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65 views60 pagesElectrostatic Fields
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Vishnu RameshCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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2
Electrostatic Fields
2.1, Coulomb’
———
Tt was found experimentally
and the force of repulsion betw
of attract
y that their is a force of attraction between two oppositely charged bodies
’ ‘een two similarly charged bodies. Coulomb in 1887, gave a law for the force
fon or repulsion between two electrically charged bodies separated from each other by a definitie
distance which is known as Coulomb's law afier his name and is given below
The force of attraction of repulsion between two electrie poit is
e , point charges ata fixed distance apart is directly
Proportional to the product of two point charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between them. The direction of the force is always along a straight line joining the point charges.
If q;and q, are the magnitudes of the point charges separated from each other by a distance ry, then the
force acting on charge g; due to charge q, is given by
A)
iy
where Fy is the unit vector directed from q;to qj and 2 is a constant of
proportionality whose numerical value depends upon the medium of
separation between the charges and the units in which various physical
‘quantities are expressed. In M.K.S. system force Fis in Newton, charge q
is in Coulomb and constant lambda is written as
ae
© 4ne
where € is known as the (absolute) permittivity of the medium between the
charges. Thus in M.K.S. system Coulomb’s law may be expressed as
1_4qj»
Fy mee
(2a)
ae 3
If the medium btween the charges is air or vacuum, then & = €, the permittivity of free space and has the
value
€) = 8854% 10" Coul’/N-m.
So Coulomb's law for force on point charge 4, due to point charge.qin free space or air is expressed as ary and Electrodynamics
; Electromagnatic Theory an
(2b)
144,
co ‘and j and every / 10 é It is
script
sary to change every subscript cea
in a work it will provide & technique for keeping
copie sense a point charge is
acre occuring i te problem
Fy
Tf the force on q; is to be found, it is only n
important to understand this Notation, sin
field and source variables,
It may be noted that Coulomb's law applies to point charges, In the mé
ame, ROS SPatial dimensions are very small as compared with any other I tary particles such as
ry small us if elementary Pp
under consideration, Coulomb's law 16 also applicable to the interaction of Peale tis Eenp
rela nd electrons and holds for electrostatic repulsion between nuclei at sree ae
atrelatively smaller distances the short-ranged powerful nuclear fores dominate a ee eet of
If'more than two point charges are present, the mutual forces are detgined by repeated
qn. (2). In particular if a system, of m charges is considered, the force on j" charge is 8
Bh (3)
ER eg £ St
Amey iF) % f
Where the summation is extended over all the charges except the jth one. This is just the eae
Adie arian for forces which simply states thatthe force acting on a point charge is the vector sum of the
individual forces acting on it.
‘The idea of m interacting point charges may be extended to the interaction of a point charge with a
Spalinuous charge distribution. To understand the meaning of a continuous charge distribution we recall that
clectric charge is always an interaction of a point charge with a continuous charge distribution. To
understand the meaning of a continuous charge distribution we recall that electric charge is always an
integral multiple of a elemeniary (basic) charge, that of electron, For macroscopic point of view this
discreteness of charges causes no ditticulty simply because the electronic charge is extremely small in
magnitude equal to 1-6091 x 10°"? coul, The smallness of clementary charge means that macroscopic
charges are formed of a very large number of elementary charges; hence any small volume element tra
Cistibets mastnbution contains @ large number of elementary (electronic) charges. Then a charge
distribution may be described in terms of a charge density function as the limit of the charge per unit
volume becomes infinitesimal,
A volume charge density is defined as
4g
av 30 AV (4)
and a surface charge density is defined as
o= Lim St
AS 0 AS
It may be noted that p and o are net (excess) charge densities.
Thus force acting on charge q due to a ‘continug
summation by integration in (3) viz.
ous charge distribution is. obtained by replacing Electrostatic Fields
”
r
Wn 4fr
J, Sends 74-| Sound (a)
But if the point charge is at point r instead of origin, then eqn. (7a) taken the form
SPW) dv +f E=F gi,
Ire spp POM: ro)
Here the variable r’ is used to Joc:
pk ‘ovate @ point within the charge distribution ie. it plays the role of source
ind 2 eat en a bates ong _ by (7) is proportional to g. This observation leads us to introduce a
ae nt of q namely the force per unit charge. This vector field is known as the
22. The Electric Field Strength
See
di The ae. Surrounding any charge or group of charges, in which the effect of the presence of this
charge is felt is known as the electric field. Let us suppose that an additional infinitesimal test charge qo is
brought into the electric field and at a certain point in i, it experiences an electrostatic force F. The electric
field strength, designated by E at the point in question isa vector defined by the equationE = =. (1)
%
The direction of the field strength E is the direction of force F i.e. it is in the direction in which a
positive test charge placed at the point would tend to move.
‘The definition given by equation (1) assumes that the test charge is small enough to ensure that its
Presence in the region does not disturb the existing charge configuration and the very quantiy (electric field
strength) that we are trying to measure remains unchanged. The importance of this provision may be
represented by rewriting equation (1) in the form
B= Lim © 2)
0 Go
Thus although the field strength has units of force per unit charge, we deliberately have not defined the
electric field strength at any point in an electric field as the force experienced by unit positive charge placed
at the point. The reason is that a unit charge (1 coulomb) is equivalent to 6-25 x 10'* elementary charges. So
in many cases the presence of this much test charge (1 coulomb) would give rise to induced charge whose
effects could mask completely those of the original charge configuration. In the way, a value for the field
strength could be found, but it would be the value with the large test charge present and not as desired, its
value prior to the importation of the test charge. For example if a positive charge is distribuied on the
surface of a conductor; then bringing a finite test charge qo into the vicinity of the conductor will cause the
charge on the conductor to redistribute itself. Ifthe electric field were calculated by the relation E = Ete
field obtained would be that due to the redistributed charge rather than that due to the original charge
distribution. In the special case where one of the charges of the charge distribution can be used as a test
charge, the limiting process (lim gp — 0) is unnecessary. In this case the electric field at the location of the
test charge will be that produced by all of the rest of the charge distribution; infact there will be no
redistribution of the charge since the proper charge distribution is equivalent to that under the influence
obtained by the entire charge distribution, including the charge being used as test charge. In certain other
cases specially those in which the charge distribution is specified the force will be proportional to the size of
the test charge. In these cases too the limit is unnecessary; howover if there exists any doubt, the limiting
process becomes essential. : Jectromagnatic Theory and Electrodynamics
Flectromay
harge 4 8
The force on infinitesimal test charge qp placed at position r relative 1» a point .
1 4
. r
Ther raZd
wofore the electric field at point + due to point charge q is ‘
Ede
A PAG tee
Charge 4p located at point + due to n point charges J. is
FI Fa on Fy given by
ted at point
The force on a test Ae ee
wg air-n) 45)
trey i= (p=)
‘stem of m point charges is
Fe
therefore the electric fied at due t0 such a sy
(6)
= Lin, 5 \e-r)P
0 Fey 1 (pF,
cutt NO™ Consider a charge distribution with volume chan dont 9 (2) Oh eT ee
density ©(r) on the surface S (which bounds V) yn charge qo i located at point r, then it exper
a forve given by
Fa Bf OO yy Hf =) yar
Ato “Vip | 4M "Ss \p— yt
Hence the electric field strength at r due to such a charge distribution is given by
= Zee, eae 8)
Arto ’vir-rP ARtg'sipor |
Let us now write the most ‘Seneral expression for electric field strength. Let the charge distribution consists
of point charges 4, 4243, .. dy localed atthe points, a Rhy Respectively and a voluine distribution
Of charge specified by the charge density p() inthe volu’. y and'asuraoe distribution specified by the
surface charge density o(r’) on the surface 5, then keeping in mind (6) and (8), the electric field strength at
Point ris given by
Ee) = £ Wen) 1 ery
aia Gers,
trey 21 jpoy,P Fat yg pope a 7s SOW) da’ (9)
aed Point gives the direction of electric Electrostatic Fields a
!
