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 BUSINESS
COMMUNICATION
Second Edition

Jeanette Wortman Gilsdorf

Professor
California State University—Long Beach

Gretchen N. Vik
Professor
San Diego State University

The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

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McGraw-Hill Higher Education
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BUSINESS COMMUNICATION

Copyright © 1999, 1998, 1996 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the
United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of
this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base
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McGraw-Hill's Primis Custom Publishing consists of products that are produced from camera-ready copy.
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456789 BKMBKM 098765432

ISBN 0-07-240065-X

Editor: Lorna Adams

Cover Design: Mary Bio
Printer/ Binder: Book-mart Press
To Ross, for countless good reasons.

J.W.G.

To my mentors, Clyde and Dorothy Wilkinson, and to Doris

Sponseller, whose help and counsel are profoundly missed.
G.V.
 out the Authors
JEANETTE W. GILSDORF
Dr. Jeanette W. Gilsdorf is a professor in the College of Business Administration,
California State University - Long Beach, where she teaches business and managerial
communication at the undergraduate and graduate levels. Her Ph.D. and M.A., both
in English, are from the University of Nebraska - Lincoln; her B.A. (English with
journalism minor) is from Creighton University in Omaha. Gilsdorf served on the
Board of Directors of the Association for Business Communication from 1986 to
1995. She was the president of ABC from November 1993 to November 1994.
Jenny has published her research in Journal of Business Communication, Public
Relations Review, and Management Communication Quarterly, as well as in Business
Communication Quarterly and numerous other periodicals. She is on the editorial
review board of Management Communication Quarterly and is a regular presenter at
meetings of the ABC. This is her second book; the first was Business Correspondence
for Today, published by John Wiley & Sons.

GRETCHEN N. VIK
Dr. Gretchen N. Vik is a professor of information and decision systems in the College
of Business Administration at San Diego State University. She has been teaching and
consulting in communication for 26 years. She teaches a range of business
communication courses to undergraduate and graduate students, focusing on
improving writing and speaking skills needed on the job. She was named the 199]
Distinguished Faculty Member of the Department of Information and Decision
Systems by the San Diego State University Alumni and Associates Board.
An active member of the ABC, Gretchen has served on a number of committees,
on the Board of Directors from 1978 to 1991, and as president in 1989-90. All of her
degrees are in English, her B.A. from Rice University, her M.A. from the University of
South Dakota, and her Ph.D. from the University of Florida.
She has written three other business communication texts, including the 9" and
10° editions of the popular Wilkinson text, Writing and Speaking in Business, and
articles on basic business communication testing programs, videodisc training package
development, collaborative writing, internship programs, and computer screen design.

lv
 fee
This book is organized the way the course really unfolds - from basics of
communication, to direct messages, then to reports (because they're usually
direct, because they take students several weeks to prepare, and because they
take so much time to grade), oral presentations, on to indirect messages, job
resumes, letters, and interviews. We end with interpersonal communication,
organizational communication, and international and intercultural communi-
cation, thus enabling students to understand how the principles they've learned
actually come to life in the workplace.

Early Writing Applicaton. One of our guiding principles was to get students
writing early. We wanted students to realize that this course has information
they can use now as well as later, on the job. We also include international and
intercultural communication because business is increasingly global.

Real Life Examples. Each chapter begins with "From the desk of," a section in
which a practicing manager explains both the dollar and human costs of missed
or bungled communication opportunities. Within the chapters we offer many
examples, most on letterhead, that show students how to handle communi-
cation problems.

Integrated Topics. Rather than adding chapters for the new "special" topics, we
integrated legal, ethical, and technological issues throughout the text wherever
these topics are relevant. The result is a 16-chapter book that fits a semester or
a quarter course, depending on which chapters you choose to teach. Three
distinct icons call students’ attention to the discussions of legal, ethical, and
technological issues.

Checklists. For student review and writing efficiency, we've included throughout
the text helpful checklists on audience analysis and revision, in addition to
checklists on the different message strategies students will learn to use. The
report checklist, for example, offers many final reminders of format and style
tips covered in the chapter.

Application Exercises and Cases. Students learn by doing. Thus, we provide

end-of-chapter exercises that help students apply the material they learned in
order to retain it better. Real-life cases show how communication problems on
the job occur and affect business effectiveness.

Readings on Chapter Topics. Most chapters include one or two short readings
to give students different points of view and actual managenal comments on
text topics.
 Reference Appendixes. To make information easily accessible, we put it in
end-of-text appendixes: model letter and memo formats and layout tips in
Appendix A; a grammar and mechanics handbook with examples in Appendix
B; and documentation models from all three major styles, MLA, APA, and
Chicago Manual of Style, in Appendix C.

INNOVATIVE CHAPTERS

Chapter One: Basics of Business Communication

After studying audience analysis, a basic model of communication, and

effective communication despite cultural and personal differences, students will
cover conventional strategies and learn when to use direct and indirect
approaches to convey messages. Chapter One also covers the writing process
from planning to writing a rough draft through revision. This chapter includes
helpful checklists on audience analysis and revision, which students will use
throughout the course.

Chapter Two: The Routine, Direct Business Message

Direct messages begin with the most important point to present to the reader or
listener. This chapter covers providing information someone has asked for,
responding to customers about a company's products, notifying people about
business changes, and asking for information. We work through some direct
messages from planning through drafting and revising. We examine how good
document design and format can help get a message across, whether through
word processing, electronic mail, voice mail, or phone.

Chapter Three: Business Writing Style

Elements of style, especially word choice, influence readers' perceptions of

writers and organizations. This chapter develops students’ ability to write in a
concise, clear, readable style. It covers the changing language of business and
develops students’ sensitivity to readers’ language needs and preferences. A
plain, inconspicuous style conveys meaning quickly and conserves readers’
time. Many style decisions, made at the "micro" level of words and sentences
,
govern success at the "macro" or whole-message level. From. this
chapter,
students will learn how important language mastery is and will gain motivatio
n
to pursue it.

Chapter Four: Short Reports and Proposals

Reports support business decisions. Those between two and ten

pages are
generally less formal than longer reports. If well written, short
reports allow
recipients to understand a point quickly with little effort. This chapter
covers
numerous different types of short reports, including proposals, periodic
reports
such as progress reports, justification reports, and feasibility studies.
Examples
show how these report types differ and the types of situations they
fit. Since
vi short reports tend to be direct, coverage at this point in the
text works well.
Chapter Five: Secondary Research for Business Reporting

Business research is costly in itself, and the decisions based on business

research have far-reaching consequences with dramatic effects on profit and
loss. Secondary research, usually less expensive than primary, contains the
answers to many real-world business problems, though far too few business
practitioners know how to take advantage of research already published.

A business research case in this chapter leads students through the extensive
planning process that precedes research. The discussion of the business library
will help any student in any college or university library, whether that library
relies on traditional information-finding tools or offers the latest in com-
puter-assisted indexes and delivery systems.

Chapter Six: Primary Research for Business Reporting

Chapter Six prepares students to perform simple primary-research projects

involving either observation or survey. After understanding that both validity
and reliability characterize good research, students will learn how to prepare for
and conduct an observation; distinguish among kinds of samples; draw a
random sample; develop a questionnaire; administer a questionnaire by mail,
by phone, and in person; treat thew data; and interpret data and draw
conclusions. Finally, they will explore the task of narrowing a broad topic into
one that is useful and researchable.

Chapter Seven: Graphics

Businesspeople receive more and more of their information visually. Some-

times one or two excellent exhibits can take the place of many paragraphs or
even pages of text. This chapter shows students how to construct numerous
kinds of effective graphics and how to incorporate them into a written text. We
provide many exhibits to show students their varied options for visuals. Though
many students now have access to computer graphic-drawing packages, the
chapter covers low-tech graphics as well.

In preparation for using graphics in oral presentations, Chapter Seven discusses

differences between graphics intended for oral presentation and those made for
inclusion in a written document. Examples of effective presentation graphics
are shown. Another plus in Chapter Seven is the section on computer screen
design.

Chapter Eight: Report Organization and Format

This chapter covers longer, more formal reports. In addition to discussing

report parts and showing partial and complete examples of real student reports,
we discuss collaborative writing of reports, report style, and the importance of
audience analysis to the production of a successful report.

vii
 Chapter Nine: Oral Presentations

This chapter helps students overcome apprehension, build confidence, and

develop skill in giving business presentations. It explains that audiences
generally support speakers and want them to succeed. Students learn to build
common ground with the audience by becoming audience-centered.

Students also learn about different ways to structure a talk. Extemporaneous

speaking receives in-depth attention, with manuscript, memorized, and
impromptu speaking covered to a lesser extent. Other strengths of this chapter
include detailed information on nonverbal signals and aspects of voice, and
guidelines for preparing and using many kinds of visual and audiovisual
presentation aids. Because presenting on video is more and more common
today, Chapter Nine discusses presenting for the mass media, for in-house use,
and for videoconferencing.

Chapter Ten: Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and

Sensitive Information

This chapter covers tactful and effective messages containing negative or

sensitive information. These messages are usually written indirectly. Indirect
messages include refusals, adjustments, order problems, and _ personnel
problems. We discuss potential problems of sending negative information by
phone, fax, or E-mail. Techniques for conveying information indirectly, such as
using passive voice, emphasizing the positive over the negative, and avoiding
negative words, are covered, as is the service attitude as a means of thoughtfully
handling external negative situations.

Chapter Eleven: Writing to Persuade

Chapter Eleven covers perhaps the most challenging types of business

messages - those that must influence or change what the reader thinks or does.
When students need to write persuasively on the job, they will have to know
much more than merely how to write a sales letter or a favor request. Most
business persuasion involves gaining a needed action that is not simply a favor.
In organizations, business persuaders tend to achieve the best persuasive results
by developing reasons why the action is good for receiver, sender, and
organization.

Chapter Twelve: Job Search

After learning about job research and personal analysis, students go on to

gather background data on themselves for personal portfolios used to compile
effective résumés and application letters. In addition to many partial and full
résumé and letter examples used by real applicants, this chapter includes useful
forms for record-keeping during the job search.

Chapter Thirteen: Job Interviews

This chapter will help students to prepare for and succeed at job interviews. In
viii addition to discussing on-campus interviews, we look at second, on-site
interviews, and videotape, computer, and group interviews. Nonverbal
interview tips and sample questions in each conventional area, as well as the
newer situational or critical-incident-skills questions, are also included, as are
thank-you letters and salary negotiation.

Chapter Fourteen: Communicating Interpersonally

With strong emphasis on teamwork, Chapter Fourteen covers building trust

and common ground. Active listening is explored in depth. High or low skill in
nonverbal communication often separates successful from unsuccessful
employees and managers. This chapter covers many categories of unworded
signals: facial expression, posture, gesture and movement, touch, tone of voice,
use of time, and use of space. Throughout, the discussion shows how to send
the appropriate nonverbal signals for business success.

Chapter Fifteen: Communicating in Organizations

New to organizations, students can find themselves challenged by an im-

mediate need for acculturation. This chapter explains corporate culture and
offers a variety of ways for students to become effective quickly in the work-
place. The discussion of organizational communication networks will clarify the
need for information flow and coordination of efforts and will alert students to
some of the common barriers. Coverage of meetings is thorough - from
planning and organizing, to conducting, to following up - showing how to get
the highest value for the use of members’ expensive time.

Chapter Sixteen: Business Communication with People from

Other Nations

Chapter Sixteen introduces students to the varied challenges of doing business

in an increasingly international arena. The basics of dealing with business
people from other cultures and the problems created by ethnocentrism and
stereotyping are explored, as are examples of specific differences among
cultures. This chapter covers writing for an international audience within the
framework of high-context and low-context cultures and of individualist and
collectivist cultures. Nonverbal communication differences are examined, in-
cluding facial expression, gestures and their varied meanings, and appropriate
business attire while abroad. The chapter concludes with ways to communicate
successfully in the U.S. with foreign-bormm workers, especially those with lmuted
English proficiency, to integrate them into functional and supportive work
environments.

Appendix A: Formats for Business Messages

This appendix gives models tor letter and memo formats, discussing letter parts
and showing alternate styles common in business today.

Appendix B: Writing Handbook

This alphabetical list of symbols saves teachers time in marking papers and
ix
gives students brief explanations of common writing problems. The list covers
grammar and style, spelling and diction, and other aspects of business writing,
giving examples but no exercises.

Appendix C: Three Common Bibliographic Styles: APA, MLA,

and University of Chicago

While students may encounter widely differing bibliographic styles in their

research sources, they must make their own bibliographic entries stylistically
consistent. Appendix C gives helpful examples of each of the major biblio-
graphic and references styles, APA, MLA, and University of Chicago. This
appendix also offers common-sense formats for nonprint and computerized
sources. We put this material in an appendix rather than a chapter because of
the lower emphasis placed upon documentation in business compared to
academia.
 Effective business communication
means moving outside your own perspective
and viewing things from your readers’ standpoint.

You analyze a situation and reflect

on how to make what you say
meaningful and acceptable to readers.

If you find out who your business readers are

and what they want and need,
and you give it to them
in good standard English
that uses familiar, clear wording
and an order that makes sense,
you're likely to be a good business communicator.

