, norms, identities, social interactions, and historical context that shape their
perceptions, interpretations, and behaviour towards each other. It emphasizes the non-material
aspects of international relations and how states construct their relationship through shared
meanings, norms, and social interactions, which can influence their interactions and outcomes.