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Physical Metallurgy
(ECMA7019/EMEC 7037)
PIPE e PG-MEC

Ana Sofia C. M. d’Oliveira, Ph.D.

Full professor/DEMEC

A.S.C.M.D’Oliveira

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CONTENTS
Review
Thermodynamics – Free energy
Solidification
Interfaces/precipitates
Diffusional Transformations in solids
Precipitation in Age Hardening alloys
Spinodal Decomposition
Precipitation of Ferrite from austenite
Cellular precipitation
Eutectoid transformations
Massive transformations
Ordering transformations
Diffusionless transformations

Assessments : 11th of May

06th of June
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²Crystal lattices and structures

§ Crystalographic planes and directions

²Imperfections in solids
²Interaction between imperfections
§ Strengthening and Hardening mechanisms
§ Diffusion
²Deformation mechanisms

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Interatomic bond
Superfícies

Attraction between cations and

METALLIC bond – free “valency” e- free electrons
shared among all atoms; non- Equal sized spheres?
directional

Outstanding electrical conductivity

Ductility, thermal conductivity
d – equilibrium distance between atoms

Solid spheres model A.S.C.M.D’Oliveira

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Crystal Lattices and

structures in metals

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Crystal systems and lattices

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7 systems of crystal symmetry

Arrangement of atoms in crystal systems

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Stacking of close-packed planes

Superfícies

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Crystal Structures

HEXAGONAL COMPACTO:
- Crystal parameters: a e c
Faced centred structure:
- 6 atoms - Crystal parametrers: a
- Atomic packing: 74% Body Centred Cubic:
- 4 atoms per cell
- Packed directions: 3 - Crystal parameters : a
- Atomic packing: 74%
- Packed planes: 1 (plano (aresta do cubo)
- Packed directions: 3
basal) - 2 atoms per celll
<110>
- Primary slip systems: 3 - Atomic packing: : 68%
- Packed planes: 4
(1 basal plane e 3 - Packed directi: 4 <111>
{111}
packed directions) - Packed planes : 0
- Primary slip systems :
- Ex: Ti, Zn - Secundary slip systems :
12 (4 (111) and 3<110>
in each plane) 48 (plane {110}, {112} e
- Ex: Fe-g, Al, Cu e Ni {123}, directions<111>)
- Ex: Fe-a, Cr, Mo e Nb
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Crystal structures
Superfícies

Structures are not fully dense- Interstitials

Octahedral interstitial tetrahedral interstitial

Octahedral interstitial
C in Fe CFC C in Fe CCC.
C in Fe CCC

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Crystal structures
Superfícies

The structure of Fe changes from BCC to FCC when it is heated through 910°C.
By how much would a 1m lenght of Fe wire contract as the structure changes?
Ignore any changes in the radius of the wire and take the radius of the Fe atom in
the BCC structure to be 0.1258nm and 0.1292nm in the FCC structure at the
transition temperature

CCC – 2 at ; CFC – 4 at
2 células CCC se transformam em 1 célula CFC

No sistema CCC a (aresta do cubo)=2D/√3=4r/√3

No sistema CFC a (aresta do cubo)= D√2=2r√2
O volume de duas células de CCC
{(4 x 0.1258x10-9)3/3 √3} x 2 = 49.04 x10-30 m3
se transforma no volume de uma célula CFC
(2 x 0.1292x10-9 x √2)3 = 48.80x10-30 m3

A variação de volume é de (49.04-48.80)/49.04= 0.0049

O arame contraiu 0.0049m-4.9mm

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Crystal structures
Superfícies

How crystalographic characteristics relate to materials

features?

• Deformation
• Mechanical strength
• Ability to form alloys
• Diffusion

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Defects / Imperfections
in Crystal structures

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Crystal imperfections

Point defects:
- vacancy – vacante
atomic site
- substitutional atoms
- interstitial atoms

Vacancy concentration: there is a significant concentration of vacancies in

thermodynamic equilibrium that increases exponentially with rise in
temperature Arrhenius law

N v = N × exp(-Qv / RT )
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Line defects:
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Or dislocations there is ~1010-1012 m of

dislocation line in a m3 of material

A dislocation is characterized by the

magnitude and direction of slip movement
associated with it, the Burgers vector

Edge
Mix

The variation in orientation of the

dislocation line with respect to the
Burgers vector gives rise to diferente
Screw
dislocation structures
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Line defects:
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Edge dislocations, the line of the dislocations is normal to the slip direction

Screw dislocations, the line of the dislocatiosn is parallel to the slip direction.