Every good writer and speaker

can be a better one.
We never stop learning
to communicate more effectively.
 Contents
Chapter One: BASICS OF BUSINESS Punctuating Simple, Compound, and Complex
COMMUNICATION 2 Sentences 26
Preview 3 The Introductory Verbal Modifier 28

Communicating as Part of a Business 4

Chapter Two: THE ROUTINE, DIRECT
Audience Analysis 5 BUSINESS MESSAGE 30
The "You" Attitude 5 Preview 31
Multiple Audiences 8
Multiple Writers 9 Direct Structure Written Messages 32
Globalization of Communication 9
Format and Appearance 33
A Communication Model 10
Memo Format 33
Sender, Receiver, and Situation 10
Letter Format 34
Filter 11
Short Reports 35
Noise 11
Encoding and Decoding 12
Denotation and Connotation 12 Document Design Choices 35
Cultural Differences 12
Use Headings as Needed 35
Strategies for Effective Communication 13 An Example of the Hierarchy of Headings 35
Headings Should "Talk" 36
Direct-Structure Messages 14 Headings Should Help
Indirect-Structure Messages 14 Both Writer and Reader 37
Persuasive-Structure Messages 17 Purposeful Repetition Is Useful 37
Internal Structural Patterns 19 Make Wise Type Choices 37
Don't Overdo Variety 38
The Writing Process 19 Use White Space 38
Use Lists to Add Emphasis and
Plan Your Message 19 Show Similarity of Ideas 38
Write a Quick Rough Draft 20
Don't Right-Justify 39
Revising 21
Messages That Sell Your Firm 39
Review 22
Routine Memos 39
Application Exercises 24
Letters That Use Direct Structure 42
Asking for Information Directly 42
Cases 24
Favorable Response to a Request 42

xii
 Form Letters That Sell Your Firm 47 Credibility 70

Phones in Business 50 Suitability for Medium and Channel 70

Electronic Eavesdropping 50 Courtesy 70

Phone Logs, Automatic and Manual 50
Organization Policies on Phone Use? 50 Correctness 71
Automated Voice Mail — Necessary Evil 50
Naturalness 71
Good Business Use of Telephones 51
Note Differences Between Written and
Spoken English 71
When You Call Others 51
Avoid Outdated Expressions 72
Leaving a Message 51 Use Accurate Denotation and Connotation 73
Reaching the Person 5]
When Others Call You 51 Positiveness 74
Placing on Hold 52
Phone Use When the Caller Is Angry 52 Readability 75
Your Voice Mail Answering Message 52
Consider "The Numbers" 75
Using the Fax 53 Choose Active Voice 76
Avoid Noun Clumps 77
Using E-mail 53 Shorten Sentences and Paragraphs 78
Use White Space 79
Problems, Pitfalls, and Policies 55
Coherence and Transition 79

Review 56
Achieving Coherence 79
Reviewing Transitional Expressions 80
Application Exercises 57
Effective Emphasis 81
Cases 57
Avoidance of "Isms" 81
Parallel Structure 61
Stereotypes 82
Possessives 62
"Soft" Categories: Generalizations with
Growing Room 82
Pronouns 63 Sexism 83
Racial and Ethnic Prejudice 84
Affect and Effect 64
Bias against Workers with Disabilities 84
Other "Isms" and Writers' Responsibility 85

Chapter Three: BUSINESS WRITING Word Choice: Some General Principles 85

STYLE 66
Choose Short Words over Long Words 85
Preview 67 Choose Plain Words over Pompous Ones 86
Choose Familiar Words over Unfamiliar
Meeting Readers' Expectations 68 Words 86
Use Concrete, Specific Words Rather than
Conciseness 69 Abstract, General Words 87
Choose Precise Nouns and Verbs over
Clarity 69 Adjectives and Adverbs 88

Inconspicuousness 69 Variables and Judgment Calls 88 ae.

xiii
 Slang 88 Chapter Five: SECONDARY RESEARCH
Euphemisms 89 FOR BUSINESS REPORTING § 128
Jargon 90 Preview 129
New Language 90
Reports and Research 130
The Goal: A Mature Business-Writing Style 91
Definition: Business Report 130
Writing for Readers in Other Countries 92 Truth and Objectivity 130

Computer Aids to Revising 93 Secondary and Primary Research

Differentiated 131
Spelling Checkers 93
Writing Checkers 93 Research Reports: Origin and Process 131
Thesauruses 94
A Business Research Report Case 131
Review 94 Foreseeing the Shape of the Finished
Report 133
Application Exercises 96 Business Reports Contrasted with Other
Research Reports 134

Chapter Four: SHORT REPORTS Secondary Research for Business Reporting 134
AND PROPOSALS 100
Preview 101 Navigating the Library 135

Short Reports in Business 102 Planning and Carrying Out Your

Research Strategy 135
Purpose and Audience 102
Content of the Report 103 The Changing Face of the
Need to Attribute? 103 Business Library 136
Memo, Letter, or Manuscript Format 104
Form Reports 104 Library Catalog 136
Headings and Graphics in Short Reports 104 Boolean Operators 137
Report-Writing Style 105 Library of Congress and
LC Subject Headings 138
Common Types of Short Reports 105 Keywords, Topic Headings, Descriptors 138
Periodicals and Other Serials 138
Justification Reports 106 Indexes to Periodicals 139
Feasibility Reports 107 Build Your Bibliography as You Search 139
Proposals 107 Indexes to Business Literature 140
Progress Reports 114 Indexes to Government Documents 140
Periodic Reports 114 Government Documents Online 141
Audit Reports 115 Corporate Directories and
Abstracts and Summaries 116 Financial Information 141
Procedures Reports 117 Hard-Copy and Microform Resources 141
Indexes on Line — Some Full Text 141
Review 123
Researching on the World Wide Web 142
Application Exercises 124
The Downside of the Web 143
Cases 124
Quoting, Paraphrasing,
Reading 4- 1 Winning the Paper Wars 127 Citing, and Documenting 144
Xiv
 Accuracy 144 Defining Your Primary Research Problem 175
Quoting 144
Paraphrasing 144 Review 176
Avoiding Plagiarism 145
Application Exercises 177
Following Good Scholarly Practice 145
Cases 179
Paraphrasing — The Right Way 146
Three Citation Systems 146
Parenthetical In-Text Referencing 147 Chapter Seven: GRAPHICS 180
The Bibliography 147
Consistency in Documentation Style 148 Preview 181

Defining Your Research Problem 148 Another Way to Look at and

Think About Information 182
Using Selection Criteria 148
Narrowing the Focus 149 Designing Visuals for
Written and Oral Communications 183
Review 150
Simplicity 183
Application Exercises 151 Clarity 184
Impact 184
Cases 151 Truthfulness 184

Using Visuals in Written Reports 185

Chapter Six: PRIMARY RESEARCH FOR
BUSINESS REPORTING 154 Labeling the Visual 185
Preview 155 Titling the Visual 185
Sizing the Visual 185
Primary Data Gathering 156 Introducing the Visual 185
Placing the Visual 186
Validity and Reliability 157 Framing the Visual 186
Documenting the Visual 186
Observational Research 159 Interpreting the Visual 186

Planning 160 Types of Report Graphics 188

Pilot Testing 160
A Simple Observational Research Case 160 Tables 188
Figures 189
Survey Research 162
Computer Options 202
Sampling 162
Questionnaire Construction 165 Attractive Low-Tech Options 203
Administering the Survey 170
Cutting and Pasting 203
Treating Data 172 Clip Art 204

Percentages 173 Presentation Visuals 206

Cross-tabulation 173
Mean, Median, and Mode 173 Introducing the Speaker and the Topic 207
Standard Deviation 174
Presenting an Overview of the Talk's
Interpreting Data and Drawing Conclusions 175 Organization 207 XV
 Emphasizing Important Points 209 Chapter Nine: ORAL PRESENTATIONS
Clarifying Concepts 209
Preview 271
Reemphasizing the Purpose of the
Presentation 209 272
The Self and the Audience

Computer Screen Design 209 Good Speakers Know Themselves 272

Good Speakers Know Their Audiences 273
Review 211 About Audiences in General 274

Beginning, Middle, and End 275

Application Exercises 213
Delivery Styles and Techniques 276
Cases 213
Manuscript Speeches Read or Memorized 276
Reading 7-1. Words on the Wall 215 Extemporaneous Speaking 277
Impromptu Speaking 277

Controlling Nonverbals and Paraverbals 278

Chapter Eight: REPORT ORGANIZATION
AND FORMAT 218 Posture 279
Grooming 279
Preview 219 Dress 279
Face 279
Planning the Long Report Project 220 Hands 279
Feet 280
Will Important Readers Be Eye Contact 280
From Other Nations? 222 Poise 280
Voice and Paraverbals 280
Report Process Checklist 223
Informing and Persuading 282
Report Style 223 Informative Presentations 282
Persuasive Presentations 283
Report Style Checklist 225
Presentation Visuals and Audiovisuals 285
Formal-Report Format 225
Handouts 287
Preliminary Parts 226 Chalkboards or Whiteboards 289
Flipcharts 289
The Report Body 231
Posters 289
Deskcharts 289
Report Revision Checklist 233 Overhead Transparencies 289
35mm Slides 290
Sample Report 234 Audiotape Recordings 290
Yideotapes 290
Review 253 Computer "Shows" 291
Multimedia 291
Application Exercises 255 Ensuring Your Visuals Success 292

Presenting on Video 292

Cases 255
Presenting for the Media 292
Formats for the Citation of Electronic Sources in Presenting for In-house Uses 294
Business Writing 261 Presenting for Videoconferences 295

xvi
Review 296 Application Exercises 334

Application Exercises 297 Cases 334

Cases 297 Reading 10-1 Service Without a Smile Can Be

Deadly 338
Reading 9-1 Guidelines for Better Visuals 298
Reading 10-2 Do You Have the Right Attitude
Reading 9-2 The Not-So-Hidden Benefits of Towards Clients? 339
Powerful Speaking 299

Reading 9-3 The Origins of Public-Speaking Chapter Eleven: WRITING TO PERSUADE 342
Panic 299
Preview 343

Chapter 10: INDIRECT MESSAGES: Persuasion Defined 344

HANDLING NEGATIVE
Elements of Persuasion 344
AND SENSITIVE INFORMATION 302
Receivers of Persuasive Messages 345
Preview 303
Senders of Persuasive Messages 351
The Situation Surrounding the Persuasion 352
Psychological Reasons for Indirectness 304
Ethics and Persuasion 353
Strategies and Techniques 355
Steps in Writing Indirect Negative or Sensitive
Structuring a Written Persuasive Message 362
Messages 305
Specialized Persuasive Writing: Selling by
Mail 365
Begin with a Buffer to Set Up the
Situation 305
An Effective Sales Letter Package 369
Explain the Problem 305
Imply or Embed the Negative 306 Review 372
Get the Necessary Action 306
End on a Positive Note 306 Application Exercises 374

Negative Business Situations 306 Cases 375

Refusals 306
Adjustments and Compromises on Chapter 12: JOB SEARCH +378
Complaints 310
Order Problems 317 Preview 379
Personnel Problems 325
Organizing Your Job Search 380
How to Convey Negative Information 327
Deciding on a Career: Self-Analysis 381
Passive versus Active Voice 327
Subordination versus Emphasis: Emphasize the List 1: Skills 381
Positive 328 ' List 2: Abilities 382
Avoiding Negative Language 328 List 3: Accomplishments 382
List 4: Ideal Job 382
Handling Mixed Messages: Some Positive and
Some Negative Information 329 Gathering Information on
Prospective Employers 383
Direct Negative Messages 329
Your Campus Career-Planning Office 383 y
Review 333 Library Sources 384 xvii
 Information from Recruiters 385
Preparing for an Interview 425
Professional Associations 385
Networking 385 Preliminary Company Research 425
Information Interviews 386 Networking, Applying to C ompanies Directly, and
The Hidden Job Market 386 Answering Ads 425
Contacting by Letter and byT elephone 427
Assembling Information on Yourself 386 Answering Ads 427
Maintaining Your Database 386 Interview Fundamentals 427
Experience and Past Successes 387
Educational Highlights 388 Types of Questions 427
Activities and Honors 389 Types of Interviewers 428
References 389 Types of Interviews 428

Preparing a Resume to Sell Yourself 389 Electronic Media in Interviews 428

Resume Ethics 390 Computer Interview s 429

Resume Emphasis 390 Videotaped Resumes 430
Conventional Information Categories 394 Videotaped Interviews 430
Importance of Layout and Appearance 402 Satellite Interviews 430
Chronological versus Functional A [pproach 406
Stationery Choices 406 Group Interviews 431

Creating a Cover Letter That Sells 409 The Typical 30-Minute Interview
Time Frame 431
Get Attention Right Away 410
Convince with Details 414 Small Talk: 5 Minutes 432
Ask for an Interview and Remind Reader about Asking and Answering Questions: /5 Minut
es 432
Your Qualifications 415 Candidate Questions: 5 Minutes 433
Interview Write-Up: 5 Minutes 433
Keep Records of Job Contacts 415
The Nonverbal Interview 433
Review 416 What You Wear 433
How Professional You Look and Act 436
Application Exercises 418 How You React to Silence 437

Cases 418 Sample Interview Questions and

Answering Tips 438
Reading 12 -1 Creating an Inventory of
Vocational Assets 419 Education Questions 438
Experience Questions 438
Reading 12-2 _ Selling Yourself in 30 Secon Activities and Honors Questions
ds 421 439
Personal Qualities Questions 440
Follow-up Questions 44]
Chapter Thirteen: JOB INTERVIEWS 422 Critical-Incident Skills or
Situational Questions 44]
Preview 423 Atypical Questions 442
Job-Related Questions 444
The College Recruiting System Questions that Discriminate 444
423
Questions Asked by the Candidate
446
Workshops 423
Second Interviews 446
Computerized Guidance 423
The Placement Process 425
Company Tours and Lunches
448
Thank-you Letters 449 Your Self-Talk — The Voice Within 483
Impression Management 483
The Importance of Promptness and Accuracy 449 Diversity and Nonverbal Communication 484
General Outline 450
Gaining Goodwill with Thank-you Letters 451 Review 485

Negotiating Your Job Offer 451 Application Exercises 486

Salary 45] Cases 487

Benefits 452
Reading 14-1 Using the Magic Bullet 489
Review 452
Reading 14-2 Mimic Your Way tothe Top 489
Application Exercises 454

Cases 454 Chapter Fifteen: COMMUNICATING IN

ORGANIZATIONS 492
Reading 13-1 The No Clash Interview 455 Preview 493

Reading 13-2 How to Prove Your Corporate Culture 494

Way toa Job Offer 458
Learning the Ropes 495
Written and Unwritten Rules 495
Chapter Fourteen: COMMUNICATING
INTERPERSONALLY 460 Power, Politics, and Influence 496
Preview 461
Kinds of Power 496
Perception and Attitude 462 Organizational Politics 497
Developing Personal Power 497
Influencing and Informing 462 Influencing Peers 498
Influencing the Boss 498
Teamwork 462
Organizational Communication Networks 499
Common Ground and Trust 463
Formal Network: The Chain of Command 499
Johari Grid 463 Informal Networks 500
Agendas in Interpersonal Communication 464 Barriers to Effective Organizational
Communication 502
Active Listening 465 Technological Communication Networks 504
Electronic Mail and Organizations 504
Causes of Poor Listening 465 Telecommuting and Organizations 505
Effective Listening Behaviors 466
The Payoffs of Good Listening 467 Small-Group Meetings 506
When Do You Stop Listening? 468
The Cost of Meetings 506
Nonverbal Communication 469
Participating in Meetings 507
Facilitating Meetings 507
Ambiguity and Multiple Meanings 469
Planning and Organizing Meetings 508
Interpreting: Establish Behavioral Baseline
Conducting Meetings 509
First 471
Following Up 512
Be Aware of and Control What You Send 472
Meetings Using Group Decision
Power, Status, and Nonverbals 472
473 Support Systems 512
Mainstream U.S. Nonverbal Communication
473 Teleconferencing 313
Categories of Nonverbals
 Review 515 Business Attire When Abroad 541
Honor and Face 541
Application Exercises 516 Issues You Should Follow up on Your Own 542

Cases 516 Intercultural Business Communication

Here at Home 543
Reading 15-1 "Computerizing" Dull MeetingS
Is Touted as an Antidote to the Mouth Examples of Intercultural Workplace
That Bored 518 Problems 544
Getting Around Foreign-Born
Workers' Limited English Proficiency 547
Chapter Sixteen: BUSINESS COMMUNICATION
WITH PEOPLE FROM OTHER Review 549
NATIONS 522
Application Exercises 550
Preview 521
Cases 550
Business Communication with People From Other
Nations 522

Trust Underlies Most Business Communication 522

Appendix A FORMATS FOR BUSINESS
Generalizing Is Okay but Stereotyping Is Not 523
MESSAGES 554
The Functions of Culture 524
Appendix B WRITING HANDBOOK 567
Many Americans Are Culture-Blind 528
Appendix C THREE COMMON BIBLIO-
GRAPHIC STYLES: APA,
Same Language, Different Rules 529
MLA, UNIVERSITY OF
CHICAGO 592
"Englishes" 530

Different Language, Different Rules 530

Recommendations for
International Written English 532

Spoken Language 533

Some Continua for Describing Cultures 535

High-Context and Low-Context Cultures 535

Individualist and Collectivist Cultures 536
Power Distance and
Attitude Toward Authority 536
Monochronism and Polychronism 536

Nonverbal Communication 537

Facial Expression 537

Gestures and Meaning 538
Eye Contact and Length of Gaze 538
The Meanings and Uses of Space 540
Touching as a Culture-Determined Signal 540

XX
A usiness
Communication
Chaptec he

LZ asics of Business
Communication
Effective communication skills will help you succeed in business. You will be able
to get your ideas across more quickly and easily, and you will be more likely get
your audience to see ideas your way. Communication means to exchange ideas
using common symbols. The most important word to remember here is exchange.
Remember: You communicate only when your audience understands your
message—communication is a two-way Street.