However, we shall not employ the concept of lines of force for quantitative description; but simply use
it for qualitative description of electric field,
Ex. L.A charge + 10”
Cis located at the origin in free space and another charge Q at (2, 0,0). If the
: —— of the electric field at (3, 1,1) is zero, calculate the value of Q. Is the Y-component zero at (3,
} 1D.
Solution. The electric field strength at a point having position vector F relative to charge Q is given by
P-—oF
ane,
‘The position vector of P relative to origin is
R= Gfef+ hm :
Modulus of Fy is r, = V3"+ 17412 = Vilm
The position vector of P relative to point A (2, 0,0) is given by
P(3,1,1)
= GES 20 = Me fek 9, :
°
Modulus of ry, lrg = V+ E+ =m AGO
The electric field at P due to charge Q; at O is
Fig.22
-- a)
4% (iy?
The electric field at P due to charge at Q at A is
Zt odsfeh
P12 aGhf+h
R-7 eo
| aR Gy
Net electric field at P
ae P-P+P-2 ah PO | odsfek
Ee buch Eymag ay a?
X-component of clectric field at P is
1 Fees 1 |e
* = aneol yy?
5 y?
This gives -(i) GQ)
Be 8
=-24 x 10,’C
te
Now ¥-component of electric field
At [0
5 ine ie te ait
Clearly ¥-component of electric field at (3, 1, 1) is not equal to zero. tecoremagnastic Theory amd Electrodynamics
52
le Potential etd vanishes, then the vect® field may be
scalar function. The electric
2.3, The Electrostat! stil, a
or the curl of the veot = 0, where Sis @
1 grad S =O. gradient of «scalar function 6,
If a vector field is jrroational 0 i
expressed as the gradient of a scalar function ae fs the negative
field E, satisfies this criterion, hence 4
electrostatic potential, € E = ~grad 9.
“The electric feld K due toa set of point charBes *
1a wen) ()
Bea if enh.
Gey i=) ire!
1g wenn
curl E = Ut) egy = ini!
14 Q)
= Eg col :
main fe
Sina scalar function and Ais a vector, then we have the vector identity
url ($A) = Seurl A+ (grad S) XA; 8)
using (3); we have
ree aaa gas }xe-19. (4)
ier Tbe
A direct calculation shows that
curl (@-¥) = 0, 3)
sg _3 =")
= 5 6)
: Ir-,h
using (5), (6) equation (4) becomes
3
a =0- rr) x (r-
ar ath r)x(r-r).
Since the vector prnduct of a vector with a parall
ie 69 ese Oe paralle! vector is zero, therefore the second term on right hand
rer,
cul", = 9,
: : Irn a)
Using (7) equation (2), implies that
‘ " curlE = 0,
hich that ie, electric is I
which means that i. electri field vector Eis irotational and hence may be expressed as 8)
Let be the function which satisfies .”
Ele) = ~ grad 6 (r)
(9)
It still remains to find the form of the function
a ol . It may be .
sign in (9) and to call @ the electrostatic 9. It may be noted that it i ‘
potential, 'S conventional to include
the minus
For convenience let us find the electrostatic potent
lectrc field at point ris given by sate Potential doe to point charge g placed
% at point rj. the Electrostatic Fields
”
But gred( ~
tral
ee)
ie a, ay
fren!
‘esing (11), equation (10) may be written as
4%
gE= -%/. oe ile
an wnt] wah ie i ie
‘Comparing (9) and (12); we see that the electrostatic potential at point r due (0 @ point charge 4, placed a ¥,
is just
niga
: Nae ope “sy
‘With this a clue it is easy to guess thatthe potential which gives the electric field of (1) is
ile ti
«) Amey it 7 1)
Finally, the most general electrostatic potential which gives electric fle of (9) of section 2.2 48
a4 4G 1 . ’ 1 ar’)
=i Lf oO ay 4 ot 4
bas) e eaieaee eae +a ee Ain
Ecguations (13), (14) and (15) may be easily verified by direct differentiation, The only condition that Mr)
represents l i ‘at r is that it must satisfy equation (9), 1¢ 8 imumaterial how 9(¥) bs
obtained. Once the existence of electrostatic potential is established, it may be obtained directly as follows
‘Since $(r) is known to exist, in the light of equation (9), we may write
ff ie) -ae : =f ead) (06)
where ref stand fora reference point at which electrostatic potential is zero,
From the definition of gradient, it follows that
gad g(e)sde = do on
So that equation (16) yields
flee) car -ja
or or) = ~ fete) eae
Jectrostatic potential at a point ynay be defined as the work done by
of the field in carrying per piers positive test charge from
‘considerations The unit of gléctrostatic potential in M.K.S. system is
This equation states that the el
external source against the direction
‘some reference point to the point under
joule/coul or volt. >
If the réference point is taken at infinity“where the alt eppraed fp beear unt lore Nd
is assumed o be de tpn charg (torn ten engion (18) is
wt filo t diy
won Laas fa Theory and Electrodynamles
nati
Flectromas’
‘54 (19)
vad
© dMtey T
‘The derivation may be extended to obtain equation’ ones ces field E viz»
‘As curl E = Qeverywhere therefore Stoke's theorem” for el 2
Gcut Beda Bed
$ (20)
feed =o vena work s done on ates CHAPBE
implies that
‘The shows that the electrostatic field is a conserva
ifitis moved around a closed path in the field.
‘Another interesting and useful aspect of the electrostatic P
energy associated with the conservative electrostatic force ‘The
conservative force is
rive field, therefo
jonship with the potential
its relationship wit
nc i hh
pot
(21)
vo =-Jf ened *
relative to the reference point at which potential energy is
r
where V(r) is the potential energy at position
F = qE, therefore
assumed to be zero, Since in electrostatic case
ve =f geeyedr
or wt =f) Bir a
‘Therefore if the same reference point is chosen for the electrostatic potential and potential energy, then the
electrostatic potential is just the potential energy per unit charge. This idea may be used in several cases to
Aitroduve the electrostatic potential which has its importance in determining the clectrostatic field [refer to
equation (9)].
Thus we have two definitions of electric potential
1. The electrostatic potential at any point is defined as the work done by some external agency against
the dizcoton of field to bring per unit infinitesimal positive test charge from infinity to given point under
consideration ie.
lim W er:
Electrostatic potential @(1) = oy gg, Where W is the work done in bringing positive test charge go
from infinity to present position (7).
*D The electrosatic potential at any point is defined as the negative of the line integral of electric field
o@=- [Pear
Ex. 2. A non-conducting ring of radius 0S m carries a total charge of 1-11 x 10" !°C distributed
istribul
non-uniformiy as its circumference producing an electric field P
of the line integral field E everywhere in space. Calculate the value
from infinity to present position (r) ie.
[o-wea? 4
a=
Solution. Potential difference is equal to the negative of line integral
O being centre of the ring) Electrostatic Fields
55
But potential at «is zero, View = 0
Potential due to ring at centre ie. (6)).9 =
24. Gau:
Karl Friedrich Gauss (1777-1855) gave a theorem, known after his name Gauss’s theorem, that rela
the integral of the normal component of the electric field (ie. net outward electric) flux over any
hypothetical closed surface (called a Gaussian surface) to the net charge enclosed by the sur
theorem states that the normal component of the electric field (i.e. the net outward electric flux) over any
face. The
closed surface of any shape drawn in an electric field is equal to = times the net charge enclosed by the
surface, ie.
1
Eond Ew
$ nda = 2-0)
where indicates the surface integral over whole of the closed surface
s
and q is net charge enclosed by the surface.
Proof : Case (i) For an internal point. Let a point charge q
coulomb be placed at origin O within the closed surface. Let E be the
flectric field strength at the point P on the surface due to charge q. Let
Ob=r. and clectric field strength vector E make an angle 0 with the
unit vector n drawn normal to surface element da surrounding point P.