Edge dislocations
Screw dislocations

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Line defects:
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Dislocation line ( close loop)

(the structure is dislocated between
the slipped and unslipped regions)

Edge dislocation Stress field

b ┴ dislocation caused by a
line(B) b dislocation

Screw
dislocation
b//dislocation
line(A)

Slipped
Unslipped A.S.C.M.D’Oliveira

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Line defects:

Slip caused by the movement of an edge dislocation; the dislocation slips from
one atomic position to the another in the same slip plane forming a slip
step at the surface of the crystal

Slip of a screw dislocation is not restricted to a single single plane

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Slip planes
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FCC metals(cross slip – screw dislocation

glides into another slip plane)

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Planar defects:
Superfícies

Grain boundary – boundary between two regions with diferente

crystalographic orientation

Contorno de
grão de
baixo angulo

Contorno
de grão
de alto
angulo

Grain boundaries form during the solification process or the annelaling process.

Grain boundary is a high energy region due the the high dislocation concentration.

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Planar defects:
Superfícies

Grain boundaires - high density of defects ( vacancies, dislocations)

v Grain boundaries are an obstacle to the slip movement of dislocations.

Ø The higher density of grain boundaries the higher the strength of the
material.

Diffusion (movements of atoms) along the grain boundaires is faster –

high density of defects such as vacancies .

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Planar defects
Engenharia de
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Twin boundaires - the lattice orientation changes at the twin boundary,

one part of the crystal is a mirror image of the other; the amount of
atomic displacement is proportional to the distance from the twin
boundary
Deformation twins - consequence of mechanical forces
Annealing twins – consequence of anneling heat treatment
Slipping
Twinning

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Planar defects
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Stacking fault - Very significant in FCC and HC metals.

Form when a close packed layer falls into the “wrong” position.

Stacking sequence in FCC crystals ABCABCABC...,

Stacking sequence in HC crystals ABABAB...

ABCABABCABC... When a mistake in the stacking sequence occurs, a HC region

forms within a FCC crystal.

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Planar defects
Superfícies

Stacking faults – can occur due to partial dislocations

Slip in FCC structure occurs at {111} planes along the compact directions <110>
within those planes.
However, a lower energy path is available if the dislocation dissociates in two partial
dislocations. It goes through (110) plane and returns via (111) plane. A stacking fault
occurs between the two partials.

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Planar defects
Superfícies

Stacking fault occurs during plastic deformation

A FCC metal will have more or less stacking faults depending on its
stacking fault energy (SFE) - that is compositional dependent

The SFE is a surface stress that acts to recombide the two partial dislocations and eliminate
the stacking fault, but there are repulsion forces that act to maintain the partial apart.

Metals with low SFE can develop a large density of stacking falts during deformation, exhibiting
mechanical features that differ from metals with high SFE.

Stacking fault influence the mechanical features of metals:

-> Partial dislocations can not cross slip

FCC metals with low stacking fault energy can accomodate

a large density of SF and tipically exhibit:

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Interaction between crystal

imperfections

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Point Defects:
- Vacancies ® diffusion; Phase transformations
- Vacancies, intersticials and substitutional atoms reduce electrical and
thermal conductivity
- Solute atoms result in solid solution hardening

Line defects (dislocations)

Dislocation slip along the packed atomic planes allowing plastic
deformation to occur.

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 v Strengthening and hardening
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mechanisms

What are strengthening and hardening mechanisms?

- Obstacles to the dislocation movement will increase the
mechanical resistance of metals

Four strenghtening mechanisms:

- Solid solution
- Grain refinement Single phase alloys
- Strain hardening

- Precipitation Multiphase alloys

- Dispersion

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v Strengthening and hardening

Engenharia de
Superfícies

mechanisms
Dislocation
loop

Dislocation movement - slip

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v Strengthening and hardening

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mechanisms
Solid solution
Impact of the atom size

Interaction between
solute atoms and
dislocations

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v Strengthening and hardening

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mechanisms
Solid solution

v Interaction between
solute atoms and
dislocations

Solute atoms can accomodate

around dislocations

SS substitutional SS interstitial

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v Strengthening and hardening

Engenharia de
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mechanisms
Precipitation of second phase particles
Dependence on the precipitate features: cystal structure, chemical
composition, interface

Interface Coherent matrix/precipitate inter

face – Very good strengthening

Incoherent matrix/precipitate
interface – poor strenghtening
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v Strengthening and hardening

Engenharia de
Superfícies

mechanisms
Dispersion of second phase particles
Second phase – incoherent, undeformable particles no soluble in the
matrix
Ex: fine dispersion of oxides in a metallic matrix by high energy
milling
Interaction particles-dislocation
Dislocations pile-up can
generate high enough
shear stresses to crack
particles

Dislocation gliding in
the matrix leave loops
around particles by
bowing or crossslip

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 v Strengthening and hardening
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mechanisms
Finer grains => higher strenght
Grain boundary
Hall-Petch relationship

Grain boundary features

Low angle grain

boundary

High angle grain

bounday
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v Strengthening and hardening

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mechanisms
Dislocation motion
Primary slip systems: composed of packed planes and directions in the Crystal
lattice

A stress is required to move a dislocation and plastically deform the metal

generating a stress field around the dislocation

Dislocation Interact
As the
getting in eachother
dislocation
way ; making
Dislocation density
dislocation motion
density increases the
Plastic more difficult;
increases by flow stress
deformation The flow stress is the
several orders of increases with
stress required to
magnitude deformation –
move a dislocation in
work
the surrounding
hardnening.
stress field.