This chapter is an overview of the basic things you need to know about
communicating in business. Most of the ideas will be discussed in detail later, but
in this chapter you will learn enough to begin to communicate more effectively.
After learning about audience analysis, you'll read about a basic model of
communication and how we communicate, coding and decoding others’
information despite cultural and personal differences

Writing will become easier when you use conventional strategies to attack writing
and speaking problems. Many business messages are direct: You ask or tell the
important idea right at the beginning of the letter, memo, report, or speech. When
you need to send negative or persuasive information, however, you usually choose
to communicate indirectly, because that way your audience is more likely to accept
the information and ultimately do what you want.

Becoming a good business communicator takes practice, but it's worth the trouble
to know you have improved your chances of getting your point across and
convincing people to take action in the way you recommend. We first cover
planning and writing good business communication, because you can apply these
same skills to preparing effective oral presentations.
 Communicating Well Yields
From the desk of... A Competitive Advantage

In the automotive parts company where I work, each employee is an expert

in his or her own job. Each of us depends on others’ expertise and their
willingness and ability to share it.
We exchange hundreds of messages daily: E-mails, memos, phone calls.
We page; we fax; we meet for a quick conference. The people who get ahead
have to be good at all of it. The parts industry is competitive. If employees
can't work together at serving the customers, plenty of other parts companies
will gladly take those buyers away.
Milo Turner
Assistant Manager of
Engineering and MIS had a costly standoff two years ago. Engineering is
Engineering unstructured and highly interactive, but the head of MIS was an information
hoarder. His roadblocks delayed our completing an innovative system to
automate custom parts production. He was fired; our client's plant opened
late; and we paid damages and were criticized in print. Information must
flow in a company.

A communication problem like the one you just read shows how poor
communication can be a cost. Effective communication, in contrast, makes
money.

COMMUNICATING AS Most of the academic writing you have done has probably been to an audience
PART OF A BUSINESS of one, an instructor. This audience evaluated your essay, test, term paper, or
report for a grade, since you were writing about subject matter in which the
instructor was an expert. You may also have been Judged on your creativity or
your ability to surprise or amuse a reader.
The business writing you do will be different, and easier in many ways.
Often you will be "the expert," with information your business reader needs
and wants. Also, business audiences are not looking for creative writing
or for
entertainment. All of them will appreciate a plain, clear, familiar style.

Business communication, written or spoken, has some typical attributes:

e It is prepared for readers looking for useful information, clearly presente
d.
e It is prepared under time and money constraints, A letter written
to an
individual costs, on average, at least $10 - 12 to produce, when you
add up
the writer's paid time, the supplies, the postage, and the overhead.
It must
do its job and be worth its cost.
e It often has more than one purpose (for example, to refuse
a request but
retain the requester as a potential customer). Goodwill is
an important
aspect of most business communication.
e Its tone and attitude toward the reader or listener are as import
ant as the
actual words used or the information conveyed.

Effective business communication fosters goodwill, develo

ps good public rela-
tions, and influences your audience to take the action
you recommend.
Chapter One
companies need to ensure that their business communication -- whether from
salespeople, phone receptionists, or letter writers -- treats customers well.

For most business communication, the bottom line is helping your business Good business
make money. A business can save money by using the most efficient and communication is all
effective strategies to produce business messages successfully the first time about making money
around. Doing something efficiently is doing it without waste of time, and
doing it effectively is doing it well. To reach both those goals, find out who
your audience is and adapt to that audience.

A business audience (one or more readers or listeners) for a letter, memo, Audience Analysis
report, or presentation can be a boss, a peer manager in another department,
subordinates, laypeople, clients, or readers of annual reports.. These people
range from those who knowagreat deal about your topic to those who may be
hearing about it for the first time.
Clarity is essential both in speaking and in writing, but especially so in Lack of clarity can be
writing. While your listeners can let you know as you speak whether they a heavy cost.
understand your ideas, your readers may not be close enough to tell you you've
lost them. If you do find out your written message was unclear, you are still
stuck with the time and expense of sending another message to clear up the
first miscommunication. Of course, if the reader does not bother to reply, you
might never even find out that something went seriously wrong.

Make sure it's right before you send it.

Checklist 1-1 on page 8 suggests ways to help you analyze your audience
so that you can provide them with the most useful information.
Analyzing your audience ahead of time will help you remember to

e Translate technical terms for nonbusiness audiences.

e Adjust the amount and tone of information for different audiences --
bosses, peers, subordinates, experts, nonexperts.

Analyze a listening audience before you speak. Audience analysis for

speaking also requires that you find out the physical characteristics of the place
where you'll be speaking (size, noise level, availability of microphone, other
speakers, audiovisual capability, etc.).

Audience analysis is one of the basics of business communication.

You analyze your audience to help you shape your message to this par-
ticular receiver or set of receivers. Audience members like to feel as though
they are the center of attention.

To make this happen, use the "you" attitude. The "you" attitude means The "You" Attitude
writing as much as possible from the other person's point of view. Put yourself
in your reader's or hearer's shoes and see your communication from that view-
point. What are the other person's interests, values, priorities, and attitudes?
Then write so as to take those things into account. What does he know? How
much explanation is needed? Does he know you? (If not, be especially careful
to establish by the excellence of your communication that you are orderly,
intelligent, and all the other things that create a good business impression.)
Basics of Business Communication
 What is your reader interested in? If she has asked you a question, she is
interested in the answer to the question. If considering whether to buy your
services, the reader wants to know what you offer that suits her better than
your competition's services. When the reader will be glad to hear the answer to
a question, start immediately with that information. Don't delay with empty
formulas such as "I have your letter before me" or "The following is in
response to your message of February 16." Start with (for example) "Yes, four
of our courteous, experienced waiters can staff your company's event on April
oa

Always consider reader Think in terms of how your reader will benefit by agreeing with you or from
benefits. doing what you ask. Notice how the friendly tone of the memo in Exhibit 1-1,
sent via electronic mail by the editor of a company newsletter, takes the
reader's time and interest into account (and succeeds in getting the writer's
questionnaire answered).
Had the editor not used the "you" attitude, the action requested might have
seemed like too much work. The writer avoided the mistake of beginning the
message with the request. Also, the writer keeps the language fresh and avoids
distant-sounding passives like "Your cooperation is greatly appreciated." (By
whom? Unnamed corporate staff in the Department of Appreciating?) Passive
voice would sound stiff here. A person who appreciates says, "I appreciate. . ."
or "Thank you for... ."

EXHIBIT 1-1 E-Mail Message

February 15, 1998

Oe @APPLAUSE.DIS
From: GENVAX:: HRRVM
Subject: MAGIC BULLETIN INFORMATION GATHERING

Because you've submitted applause to the Magic Bulletin

i over the last few months, your input is valuable to me
received in deciding if we should change that section of the
message newsletter.

ae I've compiled a short survey to get the needed

Situs information, but I'd appreciate any other comments you
have. This E-mail survey seemed the easiest way to
find
out what you think without taking up too much of your
time.

ry To help improve the company newsletter,’ please send me

action easy your ae eee by Monday, February 22. You can send
them in by VAX or, if you prefer, by mail (OGY MF
appreciate your help.

Attachment: Questionnaire

Chapter One
People's words create an image in the minds of others. The right image is

e businesslike e human e approachable

e helpful e professional e reliable

Examine a weak example of a routine business letter. (We'll give just the
body.)

Thank you for the courtesies you extended to me recently while we discussed
the transfer of the above-referenced property. | have enclosed for your review
and execution the following documents:

Good faith estimate of settlement charges

Federal truth-in-lending disclosure statement

Kindly execute all of the enclosed documents and return them to me in the
enclosed self-addressed and stamped envelope.

If you have any questions, please do not hesitate to contact me.

The letter doesn't sound much like one human being talking to another. The Sound “human.”
"courtesies extended" to the writer were a phone call asking where the papers
should be sent. This wording makes it sound as though limousine
transportation and maid service were part of the arrangements. The language
throughout is artificial and wordy. People can deal with "legalese" if they have
to, but this too-formal language makes a simple request to sign papers sound
absurdly stilted. "Execute"? Just use "sign."
Be careful with "If you have any questions...." For many unskilled
business writers, this question is automatic and too easily substituted for
communicating everything needed the first time. Ideally, your letter will have
answered all the reader's questions and you can omit referring to questions. If
your reader has a question, he will ask you -- why would he "hesitate"? If you
genuinely believe there may be unanswered questions the reader needs
encouragement to bring up, go ahead and ask, but avoid the "please do not
hesitate" wording. It sounds unnatural. Real human beings don't talk this way.
Just use "please ask." This letter body is better:

Enclosed are the documents we discussed in last week's phone call:

Good faith estimate of settlement charges

Federal truth-in-lending disclosure statement

Please read them; then sign both on the yellow-highlighted line and return
them to me in the enclosed stamped and addressed envelope. Please call me
if you have questions. | look forward to working with you again.

The revision is shorter and clearer than the original. The clichés are gone. The
added reference to future work in the revised version is good business; you
can't build a client base if you do just one job for each client. Finally, the
revised letter is friendly and helpful. It sounds as though it came from a human
being, not an official-sounding windbag.
Basics of Business Communication
 Checklist 1-1 Audience Analysis
Who is your audience? How many people? agree with you or expect the information,
What is their education level? What is their you'll be direct and get right to the point. If
background in your topic? What kinds and your message is negative or unexpected, you'll
levels of jobs do they hold? The corporate need to approach your audience less directly.
culture will affect tone, word choice, and even (We'll discuss organization asa strategy later
format. If your audience is large and consists in this chapter.)
of potential customers for a product, you'll
need to be clear and focused on selling points What is your relationship to your audience?
that may appeal to many people. You will write differently to your boss than to
your subordinates, and toa peer in still another
What information do they already have? way. The reasons relate to some of the earlier
Don't spend time and space on something your questions. Your boss may need to see the big
audience already knows. picture, your subordinates may need details to
be able to take action, and your peer manager
How much information do they need? We may need to know how to set up a similar
all have a tendency to give more details than project in his department. Also, businesses are
necessary. Do you really need to start at the not democracies. Subordinates are paid to do
beginning and describe every step? Should what supervisors direct, though people appre-
you begin with the main point and then ciate decent treatment. Differences in status
describe in less detail how you got there? affect communication style too. Later exam-
ples will show how writing to people in differ-
What technical information (computer ent work ranks differs in content and in tone.
terms, accounting terms, financial terms)
do they understand? Ifyour client has hired What action do you want your audience to
you to provide computer assistance, he or she take as a result of your message? Knowing
needs to understand the words you use. Resist this will help you focus and organize your
the urge to impress with your knowledge of message to get the action you desire. For
occupational jargon. Use common words and example, in writing aletter to accompany your
explain any technical terms you must use. resume, the action you want is usually an
interview, since it's not likely that you'll be
What is their attitude toward your offered a job on the strength of even the best-
information? If your audience is likely to written letter.

Multiple Audiences Business audiences range in size from one (a letter to

a customer answering
a product question) to many (a letter to a group of invest
ors, or a dues notice
to the members of a club), and you will plan accor
dingly. Often you will
have multiple audiences. For example:

¢ An interview plan written for a human resources

department and sent
to a college recruiting office to help its staff prepa
re students for job
interviews
¢ A project request that needs to be a pproved by both
the CEO and the
comptroller
¢ A report, sent to a number of clients, that needs
an accompanying
personalized letter

Chapter One
What you say needs to sound appropriate to all the recipients.

The easier audience to write for is the single-person audience, because you can
obtain more specific information about that person's needs and desires. Fre-
quently, however, your audiences will be broader, and you will need to tailor
your messages to them as specifically as your circumstances will permit.

On larger projects, you may even have multiple writers. Perhaps a team will Multiple Writers
work on aclient proposal, and members will share drafts of their writing.

Increasingly, work groups meet via computer groupware or networking pro-

grams. Two such programs are Lotus Notes™ and Novell's GroupWise™. If
you were the sales representative, for instance, you could obtain real-time
written feedback via computer from legal counsel, a specialist in contracts, a
customer service employee, and the project leader. All would have access to
the information database supporting the project.

If your company does business in other countries, you will need to add Globalization of
questions to the audience analysis list. Although you will probably still write Communication
in English, you'll need to write in a style appropriate for your expanded
audience. People of different cultures are used to different ways of writing. For
example, Japanese business writers tend to be less direct than those in the
United States, and German writers are more formal but more direct.

As business becomes
global and intercultural,
communicators must
become aware of their
own and others' cultural
patterns and avoid giving
offense. Different
assumptions may underlie
familiar words and
actions.