‘The surface integral of the normal component of electric field E pen
over the closed surface Sis given by
§ Benda ay
But electric field strength at P,
Ld Q
3) ‘and Electrodynamic
r tectromagnate Theory and Electrodynamics
1 on aplane perpendicular to r,
da
Now it can be seen that the aun (£ ja da gives the projection of area
r ve uttended by da ag, Wc 1S wen ay
ies
This projected area divided by A le. da Je the solid an
deo. Thus 4
E28 ig = do
r
Hence equation (3) may be written as “)
Nude a Lath de
b Bend fate $
5
But { dao = soita Angle subtended by entire closed surface at an internal point = 47
Hence equation (4) gives
te (5)
§, Bonde = aah 4“
This result is known as Gauss law for a singh harge enclosed by the surface,
ingle point charge de,
If several point charge 41, q, 4, are enclosed by the surface S, then total electric field is given by first
term of equation (9) of section 22. Each charge subtends a full sold angle 4m, hence equation (5) becomes
1a
Beads <= fie AO)
$ nda 4
‘This result can be generalised inthe case of a continuous distribution of charge characterised by a charge
density. Let p be the density ata point within an infinitesimal volume element dV; then the charge pdV may
be considered as a point charge which contributes a to the surface integral fo the normal component of
the electric field provided itis inside the surface over which we integrate. Thus if surface S encloses the
volume V, then
1
$ E nda = <-J pav A)
equations (5), (6) and (7) are known as Gauss's law, Gauss law may be expressed in yet
eee a 'y be expressed in yet another form by
J Bend = J siveav (8)
using (8), equation (7) becomes
i aod i
J, dvedy = 2) pav or J) pes
‘As volume is arbitrary therefore the integrand must be equal to 29
divE- Pao or divE= 2
This result is known asthe differential form of Gauss’s lay,
Caze (ji) For an external point. If the charge gis outside the surface. then
the sutiice Scan be divaied into ances $; S, |S; +S) cath of which 24,
es subtends
charge g. But at S, totam Geesos of he twa canola gy Electrostatic Fields
7
they are towards q. Therfore the con
(Sy So to the surface integral are equ
surface integral of the normal compon
nributions of two pairs (S;,S,) and
‘al and opposite. Consequently the net
lent of the electric field E,
ishes Le.
E+nda=0
It is interesting to note that Gauss’
cece Ss's law remains valid as such even for
3. Five thousand electric tj
ric lines of force enter a given vol
three thousand leave it. Find the total Demet in chapman
Solution. According to Gauss’ theorem oo me
Neteleetric ux (@) = 2- x charge enclosed (Q)
Net flux, @ = net number of electric lines of force diverging from given surface
= — 5000 + 3000 = - 2000
& 6 = 8:86 x 10°? x (2000)
— 1772 x 10°? coulomb = — 1:77 x 10°* coulomb:
Ex. 4. A charge 1 uC is Placed at the centre of a hollow cube. orem
ee oa of a hollow cube. Calculate the electric flux diverging (i)
Solution. Given Q=1nC = 10°C
(i) Net electric flux diverging through the cube
Charge enclosed °
W
1
= —_|,, « 10° vott-
2° ga6 x 10? ia
1 6 s
gag * 10° = 112 x 10° volt-m
(ii) As charge is placed symmetrically to all six faces of cube; hence the electric flux through each of
six faces is divided equally.
Electric flux through each face, ) 4(2]
6| &
1
gx bax 10° = 56 x 10° voltm
Ex. 5. An electric field in a region is given by B= 3%+4}-Sk.
Calculate the electric flux through the surface $= 2.0 x 10° Rm?
Solution. 6 = BeS'= 3144-5 (20x10 °%
= 0+0-10x 10° = 10 x 10*V-m
2.5. Applications of Gauss’s Law
Gauss’s law is useful in calculating the electric field in the problems in which it is possible to choose @
closed surface such that the electric field has a normal component which is either zero or a single fixed
value at every point on the surface. The use of Gauss's law makes the calculations easier as compared to the
use of Coulomb's law. Here we shall consider some of the important electrostatic problems where Gauss's
law is applicable. lectromagnatic Theory and Electrodynamics
o cally symmetric distribution of
ce only on the distance of the
oF curic charge distribution be
wher with distance from the
here of radius R. Let us
ution. A spheri
jensity p depen
ically sy™
in certain mani
jistributed over 2 SP!
(a) Field due to spherically symmetric charge distrib
charge means the distribution of charge where the charge 4
Point from the centre and not on the direction. Let the sphet
characterised by the charge density function p (r) which vari
Cente of the spherical surface. Let the charge q be uniformly ¢
calculate the electric field strength at any point distant r from the centre: side the charge distribution
field strength at an external point. Let P be a point oun itt the spherical
of radius R and centre O, Let OP = r. Consider a sphere of " icie field strength Eo at every
charge. As the distribution of the charge is uniform, by symmetry, wutward normal to the
Point of this spherical charge has the same magnitude and is direc
surface.
adius OP
the electric
ted along the 0
____ The net surface integral of the normal component of the electric
field ie. net electric flux through the whole surface
J, Born da J Bode Eyeanr
But according to Gauss’s law total ele
I i
© flux must be equal to — |
flux must be equal 10-25
times the total charge enclosed by the surface ie
Eyer =
a Eo
Here 4n x" p (x) dx represents the charge on the sheil of radius x and thickness dx , so that
e
J 4x2? p (x) drs the total charge enclosed by the surface
R24 A)
which is the same if the charge q were placed at the centre O.
Hence the electric field strength at any point outside a spherical charge distribution is the same as
through the whole charge were concentrated at the centre.
Case. (ii) Electric field strength at the surface of spherical charge distribution,
lies on the surface of the spherical charge distribution ie. r=R i
surface of the spherical charge distribution is.
In this case point P
therefore the electric field strength on the
Epa
Arey R
Case (ii) Electric field strength at an internal point. Let P be : ,
the centre of the charge distribution. Consider a sphere of radius (OP =r Point at a distance r from
charge. Let p be the volume charge density (.e, charge per unit volume) ig. MS With the spherical
pe chee: seen x
volume ~ 47 9
eo tee
2) Electrostatic Fields
59
Let the whole surface be divided
ded into thin spherical shells ctric
field strength Eat Pis the combined effec of shall canto ene Te
of radius ras well as those inside it. * et
But the electric field strength di
ep eile ue to outer spherical shells is zer0 which
Consider any point P inside a char
side a charged thin shell of radius x.
find the electric field strength at P due to this shel, Connie» spol
surface of radius OP=r concentric with spherical shell. By symmetry the
electric field strength E at every point of this spherical surface has the same
magnitude and directed along the outward drawn normal to this surface.
‘The electric flux through the whole surface = [ E+n da
s
Fig. 28
= | Bde = Ear
According to Gauss’ theorem
1
E.4nP = we charge enclosed by the surface.
= O since charge enclosed by the surface is zero
s E=0
‘Thus electric field strength due to a charged spherical shell at an internal point is zero.
So the electric field strength E; at P is due to the inner shells only which may be found as follows :
By symmetry the electric field strength E, at every point of the spherical surface of radius r has the
same magnitude and directed along the outward drawn normal tothe surface.
‘The total electric flux through the whole surface = j, E,da = E,.4nP
‘According to Gauss’s law
E-4n? x charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface
or
ae G)
Ane R
Thus the electric field strength at point P inside a spherically fo.27
symmetric charge distribution is directly proportional to the distance
of the point P from the centre of the spherical charge. :
Seria eof electric field strength with distance from the centre of spherically
The variation of magnitud.
symmetric charge distribution is represented by the curve in fig, 2.7 prmiy throug!