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v Strengthening and hardening

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mechanisms Flow stress increases;

Dislocation density increases ductility is reduced

Primary dislocation produce

dipoles and loops by interaction
with secondary dislocations –
dislocations tangles that locally
develop into networks of sub-
boundaries

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Dislocation motion at high temperature: Superfícies

Dislocation climb

Interaction between vacancies and dislocation

Controlled by diffusion ;
depends on temperature

ØRelevant during creep

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v Strengthening and hardening

Superfícies

mechanisms

Ø Draw and explain the stress-strain curves for :

1. Bronze vs Pure Cu
2. Strain harden bronze vs recristalized bronze
3. Pure Al vs Strain hardnening Al alloy vs Al alloy

Ø From the identified strenghtening and hardening

mechanisms, which remain active under high
temperature ?

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Diffusion

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vDiffusion
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Atomic movement: interaction between vacancies and atoms in

a crystal lattice

Activating energy for diffusion

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vDiffusion
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Substitucional diffusion
- Atoms exchange positions in the crystal lattice with
vacancies
Diffusion rates depends on:
density of vacancies
activation energy for atomic movement (that depends
on the matrix and the diffusing atom)

Intersticial diffusion
- Applies to interstitial impurities
- Faster than vacancy diffusion

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vDiffusion
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Self-diffusion

Self diffusion occurs in

single phase alloys; does
not require a
compositional gradient

Ex: Recrystalization
Phase transformation

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vDiffusion
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Ex: Carburizing

Carbon diffuses from the surrounding

enviroment towards the surface of the
part being treated

C atoms reduce the movement in slip planes

and create compressive stresses

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Deformation
mechanisms

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v Deformation Mechanisms
Superfícies

Dislocations motion
Slip sistems
• Slip plane – Plane where the dislocation slips
• Allows for the dislocation to move easily
• Usually a packed plane,
• Slip direction – direction of that the dislocation moves – pack
direction

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v Deformation Mechanisms
Superfícies

Slip: mechanisms that allows for plastic deformation to occur as

dislocations move within the slip systems available
•Slip systems depend on the crystal lattice of each metal since a stress
field is generated during dislocation motion causing atomic distortion that
should be kept to a minimum.

•Metals and alloys have a default dislocation density introduced during

processing such as:
1. Solidification
2. Plastic deformation,
3. Thermal stresses during quenching

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v Deformation Mechanisms
Superfícies

s
• High resistant metals – grain boundaries
delay dislocation slip

• Available slip planes and directions vary from

one grain/crystal to the other in a metal

• The shear stress may vary from one grain to

the other by tR

• Grains with larger t tR will flow first

• Grain with a lattice orientation that is less

favorable (for the applied stress) will be the last
to flow/deform

300 µm

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v Deformation Mechanisms
Superfícies

Anisotropy – properties can vary with the crystal orientation

• Can be induced during fabrication, ex: rolling
- Before rolling
- After rolling

235 µm Rolling direction

- Anisotropic
- Isotropic
Ex: rolling impacts on the
Grains remain equiaxed with
grain morphology and
no specific crystal
orientation
orientation

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v Deformation Mechanisms
Superfícies

Twinning deformation
• a part of the lattice within a grain deforms, exhibiting a mirror image of the
non-deform lattice
• Twinning plane: commum plane between the deform and undeform region

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v Deformation Mechanisms
Superfícies

Slip Twinning

1. Sliding of blocks of atoms along the 1. Portion of crystal takes up an

slip plane orientation that is related to the
orientation of the rest of the untwined
lattice in a definite, symmetrical way.
2. Each atom usually moves same 2. Atoms displacement depends on the
integral number of atomic distances distance to the twin plane; The
along the slip plane producing a step, twinned portion of the crystal is a
but the orientation of the crystal mirror image of the parent crystal
remains the same
3. FCC and BCC crystal structure exhibit 3. It is occurs in small regions in a a
a large number of primary or crystal/grain; it is of great relevance
secondary slip systems, respectively; to HC metals due to the reduced slip
systems
4. Slip allows for large deformations to 4. It allows for small deformations but
occur the important role of twinning in
plastic deformation is that it causes
changes in plane orientation so that
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v Deformation Mechanisms
Superfícies

Creep mechanisms
v Diffusion of atoms/vacancies within the bulk of grains (Nabarro-Herring)
-> creep rate decreases and grain size increases

v Diffusion of atoms/vacancies along the grain boundaries (Coble) ->

stronger grain size dependence

https://www.doitpoms.ac.uk/tlplib/creep/mechanisms.php A.S.C.M.D’Oliveira

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v Deformation Mechanisms
Superfícies

v Dislocation slip; Strong dependence on

applied stress
v Dislocation climb

Dislocation climb

Higher vacancy concentration

and diffusion accommodates
dislocation motion – metals flow
easily
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