Stock Imagery/The Slide File

Basics of Business Communication

COMMUNICATION A model of the communication process will show why audience analysis is so
MODEL important a part of effective communication.
People in business send messages to get some particular kind of response.
You know from experience that communication does not always succeed. Being
aware of how the communication process works will help you obtain the right
response.
Think of the communication process as a cycle or loop. (Some kinds of
communication are a series of cycles.) As you examine the communication
model in Exhibit 1-2, you'll be asked to look closely at elements that influence
human communication. As you will see, many barriers can interfere with suc-
cessful communication.
Let's look first at the sender and the receiver.

Sender, Receiver, and A sender (writer, speaker, E-mail user, etc.) puts a message together and sends
Situation the message through a communication channel to a receiver (reader, listener)
within a business environment. Elements outside the firm, elements specific to
the firm, and elements specific to the immediate situation and the two individu-
als can influence what symbols the sender chooses, how he or she puts them to-
gether — and how the receiver perceives and interprets them.
Outside influences include such elements as business competition and the
business language of the country. Elements specific to the firm might include a
corporate writing manual and availability of channels of communication such as
E-mail. Elements specific to the individuals and the situation include how well
the two people know each other, how their jobs are related by rank, and how
much background information on the topic they have already exchanged.

EXHIBIT 1-2 A Communication Model

Business |
Communication
Environment.

Sender is
selects and encogt

SENDER'S FILTE
Existing knowle
Emotions
Opinions, attitudes
if
Culture rc saa
Values, needs - Culture
N , - oo So ae Values, needs
Language skill Oe eee ” Language skill
Position/status wh Ce —
Et cetera Position/status
2 S Et cetera

10 Chapter One
 The channel — the means by which the message is transmitted — can beatele-
phone system, television coverage for a speech or news report, an electronic
mail system, a written report, a terse handwritten memo, or even the open air in
which people communicate in person. A sender chooses a channel based on
where and how large the audience is, how quickly the message needs to be
received and acted on, how permanent and how formal the message needs to
be, and how convenient and how costly the channel is.

Feedback — the response or lack of it — can be "Mm-hmm," a nod, a criticism, a

supportive phone call, new information, a laugh, a commendation six weeks
later, or frozen silence instead of the return message the sender expected. Feed-
back can also be many other possible responses. If the feedback is what the sen-
der hoped for, the communication has succeeded. For a successful communi-
cation, the sender must consider carefully the elements shown in Exhibit 1-2.

The filter is the total of the communicator's experiences leading up to the com-
munication. The filter consists of existing knowledge, emotions (both permanent The Filter
and transitory), attitudes, cultural background, values, needs, language skills, po-
sition or status, self-knowledge, perceptiveness, intelligence, keenness of senses,
and many other factors.
The filter changes or colors whatever passes through it to and from the com- Everyone’s filter is
municator's mind. The sender has a unique filter; the receiver has a different different.
and also unique filter. The message must pass through both filters successfully.
Because individuals are unique, no message is ever received exactly as sent. If
both sender and receiver are careful and attentive, however, distortions will be
minimal. The message will be transmitted accurately enough to accomplish its
purpose. If you think about the receiver's filter and ways it might or might not
match your own, you will make more accurate assumptions about the receiver.
Other communication barriers related to people's unique filters are cultural
‘background, language, and education. Also, weak listening habits may keep peo-
ple from accepting new ideas easily, Listening weaknesses include prejudices
and the tendency to see ideas as "either/or" (polarization).
Stull another potential barrier to communication is a company's corporate
culture. Some companies have policies that make communication among
different levels of employees easy; other companies’ policies might be much
more structured and formal.

Another barner to communication is referred to as noise - that is, anything that Noise
interferes with the free flow of information between the sender and the receiver.
Noise can occur ina literal sense, such as a jackhammer digging up a parking lot
outside, or the static created when an electrical storm interferes with a radio or
television broadcast.
Noise can also refer to interpersonal (between persons) and intrapersonal Noise — fatigue, static on a
(within the person) barriers to communication. If either the sender or the phone line, a heavy accent, an
receiver is feeling sick or distracted, any resulting weakness or inaccuracy in what emotional reaction — is
is sent or received is categorized as noise. Noise also occurs if the receiver is so anything that interferes with
displeased with the sender's nonverbal cues that he or she misperceives or transmission or reception.
blocks out the message. Another example of noise could be bad timing, as when
a telephone call comes at such a busy time that the receiver is unable to devote
full attention to it.

Basics of Business Communication 11

 Encoding and Decoding Communicating through language means decoding the symbols contained in
words and nonverbal signals such as facial expressions. From birth, and
perhaps even before, you began learning and storing symbols for
communication. The earliest symbols probably were nonverbal signals you
heard and felt. A little later you took in meaningful symbols, both verbal and
nonverbal, by sight. By age four you could use several thousand words,
interpret many kinds of nonverbal messages, and "send" very convincing
smiles and scowls yourself.
When you became an active reader, your repertoire of symbols grew to
perhaps 75,000 words or more. As you watched your family and friends,
television and movies, and the daily activities of various people, you kept
adding to the symbols stored in your brain. You stored the meanings of
different tones of voice, posture, gestures, facial expressions, and many other
symbols in addition to words.
Your rich storehouse of symbols enables you to encode a message in
many different ways. As you do so, you make many tiny instantaneous
decisions as you select from this storehouse and put the message together.
Most of the decisions are automatic. Yet one small wrong signal can confuse
or annoy a receiver. When the receiver's filter and your filter do not perceive
the symbol the same way, what you try to encode may not be what he
or she
decodes.
Denotation and Connotation One coding problem arises because words have both a denotation (diction
ary
meaning) and a connotation (the emotional overtones people attach
to the
word). When a businessperson writes to a customer, "You claim
that the
entertainment center was scratched when you received it," the custome
r may
feel offended. The word “claim” sometimes implies, "You say
this, but I don't
believe it." If the writer meant to imply only that the reader
had submitted
evidence of damage, a less emotional-laden message would be,
"According to
your letter, the entertainment center was scratched when you received
it."
Another problem with encoding a message is cognitive
dissonance.
Suppose your supervisor says, "Of course I have time to talk
to you about your
project," but uses nonverbal signals such as standing up from
her desk, looking
at her watch, or folding her arms -- all signals that say to
you, "I'm not really
eager to talk about this now." Receiving two sets of conflic
ting signals creates
cognitive dissonance and makes decoding the actual messag
e difficult.
Successful communicators continually increase the
contents of their
storehouses of symbols. Doing so lets them communicat
e successfully with
more kinds of people in more kinds of situations. For
a specific communica-
tion, they choose from their stored symbols based
on how the intended
receivers will understand and react to the symbols
selected. To succeed in
business, you need to learn how people who
are different from you
communicate.

Cultural Differences As mentioned earlier, cultural differences may

create communication barriers.
As each new wave of immigrants arrived in the
United States, the newcomers
brought with them a different set of verbal
and nonverbal symbols and a
different set of attitudes and values. (To be sure,
the most basic human values
are similar, but communicators are constantly
surprised by the many things
that are different.)
12 Chapter One
 Nonverbal symbols, such as ways of signaling respect or friendliness, may
differ. For instance, the length of time it is acceptable for a person to look
directly into another person's eyes differs greatly from culture to culture.
Violating this rule can seriously offend.
Verbal symbols can be mystifying, too. Whereas long-time residents may
know 15 or 20 words for a particular item, a newcomer may know only one.
For instance, consider the many kinds of bread you can buy and the potential
confusion in a newcomer who is asked, "How about sourdough?" especially if
he or she has heard both bread and dough used as slang terms for money.
Learning the words and word forms in a language is only part of being
able to communicate in that language. For example, a young Air Force
lieutenant was sent to Russian-language training. After a tough year of
intensive daily drill, he and his class mates asked the instructor, "So do we
speak as well as Russians now?" "Yes," the instructor replied, "as well as five-
year-old Russians. But you don't hold your faces night." Long years of
experience with a language build our storehouses of symbols, which go
beyond words.
We can tell when someone is speaking a foreign language in our presence.
We know we are not understanding. When newcomers to the United States
speak some English, however, we are likely to make mistaken assumptions
about how much of our symbol set they know. It's important to check for
under-standing. Follow-up might be required.

How you present material to your reader depends on what kind of material you STRATEGIES FOR
have and how the reader will react to it. EFFECTIVE
COMMUNICATION
Most of the time, put your main idea up front. Avoid wordy lead-in sentences
like "I have your letter of August 6." Instead, imagine completing this
sentence: "What I really want this reader to know is. . . " and start with the
thought that finishes the sentence. Then provide supporting details so that the
reader gets the full picture.
Give information in the order that will be most meaningful to the receiver,
not to the sender. Give enough information to let the reader understand the
issue, but don't try to tell everything you happen to know.
Don't try to do too much in one message. If your letter or memo has
several topics in it, the reader is likely to act on one or two and forget about the
rest. For multiple topics, send multiple messages. That will help the reader
process what you want done.
Use emphasis techniques to guide your reader. To emphasize one or more
ideas, put them first, or perhaps show them ina bulleted list, or even put a box
around them. (Don't overdo the mechanical means of emphasis.)
Explain terms your reader may be unfamiliar with. You might decide to
define a term in parentheses the first time you use it.
Use examples to clarify abstract ideas. If a reader can picture it, she or he
will more probably remember it.
Clarify your purpose and
Be clear on what your purpose is and keep it firmly in mind as you write
maintain this focus.
and revise. What do you want the reader to do with this information? What
action do you want him or her to take? These questions help you focus your
message. In an internal, informal audit report, for example, you will
concentrate on the things you want the reader to do to improve operations
rather than on the things done incorrectly so far.

Basics of Business Communication 13

 When your business situation calls for you to send positive, expected, or
neutral information to your reader, use direct order: Start with the main idea. If
you are sending unexpected, negative, or persuasive information, you will
usually be better off presenting it indirectly. In these cases you probably need
to prepare the reader for the main idea.

Direct-Structure Direct-structure (deductive) messages are the workhorses of business

Messages communicating. Most of a company's internal messages (memos, reports) use
direct order. Letters (letter format is usual for messages that travel outside a
firm) mostly use direct order as well. When you are sending information,
asking for information, writing routine messages, sending transmittals, or
giving instructions, use direct order. Start with the most important piece of
information, fill in the supporting data, evidence, or information, and close
with an action request or other appropriate ending.

DIRECT MESSAGE OUTLINE

* Begin with something important to the reader.

* Present the relevant details.
* End with a request for action or a pleasant close.

Exhibit 1-3 on page 15 shows a memo recommending the purchase of a robot

to deliver medications to nursing stations. As you can see, the writer comes di-
rectly to the point, which is his agreement. He then enumerates the advantages
to the reader and to the hospital, and closes pleasantly.

Indirect-Structure Chapter Ten, on negative or unwelcome messages, and Chapter Eleven, on

Messages persuasive messages, discuss indirect messages in detail. Indirect structure
(sometimes called inductive structure) allows you to create the context for
your main idea before giving that idea. This is a good way to deal with
information that may displease your reader or encounter reader resistance.
If you must turn down a request, for instance, you can soften the blow by
easing into the information. You begin neutrally, with something related to the
situation, then explain your reasons, convey the unwelcome information using
one or more de-emphasis techniques (covered in Chapter Three), and end as
positively as the situation will permit.

INDIRECT MESSAGE OUTLINE

FOR GIVING UNWELCOME NEWS

* Begin with a neutral but pertinent idea.

* Explain the reasons for what will come
* Convey the unfavorable information in the
middle of the message, using de-emphasis.
* Close positively or neutrally.

Chapter One
EXHIBIT 1-3 Direct-Structure Message

Houston College of
Osteopathic Medicine

Date: March 237, 998

ANeye Patricia Aldrich, Director,Pharmacy Services
From: Leonard Leon
Subject: PURCHASE OF A "HELPMATE™" ROBOTIC COURIER

Startswithmain After yesterday's site visit to Bergen Community Hospital,

<3 I agree we should purchase a Helpmate robot courier to
deliver medications to the nursing units. I am ready to
sign Off Ton wat.

Adds relevantdetailses §=89T perceive at least seven significant advantages. The

es robot:

is highly dependable, in Bergen's experience

can carry up to 100 pounds
can reach every nursing station in the hospital and
can operate its own elevator
can be programmed for order of deliveries
will not be diverted to other purposes, as sometimes
occurs with human messengers
is secure; codes are required at origin and
destination
will lower cost of services to patients and insurers.

Closes pleasantly Thank you for arranging the site visit.

Basics of Business Communication 15

EXHIBIT 1-4 Indirect-Structure Message

UVa, Loos

Mr. Gordon Lancaster

1176 May Street
Barrington, RI 02806

Dear Mr. Lancaster:

Having a special diet meal would have made your Piigne

more pleasurable.

Explanation why I have sent your letter to the Assistant Vice President,
iene aii Inflight, who monitors this program closely to ensure
errors proper communication between the reservation for a
special meal and the implementation through catering. At
this point no mechanism exists for changing a food item
once the catering truck pulls away from the aircraft, but
we need to see whether in the future some other means
might be feasible for meeting special diet requests of
our valued flyers. We appreciate your help in letting us
know of an area where we might be able to improve our
system.

Pleasant, future- We pride ourselves on our service to our patrons.

directed ending A ‘
We know
you chose to fly our airline .
over other carriers, and we
look forward to seeing you again soon.

Sincerely,

Jad Ones abs

Janet Orcholski
Customer Service Manager

4312 West 8th Street

Memphis,™ 54903
901361 4700

16 Chapter One
An airline Customer Service Manager, Janet Orcholski, received a complaint
from a traveler who didn't get the diet meal he requested. The customer wrote
to say his inconvenience should entitle him to an upgrade on his next flight.
Preparing to write the response shown in Exhibit 1-4 on p. 16, Ms. Orcholski
looked at the facts of the case and concluded that the airline wasn't at fault.
The request for the diet meal was made very late. The gate attendant told the
customer, "I'll see what I can do" and called the catering service, but the plane
was in the last stages of boarding. They couldn’t obtain the meal at such short
notice.

This customer is not due an adjustment, but does deserve a response. Ms.
Orcholski uses indirect structure. She does not say the airline is to blame, but
avoids suggesting that the customer is wrong. Her courteous letter portrays the
organization as responsive to customers and committed to quality operations,
and she closes with the assumption of a good continued business relationship.

If you are asking someone to do something for you that the reader has not Persuasive-Structure
anticipated, lead up to the request with some information on how the reader Messages
will benefit from it. Otherwise, your reader will quickly think of reasons not to
do what you ask. If you need to persuade, consider this kind of structure:

PERSUASIVE CASE-BUILDING OUTLINE

Begin with an idea on which reader and writer agree.