6. A charge ¢ coulomb is distributed
‘radins R metre. Show that the potential at a distance 1 from. the
_ | 9Gker
+. Ane, oR”
charge q coulomb be distr
ited uniformly throughout
theory and Electrodynamies
Blectromagnai
hour a non-conducting spherical volume of
vires ets giver BY
)
; Meerut B15 Agra 93,87)
the centre of spherical charge are,
field strength at points distant r>R and r = Fyeg Br
be. potential at distance ris ie
‘under consideration (say
1 point
if charge of linear charge densities 2 and dy if he Mine charge of charge density
In case of two lines
7) lien st distances 1, and vr frum wires thee eacudl (0) ot
(+2) will be
2)
Dideeiar
; 1 = ag, HOB +H
while that due to other charge of definity (~ 2) will be 3
QB)
Re
Therefore the net Potential due to both the wires will be 4
eaeliaad A)
= = + tog, 2+
Oe oe. ea
If the potential at reference point ris zero; this is possible in this case if the reference point ro is at equal
distance from both wires i.e. choosing ¢y = 0, we have
en fn AS)
O= Tg
(Gi) Electric field in inside and just outside charged conductor.
Let a conductor of any shape AB be placed in vacuum (permitivity €,) Let a charge q be given to the
conductor. Since charge is free to move in a conductor, even under influence of very small electric fields,
the charge carriers (electron or ions) move until they find positions in which they experience no net force.
When they come to rest, the interior of the conductor must be devoid
of an electric field; this must be so because the charge carrier
Population in the interior is by no mean depleted and if the field
existed, the carriers would continue to move. Thus under static
conditions the electric field in a conductor vanishes ie. E,, =0. As
E =~ grad 9, hence the electric potential is the same at all points in
the conducting material. In other words, under static conditions each
conductor forms an equipotential region of space. From E =~ grad x
it also follows that electric field just outside a charged conductor must
be normal to the surface of the conductor.
Let us consider a point P just outside the surface of the conductor.
Let the surface charge density on the surface of the conductor in the
neighbourhood of P be o soul/m’. Now consider a small cylindrical
box CD having one base C at P; the other base D lying inside the o ,
peaeattigtier ask surface of he conductor. onductor and the curved surface being
Let the area of each case be 8a. As the surface of the conductor is equinoses.: .
field E at P is perpendicular to the surface ofthe conductor in the neighbourhond ents SUtaCes the electric
The flux of electric field through the curved surface of the box is zero. since there is no e
normal to the curved surface. Also the flux of ic fie component
electric field E * the clecric field through the base D's sero og jectrostatic Fields
Electro *
electric field E inside the conductor is zero, Therefore the result ‘
chosen is that through the face C which ig ae fore the resultant flux of electric field through the box
J ends £80
Hence by Gauss’s law
1
“ipl fo Charge enclosed by the cylindrical box.
1
= 4,088
6
, E=
‘ *o 45)
Thus the electric field strength at any point close to the surface of the charged conductor of any shape
is equal to 1/&9 times the surface charge density 6. This is known as ‘Coulomb's law’, The electric field
strength is directed normally away trom the conductor if 6 is positive and towards the conductor if 6 is
negative
26. Electric Field and Potential due to an Electric Dipol
ee a at Bowie pols
Two equal and opposite charges separated by a finite (small) distance form an electric dipole. Let
charges ~ ¢ and + q be located at positions r! and r’ +1 with respect to origin O as shown in fig. 2.10.
Then the electric field at P whose position vector relative to
origin O is give by P.
ARE |(n—-r'-DP 4%€0 | (rr)!
q | _@-r-) |_| @-r)
Ame eee cesar
As the dipole separation 1 is small compared with (r~ r’); hence
we may expand equation (1), keeping only the first nonvanishing
term
+9
€ hit
For detailed consideration let us first expand denominator of lo
first term. The reciprocai of this denominator is written as p
eae pie Fig.2.10
Ir-r-1f* =\-r-'T
= [lr-r P-2(r-ryel+ Py?
‘ sa
rier Beate |
Ir-rP tree?
AsI< Ir—r’ |, we may expand above expression by binomial expansion, keeping only the ters linear in
L The result is
are ora @)
fr-Pott
Z ir-re
Using equation (2) in (1) and again keeping only those terms which are linear in I, we get
= eligsreqn ear | 1420 eee)
) r v
ba lt lever | treet’ Electrodynamics
Theory and B
64 agnatic
Electromas!
@)
” !
2 @e=r)* pate:
re =|? hee wee i dipole wish mroporionl wo
is equation gives re eke field, due to finite leet BPS ihe square, the cu
the separation of ie epee ra caer ‘contributions EE ‘of higher powers to the
7 sh unless the charge
We highe the contri
and the higher powers of separation, If the ll atl the terms va
eparation is amall
clectric field are neglibibly small. As the separation { tends (0 270: 81" rans except the term lincar
becomes infinite. 1F 1+ 0 and q —> « such that qf remains finite HER 8 ae, no extent i space and is
inf vansih. In this limit a point dipole is formed. A point dipole bis OM! Gingle moment is generally
completely characterised by its dipole moment which is specified PY P
defined asp = lim
a PS
The electric dipole moment is generally defined a «)
peal
In terms of electric dipole moement p, equation (3) may be written &s
nC ; 48)
Rep = _L[ Sob e-1)- ll
Antol [r-r't ' i
Similarly, the potential due to this dipole, referring fig. 2.10 may be weitten
1 (6)
q i a
oo = 541i son te=rl re
n
Expanding the first term exactly as before and retaining only terms linear in 1, we OD121
é ite tee (7)
© Gey tert
In this equation too the terms proportional £,/* and to higher powers of ! are neglected. For a dipole of
electric dipole moment p, equation (7) is better written as
_ 1 (-r)p .
$0 ane part ei
From this potential function the electric field E [equ. (3)] may be obtained using the relation E = ~ grad ¢
If we transform r’ to the origin, then equation (8) takes the familiar form of potential due to a dipole
$0) = i Reena
Gme0 3 Greg )
where @ is the angle between r and p.
Hence the radial and transverse components of electric field at point P(r, 8) may be written, using
E = ~gradas
Ir ime) me (10)
* ia) oe (il)
‘Tthe magnitude of resultant field is
ee 5 IS 2)
If cis the angle which the resultant field makes with radius vector thes
ty then slectrostatic Fields ;
(13)
oh apt aes
tana = = plan, ie, a = tan! (Stan 0)
Ex. 9. Calculate the potential and field due to a short dipole of dipole moment § x 10° ""coul-m at a
point distant 1 em from it (i) on its axis (i) on its perpendicular bisector. (Rohilkhand 1998, 83)
Sol. The potential due to a short dipole at distance r is
. L_ pcos®
ane)
‘The field at a distance ris
aL 2 N+ e086).
ney
$x 10°” coul-m
Here
and r=lem=107?m.
Case (i) On the axis of dipole @ = 0.
x10)
x
1 9
~. Potential o=—4 = 9x10°x +,
ney (x10?
= 15x 10°" volt
’ 1 2 0
«. Electric field Ew oe OR IA
Ane (x10)
= 3.0x 10°" volt/m.
Case (ii) On the bisector ® = 90°
- Potential
gain
$x10
1p Fa 3
Electric field p= =9x10°x+—,
ny (1x 107)
= 15x 10°" volt/m.
27. Potential Energy of an Electric Dipole in an External Electric Field
Let Eny (r) be the external electric field which may be described by the potential function Ge (r). It
— q and + q charges are placed at r and r +1 respectively in the external field, then potential energy U is just
= — Gen (8) + Gex (F +4). 1) ~ a
“a
IFL is small compared with r, then (t+ 1) may be expanded in a power
series in I, Rataining only the terms linear in , we obtain
eu (+E) = Gea (0) + 1 + grad be (1)- (2)
Using (2), equation (1) gives
Ue) = — eu (0) +4 (en (2) +E * gradden (F)}
= ql grad ey (Fs --B@))
= pegraddec(t) (sincep = 1). — ..{3(b)] ol
Fig. 2.11 CO ———
nd Mlectrodynumiey
mary
Bhectromeaenae
by wrnien
“
ny ney
~ grad ,, in equation [3(by) Alternatively oh 9 HO EA Chery,
Since £,,
Uh = <9 ba
of
This equation gives the potential energy of dipole
Feld Boy, where EyA) is evaluated at the location of the point
teraction of Dipole
ipole of moment p is placed in an external electric
U = =p (refer section 2
given OY
ris
From equation (5) of section 2.6, the eleciric field Bat”
ee 3)
Now let us consider two electric dipoles 1 and 2 of
moments p;, and p, oriented in space at an arbitrary %
angle with each other (fig. 2.12), Let E, and 6, be the =
electric field and electric potential respectively in the Oe te
vicinity of dipole 2 due wo presence of dipole 1, then ove TO [E, vor. as a
the electric potential (interaction) energy of dipole 2
due to presence of dipole 1 is given by
Uy2 = pz Ey. AB)
Similarly if E, and , are respectively the electric
field and potential in the vicinity of dipole 1 due to oe
the presence of dipole 2, then the interaction energy is
Cen
But interaction energy of two dipoles must be same as there is no work done in the movement ‘.e.