* Introduce the topic but don't ask yet.
Build the case
Offer reason that's most important to reader
Offer one or more other reasons
Deal with one or more possible objections
Offer another reason that's very important to reader.
Ask for action and link request to main reader benefit.

A veterinary clinic mailed the letter in Exhibit 1-5 to all its existing clients.
This writer, one of two partners in a small private veterinary practice,
accomplishes several goals in the message. The main reader benefit is a ten
percent discount, but the case built by Dr. Mulcahy offers additional reasons
why her clients should refer others to the practice:

* a stable customer base does indeed contribute to quality at low cost

* it makes more sense to pay one's friends than to pay strangers
* all concerned can feel that they collaborated to help committed caregivers
provide quality, affordable pet care despite the unsettling effects of
Southern California's mobile population.

The letter is a word-processed form letter, but its tone is both warm and Form letters can be
highly effective business
professional. A mail-merge program can personalize each letter with a communications.
different pet owner's name and address, and "your cat, Cybele" can become
"your iguana, Ignatz," or "your cockatiel, Crackers." (The matching pronouns
would change as well.)
Basics of Business Communication 17
 EXHIBIT 1-5 Message Using Indirect, Persuasive Structure

Oak Leaf Pet Clinic and Hospital

Elizabeth Mulcahy, D.V.M.
1135 Mountain Boulevard, Glendora, CA 91842

Mr. Henry Gray August 17, 1998

3531 North 18th Street
San Dimas, CA 91702

Dear Mr. Gray:

You've been bringing your cat, Cybele, to the Oak Leaf Pet Clinic and Hospital for six
years now. We enjoy caring for her, and your loyalty as a customer tells us you are
pleased with her care.

Maintaining a sound base of satisfied customers lets us offer high-quality health care to
your pet at reasonable prices. Professional services in Southern California, however, serve
a mobile population. Each year, twenty percent of this area's residents relocate. We
advertise in the phone book Yellow Pages (the only cost-effective form of advertising),
but results of these ads are much less effective than our prime source of new clients: You.

For a long time we have hada client referral program. Whenever a satisfied customer
refers someone to the Oak Leaf Pet Clinic, the person referring the newcomer gets a
thank-you letter containing a 10 percent discount usable on the next visit to the clinic. We
gain another satisfied customer and the great pleasure of knowing we pleased the referrer.

"Word of mouth" includes friends, relatives, acquaintances and even, sometimes, the person
standing next to you in line at the supermarket. Some of our customers have referred so
many pet owners to us that we automatically give them the ten percent discount each time
we see them. We'd love to reward you, too -- so keep mentioning the Oak Leaf Pet Clinic
to
people seeking high-quality, caring veterinary services. Have them tell us who sent them.

No advertising could do what you can do. Your referrals mean we can keep prices
low and
quality of care high. We would much rather reward our valued, loyal clients than pay
a
stranger for advertising. When you refer, tell the pet owners to mention your
name on their
first visit to us. When they do, your ten percent discount letter will reach you within
a
week. Thanks very much!

Sincerely, aor

Elizabeth Mulcahy, D.V.M.

18 Chapter One
Within any business message, written or spoken, direct or indirect, other Internal Structural
patterns can help your reader or listener follow your meaning. Successful Patterns
writers and speakers have used these patterns as parts of messages for at least
2,500 years. We have them from the Athenian philosophers, who recognized
them and wrote them down, but they are far older. Consider whether one or
more of the following thought patterns can help structure your ideas:

Chronological: Arranges information according to time order. Reverse

chronology is useful as well, as in a résumé's list of jobs held,
beginning with the most recent.
Geographic: Arranges information by place, such as when you describe
locations of your offices or site selection for a new plant.
Description: Tells what something looks like, feels like, and so on.
Analysis: Separates a whole into its parts and discusses the parts.
Cause and effect: Establishes reasons for or results of something.
Problem and solution: Shows how to change adifficult situation.
Definition: Explains what something is.
Classification: Groups similar things together.
Illustration by example: Provide specifics that make abstract ideas more
understandable and memorable.
Narration: Tells the what, where, and to whom, as in case histories.
Process: Tells how something is done, as in a manual or procedure.
Advantages and disadvantages: Explores the pros, the cons, or both.
Comparison and contrast: Comparison explores similarities; contrast
explores differences. You might explain something using an analogy
-- a longer comparison between something familiar and something
unfamiliar.

In a memo on use of vacation time you might need to use definition and
classification. In a justification report you might use cause and effect to show
how hiring an assistant will improve efficiency. These patterns usually appear
as parts of messages, but can in some instances serve as organizing principle
for an entire message. For example, a feasibility study could be built entirely
on comparison and contrast of two means of reaching a goal.

While writing produces a product (a letter, memo, report, or speech outline), THE WRITING
writing is a process. Writing is a series of steps: planning, drafting, and PROCESS
revising. The steps are recursive: That is, they feed backward and forward. As
you plan, you might keyboard a few thoughts or jot down a few facts. As you
revise, you may see a way to improve organization, which is a part of a
message's plan.
Plan Your Message
Different writers may go through the process in different ways, but it is
essential that they work the process:

Effective business messages have been planned, drafted, and revised -

thoroughly, intelligently, and efficiently.

It may be tempting to omit the planning phase, but if you spend time plan-
ninja, you will save time writing and revising. You have a number of elements
to consider. |
Basics of Business Communication 19
 Analyze Your Audience; As you read earlier in this chapter, audience analysis is a major part of
Identify Your Purpose planning. Another planning aspect is deciding on your message's purpose. Are
you conveying information? Asking for action? Stating negative findings, as in
an accounting audit? Trying to. persuade someone to speak at a meeting of
your professional organization?
Many business messages have more than one purpose. For example, a
writer informing a recent college graduate that someone else was offered the
job has a secondary purpose. She needs to give the bad news in a way that
leaves the graduate with a favorable image of the firm. Receivers of business
messages have a sphere of influence; their impressions of a firm can and will
spread beyond merely themselves. Even an audit report isn't just a list of
negative findings. The writer's other purpose is to recommend better
procedures and induce the client to follow the recommendations.

Gather Information For even the simplest memo, you'll need to gather information before you
write the message. If you are inviting people to a meeting, you need make
certain that the conference room is available, that the head of the marketing
group can be there to present the new product plan, and that the graphics staff
will have the slides and handouts ready for you.
For a typical client letter, you might need to get the client's file to review
previous correspondence, locate a similar proposal done the year before for a
different client, and talk to the salesperson who has been working with this
client. If you are responsible for a long report, your information gathering may
involve library research or data gathering via questionnaires or interviews.

Plan Organization, Chapters Two, Ten, and Eleven will give much more information about
Emphasis, and "You" organizing. Earlier in this chapter you examined structural patterns for
Attitude different kinds of messages. The strategies showed that you should be direct
when giving information and requesting positive action but should consider
indirect structure when you need to convey negative and persuasive messages.
As you plan, decide how much information this reader needs, whether to
include graphics or attachments, and how to get the reader to take appropriate
action.
Make decisions that control your emphasis. Which idea will you put first?
Which last? What will you spend the most space or words on? What
will your
headings and lists emphasize? By controlling your emphasis you can
influence
what the reader perceives as important.
Beginnings and endings of paragraphs, sentences, and even
whole
messages are positions of emphasis. Using headings and lists, underli
ning, or
using all capital letters, as in headings, adds emphasis.
As you plan, resolve to use mostly active-voice verbs -- verbs in
which the
subject of the sentence is the doer of the action of the verb. Active
voice makes
writing style livelier. Passive-voice verbs, in which the subject
of the sentence
receives the action of the verb, are less involving and less emphati
c. They are
useful in conveying negative information or any idea you might
wish to de-
emphasize. (Chapter Three has more about emphasis and active
voice.)

Write a Quick When you have considered how to approach your audience
to achieve your
Rough Draft purpose, gathered the needed information, and organized
your message for
impact, write a quick rough draft of your whole message.
When you write
20 Chapter One
 quickly, your writing will sound more as if you are talking, giving a human
tone.
Your paper personality is how you sound on paper in a letter, memo or report.
How do you sound on
Many of the people who get letters and memos from you may not yet know
paper?
you personally. Make sure your paper personality sounds like one they would
like to know. Try for a conversational, human, yet professional "voice." You
don't want to sound stuffy or too formal; you also don't want to sound too
casual. Choose familiar words, and use as few words as possible to get your
ideas across clearly. (Chapter 3 contains much more on style and word choice.)
Helpful, sincere, clear written business communications help people gain
and keep good business relationships. A good paper personality will sound like
someone people can work with easily. Sometimes, especially if you are a
technical expert, you'll need to think of yourself as a translator of information
so that others without your technical expertise can understand and use what
you know.

Try to allow your mind some "simmering time": Leave the draft, do other Revising
work, and return later to your revision task. You'll have gained some mental
distance from the draft and will be able to see it more as the reader will see it.
You'll save time (time = money), and you’ll do a better, more efficient job of
editing and revising.
As you begin to revise, look first at the big picture. Have you met your
planning goals related to audience, purpose, and organization? Is all the
information covered? Is the message clear?
Then consider the "you" attitude: Have you put the reader first? Is your
style appropriate for that reader? (You won't use the same style for your staff
that you'd use for your boss or for a client.)
Look at your paper personality. Do you sound stuffy? Do you use clichés?
(Freshen the language.) Too many words? The wrong words? Does your style
sound businesslike, reliable, and human? (Good.) Or like a machine? (Revise
it!) Is your style inconspicuous? If it isn't, it may distract from your message.
Did you design your layout for easy readability? Do you have enough
white space or do you need more? Do your headings communicate well and
actually "cover" what comes under them? If you need graphics, are they
appropriate and clear? In your text, is there a clear progression of ideas?
Then look at the details. Errors in details distract readers and cause them
to devalue the writer and the message. To avoid adverse judgments from
readers, strive for error-free writing. Proofread both manually and with
computer soft-ware, checking for spelling; punctuation, especially
- apostrophes, semicolons, and commas; and agreement of subjects and verbs,
nouns and pronouns.
Checklist 1-2 details the steps in the revision process. This checklist will
help you prepare effective communications, and you will use it throughout this
course and throughout your business life.

Basics of Business Communication 21

 Checklist 1-2 Revising: The Big Picture and the Details

First, Look at the Big Picture ¢ Beginning and ending paragraphs about 4 typed
lines?
Analysis Did you: ¢ Lists itemized? Lists parallel in structure?
¢ Examine enough data to find all the relevant ¢ Important items set off by placement or space?
evidence? * Emphasis on the important points?
¢Draw appropriate conclusions from your data?
*Qualify any not-quite-proven assertions? Then You Can Check for Details
Identify your assumptions?
Language Choices Jargon? Technical terms?
Conviction Did you: Big words? Too many words? Weak verbs instead
of strong ones?
¢ Aim your argument at a decision maker's
action? Tone Appropriate for the reader, whether boss,
* Use indirect strategy and passive voice to handle peer, subordinate, or client? Good paper
personality?
negative or questionable findings?
¢ Remain unbiased and base your argument on
Mechanics
facts only?
¢ Word choice accurate
Completeness Check for:
* Active and passive voice used correctly
* Details of dates, times, numbers * Verb tenses consistent
* Spelling and completeness of names, addresses ¢ Agreement correct between subject and verb,
¢ Enough information to act on noun and pronoun
* Possessives correctly formed
Appropriate Order and Emphasis Audience ¢ Punctuation correct
analysis? Motivated action? ¢ Placement of phrases logical
¢ Sentences complete
Format and Layout Choices
Consistency Use a style sheet to attain
¢ Sentences average 16-17 words? consistent headings and spacing, especially in
¢ Paragraphs average 6-7 typed lines? team writing.

This chapter introduced you to a number of basic ideas about business REVIEW
communication. Communicating effectively in business will help you get your
ideas across efficiently and successfully. This, in turn, will help you obtain and
retain clients and customers, win promotions, and achieve other kinds of
business success.

You can become a better communicator by

1. Analyzing your audience
¢ How many readers or listeners will you have?
¢ Are you writing to a global audience?
° Have you used a "you" attitude?

Chapter One
2. Understanding a basic communication model
* Consider the sender as well as the receiver (more than one writer? More
than one reader?).
* Look at the situation, channel, feedback, filter, noise, coding, and
decoding.
* Analyze cultural differences and other barriers to communication.
3. Learning which strategy to use to get your message across
* Direct messages -- in routine or agreeable messages, be forthright.
* Indirect messages -- ease into negative or persuasive information.
4. Planning and revising your message
¢ Analyze your audience.
* Identify your purpose
¢ Gather information
* Plan organization and emphasis
¢ Write with a "you" attitude
* Create a quick rough draft.
* Revise from the big picture to the details.

Basics of Business Communication 23

 APPLICATION EXERCISES

1. List the information you need about your potential Define communication noise. Give two examples of
audience to be able to analyze their needs most noise that interfered with your communication in the
successfully. past week.
2. Which of the following messages have a multiple List five characteristics of your own communication
audience? filter.
a) An interviewing manual written for a college Pair up with another member of the class and compare
dean to pass on to graduating students. your filters. What are the similarities What are the
b) An annual report. differences?
c) A letter answering a customer's complaint about Discuss cultural differences among your class members.
an insurance bill. How can you use this information to communicate
d) A memo to employees about the new plant better?
opening. Outline the steps in writing direct and indirect messages.
e) A memo to your boss outlining a new project on What is the major difference between the two processes?
which your boss has the final decision-making List the steps in the writing process. Why is planning a
power. time saver rather than a time waster?
f) A memo to your boss outlining a new project for 10. Why do you begin revision with the big picture instead
which your boss needs to get approval. of with punctuation and spelling?
3. List and define the parts of the communication model.