Uy, = Uy = U (say).
Using (1) the electric field E, is given by
1 | 3a
0am, | -
‘Substituting value of Ez, in (3) the interaction energy of two dipoles is given by
; 1_[3lep) py
U=U, nadine a
ia rahe Eaa ri
Rearranging and keeping in mind that the dot product of two vectors is commutative, we obtain
UnUj,——_ | Pich Ronee
2" Fee] Pw »|
If we write down the value of Ey and insert in (5), we again get this
verified that Ura Un equation (7) represents the general expression for de nig es ata
dipoles. As interaction energy U of two dipoles contains tne ,
indicates that the interaction energy depends upon the relative og,
with respect to r.
1a ore nt on els la of a ;
Retis
Bs].
3
r Electrostatic Fields
or
~ grad Uy,
aye 3
iy: Sad ~pane.-|] (8)
Similarly we may obtain force acting on dipole 1 in the field E, of dipole 2 which is
a Lyfe 3
Rye - > (p+) (pa) 9)
rey ares ea E 9)
ifthe dipoles are similar, then p, =p and r=—r°
0)
i.e. the interacting forces on the dipoles are equal and opposite
The torque T acting on the dipole of moment p can be obtained by differentiation of U (interaction
energy) with respect to angle between p and E or by direct consideration of forces. One obtains.
ca eu = pxE a)
where ais the angle between p and E. Thus if % is the torque acting on dipole p> due to field Ez of py, then
-
ep xE, (12)
Similarly the torque 7) acting on dipole p, due to the field E, of pp, is
The=p XE, 13)
Equations (12) and (13) indicate that tendency of the torque acting on dipoles is to align them along the Tine
of interaction r.
Ex. 10. Write down the interaction potential energy of two short electtic dipoles separated by a
distance. If one of the dipoles in inclined at an angle ®, to the radius vector joining them, show that in the
state of equilibrium, the other dipole would make an angle ®; with it given by
(Robilkhand 1981)
Solution. The interaction potential energy of two short electric dipoles is given by
ce, pe) 2 ee
= Fae ats (pitt) 28) (A)
If one of the dipoles of dipole moment p; is inclined at an angle 6; to the radius vector F and other
dipole of moment p> is inclined at angle ®, withthe same radius vector F. then the angle between the two
dipoles would be ®; ~ 8; as shown in fig. .13. So the expression (1) for interaction potential energy takes
the form
ees pipr60s (®1— 89) _¥ (pircos 6, (pyr 60s 0)
Arey r r
i aa Pi feos (0, -@;) ~ 300s 8, cos 8] (2)
{In the state of equilibrium of dipoles the force must be zero and potential
energy must be extremum. To apply the condition of extremum potential
energy, let bs differentiate equation (2) with respect to 8, and equate to
zero. Then we get theory and Electrodynamics
Electromagnetic
68
Ha O20.
BU _ 1 PAP ain @, 03) + 3608 8 2
00," 4ne9
As 177’ is not equal to zero; therefore
sin (8, — 64) +3 cos @, sin i. in 02
or #in 8; cos @, — cos Oysin Oar S16
or sin @, cos @> + 2 cos 6; sin ®: pm
=—/tan 6,
This gives tan 6
lectric Quadrupole and Multipoles
An clectric quadrupole is a system of four charges, each of
magnitude | q | and two of which bear Positive sign and the other
2a have negative sign, arranged in the manner as shown in Fig.
2.14, the separation between charges 1 is assumed to be very
Small as compared to the distance r of a point P specified by
co-ordinate (r, 0,9) relative to the position of two negative
charges.
The electric potential at point P due to this quadrupole is
1 2
given by $(r, 0, o) = nal
aw (Fig. 2.14)
ge ceed 1)
4neq rh *
But nalr+lla[(r+) + (r+?
eer +2
2
: r LY aren 7-2
ie. a[itG)+ 5 ] =
Assuming r > 1 and expanding above expression by binomial theorem, we get
1-3[5ot| 318 “ul
py ne oe
using +1 =rlcos 0 we get
ie fetone)
ae
Bog Bes
peceossieeie ty 3)
PHU l= [1] = (4 Pap of!
i ip
2r
aris Electrostatic Fields
0
Proceeding exactly in the similar manner, we get
f ie
aloe
Od 5
aT oe Hemel
8
Neglecting terms of order higher than '/17, we get
rt 2
Fatt cos0+ 5+! (3 cos’ 0-1). AA)
FARE tO
Using equations (3) and (4), equation (1) gives
{
mont 1-temos 4000-0}
P
007.8,
, ec}
-frstenoe§-soea'e-»]-2]
7 r
ett peate-1
“Thus the electric potential due toa linear quadrupole varies inversely as the cubt of distance. Ifthe electric
field strength E is calculated from the relation E =~ grad @; then itis found thatthe field strength varies
inversely as the fourth power of distance.
“The concept of electric dipole and quadrupole can be extended toa system of larger number of positive
and negative charges located at very small distances from each oer. Such charge arrangements are calcd
wrutipotes, A single point charge may be termed as a monopole Ifa monopole is displaced through = very
mall distance and the original monopole is replaced by an equal and opposite charge; a dipole is produced
Srnilaly. i dipole is displaced through a small distance and thereafter the original dipole is replaced by
arf seane magnitude but of opposite sign a quadrupole is formed. If quadrupole is replaced through
ore distance and the original quadrupole i replaced by one of same magnitude and opposite sign + we Bet
rat known as an electric octopole nd S08. This concept can be continued further to obtain multipoles
sil higher order. Fr (22)" multipole the potential at large distances from the system its found to vary
inversely as °°".
2.10, Multipole Expansion of Electric Field :
In order to define the electric dipole moment of an arbitrary
charge distribution, we shall consider a certain expansion of the
Slectrostatic potential due to an arbitrary charge distribution.
Lat us consider volume V’ occupied by the charge distribution.
(Fig. 2.15) yy and Electrodynamics
: Electromagnetic THE?
Hence the potential at r due to entire charge distribution is siveM by in
oa J ee a
90)" ancy? Ir=¥ I pand 1-1! im a series
As '< pr, therefore () hence we may omit the terms
r
rer’
may be neglected as compared to ~~
involving the cube and higher powers of (=) Ip taroaleed
r
(2)
o@m= G
Lit
: r r
‘The third term on the right hand side of above ‘equation may be expressed as
- 1
Sere es ~Sa eon Final ry
a wep pt
ee = ~G]+- Jpwraw 8)
= OF iby 2%) Bx’ 3/8, 7),
Substituting this in (3) and keeping in mi .
taken outside the integral sign, 0 we get ‘tt “ Variable of interaction ig only, there
90 = EIS peavgt —
a ey dve4
ne) ry, ai ¥ pleyav’ Electrostatic Fields
nm
Pat J Qxy'x/ 8, 7) p (ey av? + ] (4)
arenes are the cartesian components of r,.x/,. are those of ’ and 8) is Kronecker delta symbol
a ticas ®
It is obvious from equ. (4) that the potential due
to a charge expressed as a st 0
penaie re late ¢ distribution may be expressed as a summation
OF) = 1+ b+ (E+ (6)
whi 1
a $18) = ro p(ndv’ Qa
oi =— f vpeyav’ (8)
REP ys
or) = 2 f (ax/x/— 87) pe) dV" (9(a)}
ay
3p lay
ao
where (801) )p (ry dv’ (900)]
ha
and so on.
Equations (4) or (6) may be interpreted as follows :
The first term, 9; (r) represents the potential potential at r if the total charge were concentrated at the
origin and is called the potential due to monopole moment of the charge distribution.
‘The second term $,(r) represents the potential which would result if a point dipole having dipole
moment equal to that of the charge distribution were located at origin of co-ordinates and is called the
potential due to dipole moment of the charge distribution.
It is obvious that quantity Qy in $3 (r) contains nine components corresponding to i, j= 1,2, 3; out of
which six are equal in pairs; thus leaving six distinct components. This set of quantities form the quadrupole
‘moment tensor and represents an extension of the dipole moment concept. The term >, (r) is called the
potential due to quadrupole moment of charge distribution. OF course there ae higher order moments which
are obtained if we keep higher order terms in the expansion (4). The higher order terms $4 (r), @s (F) etc.,
are called the multipole potentials. These multipole potentials are important in nuclear physics.
‘Thus the potential due to a charge distribution may be considered as the sum of potentials due to
monopole moment, dipole moment, quadrupole moment and higher order multipole moments of the charge
distribution. In the case where the net charge is zero (e.g., atom), the potential due to monopole moment
vanishes. For non-polar atom the potential due to dipole moment will also vanish : but still the potential is
contributed by higher order multipole moments of the charge distribution. It may be noted that the potential
contributed by higher order moments decreases rapidly with increase of order. For polar atom the potential
is mainly due to dipole moment of the charge distribution.
If is the angle between r and r’ then the potential 6(r) given by equation (3) may be wirtten as Blectromagnetic
x
a.2.6)
meson el
rds roma(e]
‘may be defined by the relation,
ee zat
vee (-)
in which @is the angle between x andr. :
Ley polynomials of few orders are given sl
Py (cos 8) =
P (605 8) = cos
Ir-rl=
=o
when P, (cs 6 is Legenee polynomial of oer n which my
Pa (cos 8)
Theory and Blectrodynay.
(10)
(Il)
wu(12) Electrostatic Fields
Px (cos 0) = $3 cos’ = 1)
Py (cos 8) = 1 (5 cos’ —3 cos 8)
From equation (10)
itis clear that the potential function @(r, 8) is the function of rand 0, The frst term is independent of 0
while the multipole potentials are dependent on rand @ both. As maximum value of cos Om | for Om 0,
therefore ¢(r,6) falls rapidly as the order of multipole potential increases Fig. 2.16 (a), (b), (e), (@)
represents a few examples of simple multipoles,
In all these cases the net charge is zero, th
Moreover dipole moments cancel out and the potential due to quadrupole and
coctupole moment may be calculated by given relations
ierefore the potential due 10 monopole moment vanishes
Ex. 11. Calculate the dipole moment of the system of three charges ~q Rec
coulomb placed at the vertices of an equilateral triangle of side I metre
Solution. The system of charges is equivalent to two electric dipoles AB and
B of moments p and py inclined at an angle 60° with each other Le
8 ©
>)
itl = Iprl = gl
<. Net dipole moment has magnitude sea
p= Npi tpi + 2pip, cos 60" (Fg.2.17)
= Veh? +@h'+2 G0) @)x4
NB ql
(ig. 2.18)
Ex. 12. A charge of ‘q’ coulomb is placed at every corner of a regular hexagon of side ‘a’ metre, A
charge (—6q) is placed at the centre, Calculate the monopole, dipole and quadrupole moments. Also
calculate the potential and field at a large axial distance from the charge distribution. (Rohilkhand 1995)
Solution, The monopole moment of charge distribution
= 64-64 = 0
Dipole moment
The x -component of dipole moment due to charge q at A (a, 0) is
Jpxav = qa theory and Electrodynamic,
etic
4 Electromag?
z » gat B is
The x component of dipole momnet due to charge 4 a
(5 B
Balis
JJoxav = 9 = 4M
‘The x componant of dipole moment due to
a
urge q at C) =>»
# a)_ qa
=SfJoxav=4 rahe ry
Opis (Fig.
‘The x-component of dipole moment due Charge q at D (=a,
=SfJoxav= ga = -ga
s
‘The x-component of dipole moment due to charge q at '
{oxa=4{-3)
B
The x component of dipole moment at F| poe ells
a
_ 4
2
2
a
= JJJoxav = 93
‘The.x-component of dipole moment at 0 (0,0) is
=JJfoxav = ~69x0 =0
* Netx-component of dipole moment due to given charge distribution is
= 9a Mg 2g,
904 ga Bg
liter :
Dipole moment : The given charge distribution represents 6 dipoles
of charge pairs (~4, ); named as Ok ,O8 00, Ob , Of OF ;
Sach having dipole moment (ga). They form 3 dipole par of equal and
opposite moments, Therefore net dipole momen itnene
Quadrupole moment : The given charge distribution forms. 3
quadrupoles each having charges (q,~29 .q) at so
aration (a). The
quadropole moment of each quadrupole is 2ga?
1 = O)= 0, = 24a? = © (say)
‘These are shown in fig. 2.19
The x-component of quadrupolé moment is
(Fig. 2.20)
2. = 01401605 60°~ 0, c05 69° = Q=
=%@
, = 0,008 30°+ 0, cos 30" = 22498
6
= OB = WF ga?
#. Net quadrupole moment Electrostatic Fields
15
1 = Nor+ OF
(2g a
=2qa° NT+3) = ga?
‘The electric potential at point V(r, 8) from the charge distribution is
Vor, 0) = eho 6-1)
-)
‘The electric field components at far point E (r, 8), from the charge distribution is
aew'e-p|
<4 (3x 2cos @+(~sin 8)}
-. Net electric field
3
+ he et Son! 0— 2nd
‘As Qy = 4ga’, we have
2
1 bqa" Z
Grey f VE5 00s" 0-2c05"0+1)
Ex. 13. Four charges are arranged as shown in Fig. 2.20. Calculate the monopole moment, dipole
‘moment and quadrupole moment of the system. Hence calculate the field at a point P which. is located at a
distance r from the centre of configuration.
Solution :
Monople moment =f pia’ va
ry te of
=—9-g+qtgs 0 7 /
Dipole moment : The x and y components of dipole moment may be . 4
computed by adding up to contributions due to individual charges. sant thon
‘The contribution to p, due to charge ~ q at (a, 0) }
8
= ‘dv’ '
J o@yxd i
=-ga
(Fig. 2.21) neory ond Electrodynamics
ic TI
Electromagnet
76
‘The contribution to p, due to charge ~q at (~ 4,0)
=Jpwxw
|
=q-ca)=4
‘The contributions to p, due to charges + q as (0, a) and +g at (0,~4)
= qx0+qx0 =0
Net x-component of dipole moment
hdr Oe
Similarly y-component of dipole moment, 0
py = 0+ qa-qa+0 =
Thus the net dipole moment of charge configuration = 0
Quadrupole moment :
2 :
J Fecos*0-ppirydv
i i le
where ris the distance of the charge p (r’) dV’ from the origin and @ is the ang!
‘The contribution to quadrupole moment of charge ~ q at (a, 0) is
2
a Fea Geos 0- 1)
between rand r”
2
=~ 4 Ge0s'0-1)
‘The contribution to quadrupole moment of charge ~q at (~ a, 0) is
2
cs
4) {3 cos? (180° - 6) - 1
=4a'
(3.c0s* @~1)
The contribution to quadrupole moment of charge + q at (0, a)
= 42° [3.c0s" (90° - 0) ~ 1
os 2
“B.