CASES
Selling a New Product: Analyze Your Changing Your Company’s Travel Policy:
Audience. Choosing the best word to describe your Gather Information. The large corporation you
product isn't always easy. For example, the one-use work for allows the top-level executives to fly first class
cameras made by Fuji and Kodak are often called but makes all you managers fly coach. A flyer came with
“disposable” even though most of the material is your American Express bill explaining that 52 percent
actually recyclable. Since many people are interested in of all companies now allow only coach-class travel (up
recycling, help Kodak think of a better adjective and tell from 37 percent in 1990) and only 26 percent treat
it how to “sell” the new name. The cameras use 35mm senior executives differently from other employees
film and come in versions that take wide-angle shots (the (down from 37 percent). What other information would
Grand Canyon), underwater shots (for diving vacations), you need to gather to be able to write a memo to your
ultrafast shots (sports events), closeups with no flash boss recommending a new travel policy in which
(baby pictures), fisheye lens, and filter shots. everyone travels alike? Would a new policy improve
Getting Corporate Donors for Your School: productivity? Would a new policy make lower-level
Analyze Your Audience. In a time of budget cuts, employees feel more empowered? Would there be
your school needs to encourage every source of income it intangible as well as measurable benefits of the new
can. You work in the development office at your policy?
university. You know that nearly 40 percent of donated Marketing Diapers and Detergent to Men:
money goes to education (actually 38.5 percent, with Choose Emphasis. With both parents working
28.3 percent going to health and human services outside the home, more men are doing the grocery
activities, 11.9 percent to cultural and arts shopping than ever before. You may have seen TV ads in
organizations, and 12.4 percent to civic and community which a man buys baby shampoo at Kmart, discusses
groups, according to the American Association of Fund- brands of peanut butter at a playground, or chooses a
Raising). brand of spaghetti sauce. People who study this trend say
Only about 5 percent of donated money comes from that men don't use coupons, but they do buy groceries (
corporations. How can you increase this amount? What including baby food, detergent, soup, baking mixes and
would motivate businesses to donate to schools? What lots of other traditionally non-macho products). Look at
might they donate? What might they want in return? some supposedly male-oriented magazines (sports,
Analyze your audience and outline how you might appeal music, health, business), and find ads for products other
to a certain group of businesses for funds for your than cars, liquor, and electronics. Discuss two or three.
school.

24 Chapter One
of these ads. How do they differ from the same type
of ads in a “women's” magazine? How do you know You are cordially invited to attend and
the ads are directed at men? participate in a new car promotion event
designed by our marketing students for our
Giving Consumer Advice: Choose
students, faculty, staff, and administration.
Emphasis. You are a newspaper consumer writer This event will be held on Thursday,
and have received a press release from the California December 8, 1994 from 9:00 AM to 2:30 PM
attorney general giving the lead concentration in a at the North end of the Student Center.
liter of water from a faucet turned on after being
This promotional event is developed by the
unused overnight. Since a liter is about four big students in Advertising Management as part
glasses of water, this concentration means that a of the competition for X Truck Division. In
person who drinks a glass of water in the morning addition, the students are competing against
would have higher lead exposure than is allowed in 23 other Texas colleges and universities for
scholarships and other awards granted to the
the industry. To avoid this problem, all a person three most outstanding promotional event.
has to do is to run the water for 60 seconds before These students have put an incredible amount
using it for cooking or drinking (and save the water of time and effort into this project. Their
for doing dishes or watering plants). Another tip is efforts with the project will be evaluate by the
interest and attendance it generates.
to use cold water for drinking and cooking because
it will tend to hold less lead. The students and | will appreciate your
A chart in the press release shows how much interest and participation in this event, | am
lead each brand of faucet produces (from 2.76 sure you will be impressed with what the
micrograms of lead per liter to 124.8 micrograms Marketing students have accomplished.
Enclosed is a flyer detailing the event. Please
per liter). Except for two very high readings, most announce this event to your students.
faucets produce less than 50 micrograms; the
problem is that the state standard for industrial lead Revise for Active Voice and Clarity: Sell
content is 0.5 micrograms per day. You don't want Your Idea Better. Revise the following paragraph to
people to panic, because even replacing all faucets use more active-voice verbs (to involve the reader more
would still give people potentially five times the closely in your proposed action) and cut down on
acceptable exposure. Write an opening paragraph deadwood phrases and words for clearer, more powerful
that emphasizes helping consumers rather than writing. The paragraph appeared at the end of a memo
resorting to sensationalism. recommending that a firm implement concurrent
Plan for Emphasis: Interest Your engineering (in which all departments involved work on
Potential Audience. The following memo product development simultaneously rather than perform
includes necessary information about the event it development sequentially) to save time, make more
promotes, but it fails to focus on the desired action: money, and increase product quality. Look at tone,
attending the event to help prove that the wordiness, clarity, paragraph division, and punctuation
promotion efforts succeeded. The memo also needs as well (some words are in italics to help you find areas
proofreading for obvious errors that detract from the to revise).
positive image the group is trying to convey. What
errors can you find? (Hint: Look for word endings | hope that | have impressed upon you the
benefits and challenges of concurrent
and a run-on sentence.) List them, and try writing a
engineering. Although the challenges are
new opening paragraph that will create more reader substantial, the risks of not changing the
interest. Who is your audience? What might product development system can be greater.
convince those people to attend your event? (The Even though changing corporate culture is a
attached brochure mentions prizes, drawings for a daunting task it doesn't need to be
accomplished ina revolutionary manner. In
23-inch TV, and music and other entertainment, as other words, phasing in some of the key
well as the exhibit promoting the car.) elements of concurrent engineering can be
done in an evolutionary way. For example,
Engineering Design News estimates that
MEMO
overlapping tasks that had previously been
DATE: November 18, 1994 sequential can require up to five times the
1: College of Business Faculty, flow of information. /n our company this fact
can be kept in mind when designing future
Staff, and Administrators
facilities and communication systems such
FROM: Tom Harris, Professor as voice mail and E-mail. Additionally, the
Marketing Department design of future database systems can be
SUBJECT: CAR PROMOTION EVENT structured in such a way as to permit the
transfer of large databases easily between
departments.

Basics of Business Communication 25

 Refreshing your use of...

PUNCTUATING SIMPLE, COMPOUND, AND COMPLEX SENTENCES

and avoiding the comma splice

SIMPLE SENTENCES Asimple sentence (one independent or main clause) has a

subject/main-verb group, and is not attached to any other subject/main-verb group.

EX: Alice worked. Sometimes it contains other elements too,

subject verb such as phrases or adjectives or adverbs.

EX: During the afternoon, Alice worked hard on the Craigie account.
EX: Worried by a deadline, Alice hastily worked the figures into systematic form.

COMPOUND SENTENCES A compound sentence is, in essence, two simple sentences (main
clauses, independent clauses) joined to make one longer sentence. The simple sentences should be
closely related in idea. There are certain ways they can be joined.

1. Ye: Alice worked on estimates, and Scott worked on analyses.

MAINCLAUSE , and or but MAINCLAUSE

nor for yet so

"And," "but," "or," and "nor" are coordinating conjunctions. You can use a comma and one of
those conjunctions to join two independent (main) clauses. If you use only the comma between
the two main clauses, you have made the error called COMMA SPLICE. Don't do that.

2. ¥¢: Alice worked on estimates; Scott worked on analyses.

MAIN CLAUSE 3 MAIN CLAUSE

A semicolon may be used to join main clauses. When you use a semicolon, no coordinating
conjunction is needed. A semicolon is almost as strong a mark of punctuation as a period is. Don't
stick semicolons in sentences carelessly. Your test is this: On both sides of the semicolon, do you
have what could bea free-standing sentence. Could you substitute a period and capital letter there?
If so, the semicolen is right.

The next type of compound sentence is a variant of (2). However, the insertion of one word - a
transitional expression - confuses writers. It's not really hard.

3. We:Alice worked on estimates; meanwhile, Scott worked on analyses.

MAIN CLAUSE ; transitional expression , MAIN CLAUSE

Along with a semicolon, a transitional expression may be used between the two independent
clauses of a compound sentence.

Using a transitional expression indicates the idea-relationship between the clauses. A transitional
expression is not a conjunction, however. It performs no "conjoining" function. Therefore, you
still have to have either a semicolon, as in (2), or a comma and coordinating conjunction, as in (1).

26 Chapter One
There are dozens of these TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSIONS. Here are some of the most common
(sometimes called "conjunctive adverbs"--but they're NOT conjunctions).

therefore for example accordingly thus onthe other hand _also

nevertheless alternatively furthermore __ next meanwhile hence
consequently § moreover otherwise then in contrast however

These words are not conjunctions. By themselves they perform no sentence-joining function. If
you use one of them and just a comma, between main clauses, you'll have written another
disgraceful COMMA SPLICE. Don't do that.

Get used to recognizing these transitional expressions. Be able to distinguish them from another
group, the subordinating conjunctions, discussed in connection with complex sentences.

COMPLEX** SENTENCES A complex sentence is made up of one main clause (independent

clause) and one or more subordinate clauses (dependent clauses). In most cases, the clauses that
make up the complex sentence are joined with a comma and a subordinating conjunction.

Y<: Because Alice worked on Veterans' Day, she received a pay bonus.
SUBORDINATOR SUB. CLAUSE , MAINCLAUSE

Y¢<: Alice worked on estimates, while Scott did analyses.

MAIN CLAUSE , SUBORDINATOR SUB. CLAUSE

Y<: After the bookkeeper prompted him, the boss recalled who had worked on Veterans' Day.
SUBORDINATOR SUB. CLAUSE , MAIN CLAUSE SUBORDINATOR SUB. (RELATIVE) CLAUSE

These are some of the most familiar patterns for the complex sentence. There are others. Notice
that the comma is not always present between clauses, but that the subordinator always is there as
a signal of a clause's dependency. Here are common SUBORDINATING CONJUNCTIONS:

aslongas as before after that whenever because whose whoever (whomever)

as though why though where unless although wherever what (whatever) how (however)
in order that if when since whether until while who(whom) which (whichever)

These subordinators make their clause dependent. If readers see a clause that begins with a
subordinator, they expect a main clause next to it. If there isn't one, readers are confused.

Look again, for comparison, at the list of TRANSITIONAL EXPRESSIONS at the top of the page. You
can start a simple sentence with a transitional expression, such as "nevertheless," because these
expressions have no subordinating power.

If you try to start a simple sentence with a subordinating conjunction, however, you'll write a
SENTENCE FRAGMENT. Don't do that.

&- Error: Whether or not Alice worked on Veterans' Day.

ve: Improved: Whether or not Alice worked on Veterans’ Day, her pay remained the same.

**NOTE: "Complex" here is not a synonym for "complicated." A sentence can have one main clause and one dependent
clause and still be pretty short. Similarly, a grammatically "simple" sentence is not necessarily an uncomplicated one.

Basics of Business Communication 27

 Refreshing your use of...

THE INTRODUCTORY VERBAL MODIFIER

and avoiding the dangling modifier

Speakers and writers of English sometimes begin sentences with introductory verbal phrases. The
phrases are made from the "-ing" form of a verb (the present participle) or the "-ed" form of a verb.
An example of such a phrase is "Retracing all the steps in the process, . . ."

These are phrases, not clauses, because they are incomplete, and must be attached to the main clause that
follows. If they are mistakenly left standing alone, they are sentence fragments. They have no subject,
and only a part of a verb. Used correctly in sentences, they can help to add variety to a writer's style. Here
is an example of a good sentence that starts with a verbal phrase.

V< Watching the crowd, we sat down to wait Sor the clock to strike twelve.

The introductory phrase has no subject. "Watching" is that part of a verb called the present participle.

To avoid dangling modifiers, remember this:

When one of these verbal phrases comes at the beginning of a sentence, that phrase must refer to
the first noun structure in the main clause that follows.

The subject will be a noun, pronoun, or other noun structure. In the example just above, "watching"
makes good sense with "we," the subject of the main clause.

The error called the dangling modifier occurs when a writer starts a sentence with a verbal modifier and
then constructs a main clause whose first noun does NOT make good sense with that verbal modifier.

& Watching the crowd, the clock struck twelve.

Who or what was watching the crowd? Not the clock! The writer started the sentence with one idea, but
"shifted gears” mid-sentence.

&% Watchin 1g the crowd, our ears were anxious for the stroke of twelve.

Who or what was watching the crowd? Not "our ears," and there is no "we." "Our" is not the subject of
the main clause; it is functioning as a possessive adjective. An introductory modifier cannot depend on a
possessive; it can depend only on a noun structure.

You can avoid this error if you can (1) recognize an introductory verbal modifier - and we'll show a
number of examples, and (2) pick out the first noun in the main clause. All you need do is make sure the
introductory verbal modifier and that noun in the main clause make sense together.

All these are correct:

W =After keying in the day's transactions, Matt checked the computer's files.

ve To watch the match on cable television, Farris paid an extra subscription fee. _

YW Aged only six years, I toured the newspaper offices and knew I wanted to work there.

Who keyed? Matt did. Who watched? Farris did. Who was aged only six years? I was. All
these
introductory modifiers match nouns that are the subjects of the main clauses that follow.

28 Chapter One
Now look at some errors. All these are wrong:

~£ After keying in the day's transactions, the computer's files were checked.

& To watch the match on cable television, an extra subscription fee was required.

& Aged only six years, my mother showed me the newspaper offices.

See what has changed? Who keyed? Not the computer's files. Who watched? Not a fee. Who was
aged only six years? Not anybody's mother!

How to Fix the Problem

To repair a dangling modifier error, the writer can change the modifier itself or the main clause. The
introductory modifier can be made into a dependent clause, with its own subject-main-verb group:

Ye After Matt keyed in the day's transactions, the computer's files were checked.

Or the main clause can be reordered so the first noun structure makes sense with the introductory verbal:

ve After keying in the day's transactions, Matt checked the computer's files.

Here is an especially difficult dangling modifier problem.

ERROR £: Circulating and questioning vendors, the buyer's attention was caught by the WESTWAY
exhibit.

Who circulated and questioned? The subject (and first noun) of the main clause is “attention.” But
"attention" did not circulate and question. Changing the main clause from passive voice to active voice
does no good--the WESTWAY exhibit did not circulate and question, either. The buyer did. But in this
main clause, "buyer's" is not the subject; it is a possessive, not a noun, and it modifies the actual subject,
"attention. "

We have to rephrase so that the introductory modifier refers to the first main noun of the main clause.
We can make the introductory modifier into a dependent clause, with its own subject-main-verb group:

ve As the buyer circulated and questioned vendors, her attention was caught by the WESTWAY
exhibit.

Or we can revise the main clause to put the right word in subject position:

Y¢ Circulating and questioning vendors, the buyer found her attention drawn to the WESTWAY
exhibit.

Either of these rewrites will solve the problem. To avoid the error, be sure that an introductory modifier
does not refer to a possessive. To use an introductory modifier correctly, you need the correct full-
fledged noun or noun structure in subject position in the main clause.

Basics of Business Communication 29

The Routine,
Direct Business
Message
 ri
This chapter shows techniques for.making your everyday business messages clear
and direct. We'll look at effective document design and format and then proceed to
routine and favorable-news messages, sent both within and outside the
organization.