2
= oe sin’ 0-1)
‘The contribution to quadrupole moment of charge +g at (0, ~a) is
2
= #13 cos’ 00+0)~ 1)
2
=F Gsin?o- 1)
+: New quadrupole moment of charge configuration is
-—— 2
ie oor O- 1) cog _ 1)
2
8 8 aie? 2
+7 Gin? 0~ 1) 4. 2 03 2
2 + s
= ga? [3 sin’ @ eee)
30s" 841) Electrostatic Fields
n
= 3qa° (sin® @ — cos? 6) = 3 qa” (2 sin?
cos? 8) = 3 qd? (2 sin? @—
‘The potential at P duc to this charge distribution ie caret
3.qa° (2 sin’ @~1)
“1 The electric field strength at P is given by
Hatt
or ar| ney
and gz
©. The resultant field strength
?_ Pip 1 3qa” 2 a a
E-E+h = 5° “(BQ sin 0-1) F—2sin 260},
Ex. 14, Calculate the resultant dipole moment for the system of charges shown in fig. 2.21 and hence
determine to electric potential and field at a point quite far away from the charges. (Kanpur 1985)
Solution. The electric monopole of the charge configuration is zero.
Dipole moment. The x -component of dipole moment due to charge — q at point A (a, 0) is
= Jffoxav
‘The x-componet of dipole moment due to charge + 2q at B (
‘The x component of dipole moment due to charge ~ 24 ac(-5.
nt)
The x-component of dipole moment due to charge +q at D (~ a, 0)
S490
‘The x-component of dipole moment due to charge ~ 2g at {
=u
‘The x -component of dipole moment due to charge + 2q at [+
a
= gf = +90
<. x-component of dipole moment p, = + 24a
Similarly adding to contributions ofall the charges to y component
peihloneernee mee peace aC"
of dipole moment we get, CC L_—_—
namics
Blectrody
pleciromagnesie THE andl
™
Total dipole moment, goog es
p= p.lrp,s = ea
The potential at distant point due to dipole moment at P
1 pr, J 2gacosd
%" Tg fie 7
‘Therefore the field components are
ag 1 Agacos®
A" i” Ito
Lay 1 Mga
n*-7%" ag
+ Net field strength is, B= £,?-+ £46
= gh 24 05 0+ sin 06)
‘ty 7
2.11. Dielectric Polarisation
ee Rolarieation :
ectrons are tightly bound
electrons is too low. An
ry material medium is
(atomic nuclei and
‘An insulator or alternatively known as dielectric is « material in which the -
to the nucleus of the atom; so that there are no free electrons or the number of 5 ie
‘deal dielectric is a material in which there is no free charge at all. ap aes
composed of molecules, which in tum contain positive and negative charged «
electrons) and in fact an equal quantity of each ind, if the dielectric is electrically neutral. However the
“ because of its molecular structure. If
presence of the electric field may change the behaviour of dielectric is iiienints
the change in behaviour of the dielectric is independent of the direction of the applied field, the dielectric
termed as isotropic while if the change in behaviour of the dielectric depends on the field direction, the
dielectric is termed as anisotropic.
The change in behaviour of the dielectric is due to the fact that the applied electric field exerts a force
on each charged particle, positive particles being pushed in the direction of the field and negative particles
oppositely, 0 that positive and negative parts of each molecule are displaced from their equilibrium
Position in opposite directions. These displacements are, however, limited (in most cases to very small
fractions of a molecular diameter) by strong restoring forces which are set up by changing charge
Configuration in the molecule, The overall effect from the macroscopic point of view is most easily
visualied as a displacement of the entire positive charge in the dielectric relative to the negative charge. The
relative displacement ofthe charges is caled polarisation and the dielectric i said to be polarised © 1 acts
like an electric doublet or dipole.
The molecules ofa dielectric may be classified into two classes) Polar molecules and (ii) Non
‘molecules.
-polar
such a molecule is sad to non-polar eg. sit, hydropn, benzene ote 8 220 (Permanent) dy a
On the other hand when the two centres of gravity ate seperated fee ou Phide and Nila
of 01 Ain paces), he he molecule a whol possesses polar salt oebY 8 SHOR stance .
4 permanent dipole mons
moment; Electrostatic Fields
9
such a molecule is said to be polar molec
wolecule e.g. water, ‘
asymmetry of the atoms in the molecule, =” YT 81885: CHCl}. The polar character appears due to
|, the small displacements of
gravity to alter. Thus non-polar
- which are already dipoles, will be oriented by
tind (i induced dipole moment. The erga Motil since they possess (i) permanent dipole moment
external electric field will be such as to set ny of the induced dipoles or of the permanent dipoles in an
oe -@gQ+
S20 ise
OO 889
OOO 806]:
@
(a) In the absence of the fiold (b) In the presence ofthe field
(Fig. 2.28) Polarisation of a dielectric, () non-polar molecules are represented as spheres while polar
molecules would be represented as elipsoids. (i) Induced dipoles are shown to be
aligned along lines of force whereas permanent dipoles would be similarly aligned.
When no electric field is applied the molecules do not show any polarity since either they are
unelectrified non polar molecules or they will be polar molecules which will be oriented at random and will
be in such large numbers that the resultant electric effect due to all of them is zero, When a potential
a - tar
Free aed Q)
‘Substituting these values in (1), we get .
z
ae ra --G)
ive permitivity (or
eras wor electric constant) maybe defined as the ratio of he absolute permit ofthe
From (2) itis clear that the electric field strength depends upon the medium. Therefore let us introduce
anew electric field vector D, called the electric displacement or electric induction and defined in such a
way ash it depends only on the distribution and magnitude of charges which produce electric field but is
independent of the nature of the medium. Thus the electric displacement D due to a single point charge q at
a point ris given by
p-Z% 4)
r
Equation (4) may be written as
eee (fae
De ae =a (5)
Using (2), we may write J
D=cE (6)
‘Thus itis obvious that
D=eE (in free space) as
=€E ina dielectric of absolute permittivity a} 2
and the vectors D and E have the same direction.
2.13, External Field of a Dielectric Medium.
Let us consider a finite piece of polarised dielectric which is characterised at each point r’ by a
polarisation P (r’). The polarisation gives rise to an electric field and we want to find this field at point r
outside the dielectric body. it is convenient to calculate first the electric potential 4 (r) and then obtain.
electric field E by the relation E = ~ grad 6.
Let the volume of the dielectric be divided into ‘small elementary volumes. Let AV’ be the volume
clement of the dielectric medium characterised by the dipole moment Ap. They be definition of
polarisation
= AR
P(r) = pr weet
Ap = P(r) Av" (l)
= The potential at point r due this small volume element is
1 Ape(r-r)
Oe) STG eh
LP) EA) ay? using (1) Q)
nity Ir-r'l
where (r— 1’) is a vector from volume element AV to the point A (x, y, z) under consideration.
‘The magnitude of (r - r’) is given by lies
ccremagnetlc Tose) ae
3)
82
Ir-v1 = Vi@=x7 +0-Y) +6
Pee)
‘The net potential at point r is obtained by summing up the
contribution from all parts of the dielectric Le
Pie eR ek (4)
or) = © —— av “
Mo ieee’
If tho volume element AV’ is infinitesimal, we write dV’ for
AV’ and replace summation by integration ie.
1 (ir) + (r-r)
or) = Lf PO) = 9) gy, (5)
anesloenre sea
From this result @(r) may be evaluated directly if the
function from of P is known. It is sometimes useful to express
equation (5) in a rather different way by means of simple ae
mathematical transformations. te
If V’ operator involves with respect to the primed
coordinates, then
,
coat 1 1
aiv (5 a)= Troyraiv P+ PV FFI)
| aa ee ct ee
: P "(ma)" #5 STs 9)
Comparing (7) and (9) we note that integrand of (5) takes from
PeGor) ye ae eal
treeP Y ieev eae VP (10)
Hence the potential $(r)., from (5), may be written as
wi P on
on) = waht” ipzy7 dP Jav’
a | i Pye lg
aay Tei ages av Pav (11)
From Gauss divergence theorem changing volume integral of diy _P__.