Most business messages can be direct. If the information you are sending is neutral
Or positive, start your message immediately with the main idea and then provide
sufficient details to enable the reader to take any necessary action. Busy readers
appreciate the efficiency of direct structure. It saves your audience time and
achieves your desired action sooner.

Examples of routine business messages are letters or memos that provide

information someone has asked for, respond to customers’ questions about your
company's products, notify people about business changes, or request information.
Keep the tone positive and remember to project a credible, businesslike “paper
personality.”

Good-news messages, such as a positive answer to a customer's complaint or

question, also need direct structure. Subtly “sell” your firm as you develop the
message.

As a rule, use direct structure in preference to indirect structure unless there is good
reason for indirection. When the material you are sending is routine, neutral, or
good news, your audience does not need to be persuaded of anything or to be
prepared for the main point.

After working through some direct messages, we'll also look at creating good
electronic mail, voice mail, and phone message.”

ort
 Indirection Costs Money
From the desk of... When the Whole Point Gets Lost

We're a state regulatory agency in charge of overseeing feeds, fertilizers, and

agricultural pesticides. To offset part of the cost of sampling and testing, state
statutes require yearly processing fees from industry members. We collect the
fees and perform the testing. Every year, collecting was a long, dragged-out
process.
When our present boss came, he looked at the notices sent out by his predeces-
sor. "Maybe our industry friends aren't paying because they don't realize these are
Dawn Garvin requests for payment," he said. "When 'Send your annual fee now' doesn't appear
Director of Testing till page 2 of what should be a one-page letter, I can't blame them for missing the
point. There's no need for all this delicacy; they're expecting to be reminded to
pay their fees. Let's draft a brief, good-natured letter and see what happens."
What happened was a dramatic drop in the number of people whose fees were
in arrears. Nobody got mad. The fee was a routine matter; they knew it would be
due; and they appreciated a reminder -- a short reminder that didn't waste a lot of
time getting to the point.

Routine messages, welcome-news messages, responses to questions, favorable

responses to complaints, and many other kinds of business messages use direct
structure. Not using it when it's called for can create problems, as in the
incident you just read.

DIRECT STRUCTURE Chapter | offered an overview of communicating in business. Chapter 2 will

examine direct-structure messages more closely. In business, most letters,
WRITTEN MESSAGES
memos, and short reports use direct structure. The main idea is up front;
details follow; then the writer closes the message pleasantly. Business readers
prefer direct structure because it's fast and they are busy. They will usually
appreciate your efforts to conserve their time.

DIRECT MESSAGE OUTLINE

Begin with something important to the reader.
Present the necessary details.
End with a request for action or a pleasant close.

Goodwill should be implicit in every direct-structure message and should

some-times be explicit, as in a friendly, forward-looking letter close.

A few organizations insist that their people use direct structure in memos and
Direct structure for
in-house reports even for unwelcome news and for topics that would ordinarily
transmitting bad news in-
house? Only if your require persuasion. "Bottom-line everything for me," they say. If the culture of
organization insists on it. your organization requires use of direct structure for all internal messages, fol-
low that pattern. If organizational culture permits, however, and you have
unwelcome news or a persuasive request to make to an internal reader,
consider the advantages of using indirect structure to prepare even an internal
audience. And naturally, for unwelcome or persuasive messages to clients,
customers, and other external audiences, you will want to study Chapters 10
and 11 carefully.

32 Chapter Two
 Readers in a hurry scan a business message rapidly, looking for what it can do
for them. Very quickly, from the impression the business message makes, they
infer whether the writer and the information are reliable.

When everything in a message works the way it should, nothing distracts the A good business message
reader or makes a bad impression. That is our goal -- not to call attention away makes a good first impression,
from the message. and sustains it.

When format, appearance, or language are wrong, they draw a reader's disap-
proving notice, and sometimes the reader devalues the content and author on
the basis of these errors.

We'll briefly examine format and appearance of business messages. (Language Format and Appearance
is covered in depth in Chapter Three.) Word processing programs offer you
some guidance on appearance and format, but spend some time studying
Appendix A of this textbook if you have not written many business messages
before. Spelling checkers and grammar checkers do not catch every error, and
sometimes the corrections they suggest are wrong or confusing.
Do not mail a message that's too far up or too far down on the page.
Balance and center the message on the page; then print it out again before
sending.
Always proofread a hard copy (not just an on-screen version) and correct
all errors before mailing. Business readers can spot spelling errors in others’
writing even when they don’t always spot their own.

Does the message go to one or more readers inside the organization? Use Memo Format
memo format. Memos have a To: line, a From: line, a Date: line, and a
Subject: line. (Not all companies put the Date: line in the same place.) After
these lines, skip two or three lines (press "enter" to skip a line) before
beginning the body of the memo. Memos are usually single spaced. When you
single-space, do not indent for a new paragraph. Instead, skipaline.
Memos do not have a complimentary close, as letters do. At the end, a
memo might have a e: line (c: John Robbins means that John Robbins, though
not the main recipient of the memo, will receive a copy), an Enclosure: line, or
both. Skip a line between the end of the memo and the e: line and between the
c: line and the Enclosure: line if you have one. Memos are usually signed with
the initials or the name of the sender up at the top, next to the From: line.
Write the Subject: line thoughtfully. For a direct-structure message, a Write a subject line that
good subject line acts like a newspaper headline or magazine caption. It gets lets a reader "pre-read" a
the reader’s attention by mentioning both the topic and the writer’s slant on it. direct-structure message.
Try to make your subject line vivid but concise. Give the reader as much
of a picture of the topic as you can, and make it a lively picture if possible. Try
to stay away from vague or stiff language, such as "New Policies and
Procedures.” Instead, say, "Revised Parking Policy Solves Shift Overlap." it
you can work in a verb form, as in "Choosing a New Inventory Control
Software Package," you will give the reader an idea of the purpose of the
memo and the action that may be required. A good subject line also helps
workers distribute a document to other people who need the information and to
file it logically.
Of course, bad-news or persuasive memos may call for a neutral Subject:
line. But when no reason exists for a buffer, don't be vague. The subject line
launches a memo and lets a reader "pre-read it." Make the subject line work
hard.
The Routine, Direct Business Message 33
 Most of the examples you read in Chapter 1 were 1/2 page to a page long.
They went to readers who needed considerable detail. Many business
messages, though, especially memos, run only a few lines. Such brevity might
be appropriate. Business messages should be long enough to do the job and no
longer.

Letter Format If the message goes to one or more readers outside the organization, use letter
format. Appendix A shows several minor variations on letter layout, but busi-
nesses increasingly use single-spaced, flush-left layout -- all elements begin at
the left margin, and nothing is indented. You signify the beginning of a new
paragraph by skipping aline.

Letters have a heading (the sender's address and date, or, if on company letter-
head with the address information printed on the stationery, just the date), an
inside address (reader's courtesy title, full name and address), and a salutation
(usually "Dear" and the receiver's courtesy title and last name) followed by a
colon. Do not use a comma; a comma follows the salutation only in a personal
letter to a friend.

Of all possible spelling errors, If you know the name of the recipient, use it in the salutation (courtesy title
probably the worst is misspell-
and last name, unless you know the person well), and double-check the
ing a reader's name. The eye
goes to it like a magnet to iron. spelling. Dear Mr. Czerny:

If you cannot tell from the name whether the receiver is male or female, you
might write, Dear Jody Barry: or
Dear Mr. or Ms. Barry:

If you do not have the name of the recipient, you might write:
Dear Sir or Madam: or
Dear Marketing Manager:

If the person is important to your firm, find out the name and whether Jody is
male or female so that you can use the appropriate courtesy title: Ms., Mr.,
Miss, Mrs., Dr., Colonel, or whatever the recipient prefers.

After the salutation, Press "enter" twice to skip two lines, and begin the letter
body. Two lines after the letter body, type the complimentary close (you will
usually use "Sincerely,"). Press the "enter" key four times to skip spaces; then
type your full name as sender. Put your title on the next line. Those two lines
constitute the signature block. If you are sending someone other than the main
receiver a copy, skipa line and put in your e: line. If you have enclosures, skip
a line, type Enclosures: and, if appropriate, list the titles of the things you
have
enclosed. Before sending, be sure to sign the letter in the empty space above
your typed name.

Glance over the letters and memos in Chapter One and Appendix A to
see
many examples of letter and memo formats. Appendix A shows several letter
styles, such as the full-block, the modified block and the simplified style.

We recommend the full-block style, in which all elements start at

the left
margin and nothing is indented, for most business correspondence.
It looks
professional, is pretty foolproof, and is increasingly the norm in business
.
34 Chapter Two
Short reports (those about one to five pages in length), which will be covered
Short Reports
in more detail in Chapter Four, can be letter format, memo format, or
manuscript format. They can also be form reports -- a writer fills in specific
information on a pre-existing document with labeled blank spaces.

Business messages should look easy to read. If they do not, you face the very Document
real possibility that your intended audience will discard the message without Design Choices
reading it. Your format and layout choices help influence a reader to begin
reading and to move through a message. As a business writer you have para-
graphing and other design decisions to make.
Paragraphs should have a topic sentence and sentences that develop that
main idea. Your average sentence length should not exceed about 17 words,
though individual sentences may be longer or shorter than that. Numerous very
long sentences lessen a document's readability. In addition, when sentences
become very long, writers "get lost" more easily, and structural errors creep in.
Paragraphs should average 6 to 8 typed lines. (Opening and closing para-
graphs can be shorter for emphasis.) If you really want to emphasize
something, put it in a one-sentence paragraph. Do not overuse this emphasis
device, though.

Headings signify what you want the reader to notice most, and they let the Use Headings as
reader preview sections of a message. You need headings in business reports, Needed
and headings are often a good idea in memos and letters, especially if
messages are longer than a page. You have numerous choices in formatting
headings, and you will format them differently in a long formal report than
you will in a shorter message.

By capitalization, type style, and positioning on the page, writers convey the
relative importance of a heading and the amount of content it covers. In
general,

e A centered heading is more important than a heading at the left margin.

e Left-margin headings are more important than headings that begin
paragraphs or are indented half an inch.
e Capital letters are more important than upper- and lower-case letters.
© Boldface, italicized, or underlined type is more important than regular
type, and combinations of these type styles (underlining and boldfacing,
for instance) are more important than just one of them would be.
e Large-size fonts are more important than small fonts.

Look at an example of the different levels of headings in a business report. An Example of

The title of a report (all caps and centered) might be the Hierarchy of
Headings
REASONS FOR EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION AND NONPARTICIPATION
IN MIXTEL’S 401K PROGRAM

The main title is sometimes called a first-degree heading. If this report has
three major divisions, the headings for them (second-degree headings) could
be centered, underlined, and upper- and lower-case letters, like the three that
follow. Text and, possibly, other less important headings would come under
each of these major headings.

The Routine, Direct Business Message 35

 ERISA, CWA Union Influence Employees’ Retirement Planning

Correlations Show Union Membership, Disposable Income,

And Education Affect Participation

Surveyed Employees Cite Main Reasons for Nonparticipation in 401K Plans

The next level of headings (third-degree headings) under each major subdivi-
sion's heading could be left-margin, underlined, and upper- and lower-case
letters. You would skip a line between the heading and text that follows it.
Four subheadings for Correlations Show Union Membership, Disposable
Income, And Education Affect Participation might be

Union Membership Shows Negative Correlation

Disposable Income Correlates Positively

Education Level Shows Positive Correlation

Age Does Not Affect Participation

Headings Should "Talk" Each heading would precede the text discussing that topic. Ideally, headings
should "talk" -- they should say something to the reader. Effective headings
allow readers to scan a document quickly, retain it better, and find the place
they want when they pull the document fromafile and refer to it later. One- or
two-word headings do not help the reader much.

If you need even finer subdivisions, your next level of headings (fourth-degree
headings) would be left-margin, upper- and lower-case letters, and underlined,
but a heading would not have its own line. The regular text of the discussion
would follow, right on the same line. Take, for instance, the centered second-
degree heading Surveyed Employees Cite Main Reasons Cited for Nonparticipation in 401K
Plans. It might have these third-degree headings at the left margin. Each would
be followed bya skipped line and one or more text paragraphs.

Twenty-Five Percent Dislike Investment Options Offered in 401K Plan

Ten Percent Did Not Know About 401K Plan

Thirty Percent Cannot Afford to Save at Present

Thirty -Five Percent Already Have Savings/Investment Plan

Suppose you wanted headings for subdivisions of the fourth of these. You
would begin a paragraph with an underlined heading and then continue the
paragraph right on the same line, as follows:

Real Estate Investments for Retirement An unexpected number of employees

have begun planning for retirement by investing in real estate rentals. . . .

36 Chapter Two
Other subdivisions would discuss other kinds of investing or saving that em-
ployees are doing instead of 401Ks. Each could have its own phrase-style
heading, and the ensuing text would begin on the same line as the heading.

In most business documents you will not need to subdivide further or generate
an additional level of headings. If you must write a very long report, however,
style manuals show how to differentiate headings still further.

A system of headings is somewhat like an outline and can be an excellent help Headings Should Help
to the writer as he organizes. Readers will expect a heading to contain and pre- Both Writer and Reader
dict what comes under it. They will expect you to stay on that subject until
they see another heading of similar size and treatment. They will also expect a
system of headings to be consistent: A given kind of treatment must convey a
given level of importance.
Readers will also expect all headings at a given level of subordination to be Keep headings grammatically
grammatically parallel. Glance back at the examples just given. The main title parallel at a given level of
is a long noun phrase, but the second-degree headings are sentence-like. So are subordination.
the third-degree headings (though they would not have to be, as long as they
are grammatically parallel with each other). The fourth-degree heading is a
phrase. Other fourth-degree headings would need to be phrases too.

As a general rule, you will need to repeat the heading's idea in the text, Purposeful
perhaps in slightly different words. The text of the business report, memo, or Repetition Is Useful
letter must make sense with or without the headings.

Writers now have a great many choices in size, type face, and style. As for Make Wise Type
size, make sure your choice is big enough to read easily. Word processors Choices
offer you almost unlimited size options -- theoretically you could use 6 point
type, the type size used in newspapers for want ads and stock price listings.
Don't do that, though. Your reader will not read your document if the type is
too small. Ten, 1f, or 12 point type in most type faces is readable, but in some,
such as Times Roman, ten point is small. We would recommend 11 or 12 point
Times Roman and 10, 11, or 12 in most other faces.
Some common type faces are Times Roman, Arial, and Courier, but there
are hundreds of others.

This is Times New Roman.

This is Arial.
THES wieSuCOMrle
rt.