; : ‘eral of di Ir—y7] M0 surface integral, we get
é? sftes
vo rove oe eee a2) Electrostatic Fields d
using (12) the potential 6(r) finally takes the form
9 = Feat eieaeT
This quantities P* mand div P, appearing inthe integrals of (13), are two
the polarisation P and have the dimensions of charge per unit area and charge per unit volume respectively
Therefore they are known as polarisation (or bound) volume charge density respectively and are denoted by
Pon=P, } (14)
pp =-divP
‘The surface density of bound charge is given by the normal component of polarisation vector normal to the
surface, while the volume density of bound charge is a masure of the nonuniformity of the polarisation
% <3)
lar functions obtained from
inside the material
Using (14), eqn. (1) for potential @(r) takes the form
_ Lf Seda’ 7 pp dV ie
herp eer vir-F1 SD
1 Y
wld feu (16)
rg
s due to a charge distribution. In other words, the dielectric
It is clear that the potential @(r) aris
material has been replaced by an appropriate polarisation (or bound) charge distribution.
From (16), (15) and (13) itis obvious that the net polarisation charge of a dielectric is
a, = J 9,’ +) p, av
= Jpenda+) (av Pav’
and that it must be zero since we had assumed that the diclectric as a whole is electrically neutral. This
result immediately follows since q, vanishes as a consequence of the divergence theorem,
Now we have two distinct expressions for electrostatic potential 6(r) due to a polarised dielectric given
by (15) and (16). Both of them are correct : but itis found that the latter expression is more convenient in
most cases. The electric field E is obtained by the relation E = — grad 9. As @ is a function of (x, y, z) it is
desirable to use the gradient operation with respect to unprimed coordinates, Evidently, V’ (gradient
operator with respect to primed coordinates) operating on a function of !r~r’| is equal to ~ V (gradient
and noting that
AIT)
1
operator with respect to unprinzed coordinates) appear only inthe function -— >,
*iezrt| a? (Teer)
and using 2qn. (6), we get
1 9, (r—r') Pp(r-r')
esas [tye = seal i ere (18)
Ane I, iret Lee
This equation gives general expression for the electric field at an external point due to a dielectric
medium.
2.14. The Electric Field in a Material Medium
Let us now find an expression for the clectric field in a small polarised material medium, We are
‘opic electric field ie, the average electric field in a smal! region of the
actually interested in the macros
dielectric which, nevertheless, contains a large number of molecules. the actul electric ficld it
ide a Blectromagnetic Theory and Blectrodywamies
velei_ and
medium of positive
. ce the polarised a jing on the }
re nen ae ENE Se isaks me pee sd on ee eo
electrons in which fields of millions voltvcm. a field is the force per heree
location of point under consideration, The macrascopic electric. ‘small that i does not itself affect
charge small from
tte charge distribution, This test charge must be dimensional Sma TOT A ecule, 4
(which we call point charge), but it will be large compared c electric field E directly to obtain an
13s very dificult to use this fundamental definition of masroscOPle TT ay of extended size, and
ee ie tn Bath sere we wont bare clea fore oe as pagans we cn tse Sib
then go to the limit as the size of the object is decreased. Howevet have the same basic properties
eee RRNA. Tin cereal Sel» 9 Gere a conservative field and hence |
which are applicable to electric field E in vacuum; in particular, E is a c
derivable from a scalar potential @ ie,
4
A)
E=-grde \
since curl grad @ = 0 |
This implies that culE = 0
ad gr-ar=o
Let us apply equation (2) to the path ABCD a shown in fig. 2.27 where the segment AB lies
needleshaped cavity cut out ofthe dielectric and the segment CD. r= ==>
lies in the dielectric proper since the segment AB and BC may bef
made arbitrarty small, the line intergral reduces to
Gera = ['e,-atsfEeat=0 ~@)
Where the subscripts vandd refer to vacuum and dielectric {~:
respectively. If the length of the path AB or CD, then (3) may (9.227)
be expressed as. i
Ex:1— Ea = 0 where subscript stand for tangential component. This implies
Beal, (4)
Fence ut fr any eintation of the needle shaped cavity Funher if the need i oriented along
its drertion of then we have Ea =Ey and by symmety te field in the cavity is along the avenge
needle i, E,,= E,. Thus in this case equation (4) takes the form
Ea Ey
se ae aad a Mecric be erntive tn slicuscfldicdna nee dees cee.
Provided the cavity axis is oriented tothe direction ofthe electric fold. Sepa enaeseric
This statement is strictly true only for isotropic dicherae, es
is i iy ny Ns Wotopis elcaies: tect Tor snisorwopic disecrin is
The problem of calculating the electric Fld inside a dstectio, redones i
cer etm saved caviy inthe dicecc. Bu the elecic Held ge ca uating
and hence may be determined by means of results already described ent City is an
Se eraenial aad sett the polarisation of the diceetric i a gh
| i arising from this polarisation,
cavity, the potential from eqn. (15) of section 2.13 is given
2 bs SW yz) av"
vy roi +f
Ses Tear
&
t
§ Electrostatic Fields
85
where V~ Vis the volume of the dielectric excluding the needle, Sp is the exterior surface of the dielectric
and S’=5) +5; +3, are the ieedle surfaces.
needie may be assumed arbitratrily thin to ma
that only the exterior surfaces of the dielectric
integral of (5) becom
of (5) exculdes the cavity; but it may be seen 1
is arbitrarily thin. Thus it is not necessary to exclude the volume V’ and henee
negligible if the ca
equation (5) becomes similar in form to eqn
2.13 gives the potential $(r) irrespective of wh
The electric field E at r may be
negligible amount from equation (18) of s
1
Er) =
t= as
gives the contribution of the dielectric medi
point r lies inside or out side the medium.
identical in form to the surface integral of (15) of se
ope
But from fig. 2.27 4, = 0 on the cylindrical surface S, of the
ake the surface Sy and S} to possess negligibly simall are
contribute to the surface integral, Consequently the surface
jon 2.13, The volume integral
i the contribution of the cavity to the volume integral is
(5) of section 2.27. In other words equation (15) of section
iether the point ris located inside or outside the dielectric.
tulted by the relation E(r) = — grad 6 (r) But this differs only by a
tion 2.27. Thus equation (18) of section 2.13 ie
=r)
gat J PEP ay
rr Vir-vl
ium to the elecric field Kr), independently of whether the
Ex. 15. Show that the cavity definition of the electric field inside a dielectric depends on the shape of
cavity
Solution, Consider a cylindrical cavity as
E. Atany point 0
(Meerut 1976)
show is fig. 2.28. (a) with its axis along the direction of field
+E, a
where E; is the field at O due to
macroscopic field E in the dielectric and E
is the field at O due to bound charges over
the walls of the cavity surface. For a very
small cavity the contribution due to
macroscopic field at 0 is the same as that
at O in the absence of the cavity i.e.
E,=E 12)
ie, for cylindrical cavity the equivalent
charge distribution over its walls comprises
circular ends, As polarisation P is tangential to curved surface we have Op
¢ induced on curved surface.
curved surface and therefore there is no chargs
If Ois the centre of cylinder, the field stre
[where do = 2 is the solid angle subtended by surface ele
r
But for a circular area refer fig. 2.28 (b)
(b)
layers of surface charge densities + 6p =+ P over the two
(Fig. 2.28)
(@)
‘n= PI cos 90" = O over the
ngth at O due to charge on either circular ends will be
ei pe 3
Eogeopl Pa da = Fag, 80 do @)
sment (da) at O}
°
fo -f[4=J (Qnrsin a) rd _ 95 (1 —cos 0)
7 0 r
4)
I
Br = ggg Or AR (1 C088). clectrodynamics
comagnatic TROLS
Electr
86
Jar end layers of charges
Hence the total field strength at O due to the (wo
, a 45)
=P u-cos
ax cP 2K(l-289) * iy
eo
(Since op +n = P) (og
Substituting values of E, and Ep from (2) and (5) in (1) we &¢ 46)
F 8)
= E+E (cos
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