Times New Roman and Courier are both serif type faces. A serif is the short
horizontal stroke at the tops and bottoms of letters. Arial is a sans-serif type.
You do not see horizontal strokes on the ends of its letters. Typography
experts recommend serif type for paragraphs of text and sans-serif type for
headings. (Sans-serif faces are also good for visuals such as overhead
transparencies, slides, and computer screens, where writers use fewer words
and no blocks of text.) For body type, studies on ease of reading suggest that
is
the serifs help move the eye horizontally along a line of text. Sans-serif type
harder to read when there isa lot of it, but it makes a good bold display type.

In Courier, all the characters are the same width: m, i, and t_ take up the
same amount of space. Ariel and Times New Roman use proportional spacing:
The Routine, Direct Business Message 37
 width of characters varies. The 1, t, and 1, for instance, are very narrow, while
the m_ is wider. Don't choose a highly condensed type face. Stay away from
scripts and ornamental faces. Most would make an unbusinesslike impression,
besides being hard to read.

Don't Overdo Variety Resist the temptation to use too much variety. Use one type face consistently for
all headings and, if you wish, a second and harmonious type face for body type.
Just vary the size and style (that is, normal, boldfaced, italics, or underlined),
within the limits of common sense.
Reserve your emphasis devices (such as boldface) for genuinely important
things. When a means of emphasis is overused, it no longer emphasizes.
A writer who is too thrilled with type variety tends to make a junky, unpro-
fessional looking document. The result has a "ransom note" look to it. Keep
business messages simple, clean, and businesslike.

Use White Space White space (page margins, skipped spaces between paragraphs, spaces around
lists) is a way to break up your copy and make it easier and more inviting to
read. Again theoretically, by selecting a small type face and writing long, gray
paragraphs you could jam 1000 words or more on a single page, but business
readers would not read it. If they do not read it, you do not achieve the purpose
for which you wrote.
White space emphasizes. The more white space around an element, the
more attention the element gets. Headings stand out because white space sur-
rounds them. Shorter paragraphs are readable, and margins of about an inch
make a page seem open. White space is part of the reason.

Lists Add Emphasis and Lists are another of a business writer's options. Theoretically you could indent
Show Similarity of Ideas and bullet any parallel series, but best practice says to save the bulleted, inden-
ted list for what you want most to emphasize. Remember that items in alist
must be grammatically parallel. Here is an example from a consultant's report
advising a real estate office owner on motivating agents who have reached a sales
plateau. In the report's conclusion, the consultant puts the recommendations in
list form:

For the plateaued agent, | have several recommendations based on

Erickson's work on motivation:

* Provide the top producer for the month with a special parking space
closest to the office entrance.
* Take long-time salespeople and their spouses out for an appreciation
dinner.
* Submit a deserving member's name to the local board for the various
awards it presents annually.
* Designate long-time agents "resident experts" in their areas of
specialization. Have them conduct a short training session in the real
estate area in which they excel.
* Let experienced agents develop a mentor relationship with newly
hired agents.
* Have them attend continuing education classes to boost their interest
in the business.

The items become more important when they are listed this way.
Emphasis
here comes from physical placement as well as from type and other
elements.

38 Chapter Two
Notice also that all items in the list are grammatically parallel. All these rec-
ommendations use the courteous command form, with the verb first.

Convention dictates that we justify the left margin — that is, we start all lines at Don't Right-Justify
the left margin. Most writers on business communication say not to justify the
right margin of business messages, though your word processor lets you do so
easily. (It lets you center all the lines, too, but you are probably not tempted to
do that in your business letter.) When you right-justify, the word processor in-
troduces spaces into the middles of lines to make them reach both margins.
Sometimes "rivers" of white space seem to run down a page, and the effect is
distracting. Readers tend to assign meaning to space if they see it where they
don't expect it. Books typically justify both margins. Business messages don’t.

Your layout decisions should help your readers understand your document
more quickly and easily. If a design element confuses the reader instead, your
purpose may fail.

We've shown how to make business messages look professional. Even more im- MESSAGES THAT
portant is writing messages that convey information clearly and "sell" your organi-
SELL YOUR FIRM
zation. We'll examine ways to ensure that your direct-structure messages do
those things.
As youll recall from Chapter One, a writer identifies the problem, analyzes
the expected audience for the message, gathers information to meet this audi-
ence's needs, plans the message, writes a quick rough draft, and then revises,
looking first at the big picture and then at the details.

Typical direct-structure messages include these:

e routine internal instructions, announcements, requests, and responses

e requests for information
e favorable adjustment letters
e replies to requests for information

as well as many other kinds.

We've said that letters represent an organization to those outside it. Memos are Routine Memos: Instruc-
not written to customers or other external decision makers, but internal business tions, Announcements,
readers appreciate the "you" attitude too. Readers of memos like conciseness, Requests, and Responses
appropriate respect, and a sense that their needs have been considered.

In this chapter we'll show a few quick examples of fairly typical memos on
routine, internal matters.

In a direct-structure message, you start fast. You don't need any warm-up lan-
guage or conventional noises to begin a direct message. If you need to have
employees use a different entrance for a week, don’t spend time on "We're
sorry for the inconvenience, but. . . ." or "A change has been made in the en-
trance route to the building, but don’t worry; it’s only temporary." Just start with
the specific main message:

The Routine, Direct Business Message 39

 To: All Employees
From: Peter Quinn
Date: March 2, 1998
Subject: Use Side Plant Entrance March 15 — 21

Please use the side entrance to the plant floor for the week starting March
15. You'll see a barrier and signs directing you around the corner.

For your safety, the main door will be closed temporarily to allow repair to
the walkways and connection with the newly constructed ramp. The main
door will be usable again March 21.

That’s the whole body of a fairly typical routine memo. It’s short but
complete. Observe that the Subject: line’s main idea is stated again in full in
the memo’s body. The Subject: line needs to be informative, and the memo
body needs to convey again, in full, what the Subject: line contained.

Here is a routine request for information.

To: Jerry Pitt

From: Sean Jones
Date: May 2, 1998
Subject: Please Identify Leadership Seminar (May 10) Attendees

Jerry, by May 6 would you send me the names and phone extensions of the
six people you will be sending to the leadership seminar scheduled May 10. |
have an information packet for each and | want to confirm their attendance
before giving the trainers our final count.

If you are giving a favorable response to a memo request, get right to the
point:

To: Veronica DeLillo

From: John Forest
Date: May 2, 1998
Subject: Vacation Schedule Request Approved

The vacation days you requested, July 5 — 18, are available, according to the
department schedule. I’ve slated you for those days. Be sure to let Barbara
know how to reach you in an emergency. Enjoy your rest and relaxation!

Don’t start with language like "I have before me your memo of February 16"
or "Your request has been forwarded to my attention." The main idea is what
Repeat in the body what the reader wants to know — and the reader doesn’t care what paper is on your
you have said in the desk.
Subject: line.
In all three short memo examples, the Subject: line summarizes the
memo’s main idea; then the body repeats and develops the main idea.

Increasingly, E-mail (see pp. 53-56 in this chapter) has replaced the hard-copy
memo for many routine internal communications. It's faster and cheaper than a
memo. In fact, the examples of short memos just given could as easily have
been transmitted via E-mail.
Exhibit 2 — 1, a directly structured E-mail, shows an example of electronic
mail’s value. Meetings are essential to businesses, but they consume a great
deal of time. No one has ever been heard to say, "I wish that meeting had been
longer." When a meeting agenda has numerous items, information items tend
to turn into discussion items, and sometimes the meeting doesn’t achieve its
40 Chapter Two
main purpose. When that happens, of course, participants have to meet again.
All of them already have enough work to do, and their time costs money.

The E-mail shown in Exhibit 2 --1 will save the sender and each of ten
receivers at least ten minutes of productive (and paid) time.
It will also serve another purpose. (Some will call it "organizational
politics"; some will call it efficiency.) In a meeting, if one person takes up
time discussing something on which the others already have closure,
everyone’s time except that of the one person is being wasted. Suppose Volzer
knows that Bailey has strong feelings about the siting of the parking structure.
Bailey’s vote was the only dissenting vote in the majority mentioned in the
first bullet point.
Volzer has taken it off the meeting agenda. That means it cannot be dis-
cussed at the meeting, and Bailey cannot "ventilate" about it unless she
manages to get the group to vote to add it to the agenda. They won’t want to
do that, so she probably won’t try. The decision is old news now, and
rehashing it would be unproductive.
If any receiver of the message has questions or comments about the mes-
sage, he or she can phone or E-mail Pam Volzer individually. Volzer can re-
spond individually. The others need not invest any time. If an individual has a
really important point to make, Volzer can forward it to the others.

EXHIBIT 2-1 Directly Structured E-Mail Message

Announcements, to Shorten Thursday’s Meeting.

February 3, 1998 08:24:54 - 0700
Pam Volzer
Gary Balsam, Sarah Bailey, Patty Booker, Don Dahl, Jana
Fayed, Rick Goodwin, Martin Katz, Declan Mohan, Russell
Moon, Carmen Pacifici

Please make a note of these six information items so that we can spend
of Thursday’s meeting (2 p.m., 3°4 floor conference room) on the
all
policy decision about franchisees’ store hours.

The Executive Committee made the final site decision for the new
parking structure. They chose option 3, which as you know was our
majority preference. A memo informing all employees is in
preparation.
The budget meeting scheduled for Friday. Feb. 16, is postponed
until the return of Marv Brunnert from leave.
20
The job satisfaction survey has been mailed to a random
employees . They have been instruct ed to return the
percent of
forms to Human Resources.
nt for
Each of you, please nominate one person from your departme
on the Safety Council. Kelly Gill needs the names by
membership
sure to confirm nominees’ willingness to serve.
February 10. Be
analyst in Travel is Cathy Patel - phone x9856.
The new program
Legal has not yet said whether they are satisfied with the
contract. Their opinion was due yesterday. I’m
electricians’
following up.

and Ipweunic Ole jaejaleS fOn,

JV franchisees’ store hours.
See you Thursday,

The Routine, Direct Business Message 41

 Several kinds of external communications - letters — warrant direct structure.
Letters That Use Direct
Structure
Written communications convey more seriousness than spoken or E-mailed
messages. Especially when communicating externally, business writers need to
Don't let a letter become a remember that whatever they write and sign could be construed as being con-
contract accidentally. Be tractual. They need to be careful of word choice that might promise too much.
careful what you write. A business writer would be unwise to write, "John Jones said the next big order
from Apex will go to you" or "This oil lease will make 18 percent per annum for
at least two years" when these assertions are based on hearsay or estimates.

Asking for Information Let’s look at examples. The first is a routine request for information.
Directly
To a business reader, a request for information is usually welcome or neutral.
When people ask questions, they choose knowledgeable people to ask. Gen-
erally, the business reader is pleased to be considered a source of good informa-
tion. Prospective buyers ask for information about a product or service because
they are considering a purchase. Even if the inquiry does not lead toa sale in the
immediate future, it is generally a sign of goodwill.
Thus, business writers should use direct order in requests for information.
A letter can begin with one or more of the writer’s questions. Compare the
letters in Exhibits 2 - 2 and 2 - 3 for directness, ease of locating needed infor-
mation, unnecessary repetition, and likehhood of successful action.

Exhibit 2 - 2 is less effective. It begins with irrelevant information about the wnt-
er’s organization. Jones’s requirements are hard to locate. Some of them are am-
biguous. For instance, what does "a banquet for all" mean? Is the number 150?
200? 300? Spouses could number anywhere from zero to 150. A buffet break-
fast is "preferred." Does that mean they have to have it or it doesn’t matter
much? "Equal-size sessions" implies that any size meeting rooms will be okay as
long as they're all the same size.
The writer asks for action but asks in the same sentence with the question
about 24-hour airport transportation. The request almost disappears. He gives a
date, but it’s As deadline, not the reader’s.

The letter in Exhibit 2 - 31s more likely to get the job done and win the writer a
variety of comparable proposals to choose from. Eriksen starts with the most
important question: Whether the Broadacres has three meeting rooms of ap-
propriate size. The list in paragraph two will allow the reader to check off the
wniter’s other questions as he answers them. Enksen invites telephoned ques-
tions. The Broadacres manager might have other amenities to offer that would
make his proposal better than competitors’, and he might want to ask whether
they would be influential in Enksen’s decision.
If you want something done, Notice also that her request uses dated action. It gives the reader a deadline
specify by when you want it. for replying.

Favorable Response to a Look next at a favorable response to a request.

Request A mortgage company hears from a customer who has written, in some frus-
tration, because he received a "second notice - past due - late penalty assessed"
letter before receiving any bill at all. He says that if they would use payment
42 Chapter Two
coupons, the way other mortgage lenders do, a customer would have a regular
mechanism for paying his bill. Joan Reysbergen looks at the records. The
customer has two mortgages with your company. One of them was bought
from another lender, and it appears that some sloppy record-keeping occurred
in the transfer. She can’t be sure exactly why he didn’t get his bill, but clearly
he wasn’t at fault. Her letter, shown in Exhibit 2—4, will probably keep the
writer a satisfied customer of Westover.

The
:
letter starts: with the most important idea, from the customer’s point of me spain sea secns ene may
rom the reader's point of view, not
view. He doesn’t owe a late penalty. i ee
Much of the rest of the message works to reaffirm the customer’s prior
satisfaction with this company (reinforcing a previous favorable decision is
called resale). Ms. Reysbergen’s letter stresses professionalism and assumes
responsibility. In a middle paragraph, she explains in a reader-centered way
why they don’t use payment-coupon books.
In the next to last paragraph, where she carefully explains what might
have caused the problem, notice the use of passive voice. She has no way of
knowing exactly who caused the problem. It could have been the writer — but
it would be foolish to suggest so to him. Instead, passive voice lets her discuss
an error without accusing anyone in her company or the other mortgage
company of it. That paragraph ends with action that will prevent future
problems. The gracious final paragraph makes both Mr. Calderon and the
company look good.

The Routine, Direct Business Message 43

EXHIBIT 2-2 A Less Effective Inquiry Letter

Pwe

May 1, 1998

Catering and Sales Manager

Broadacres Hotel
1000 Broadway
Lincoln, NE 68232

Dear Sir:

Piedmont Wholesaling Company has a long histoxny of top sales in. the
hardware industry. Each year,we hold a sales meeting for all 150 of
our salespeople and their spouses. This year, the meeting has been
scheduled for November 3 and 4.

Knowing that Broadacres Hotel is a leader in its field, we would

consider having our sales meeting at your property if you have enough
rooms available. We will have 150 salespeople (and potentially their
spouses) staying overnight on November 3 and 4, with breakfast
(buffet preferred) each day and a banquet for all on November 4.
During the day on November 3 and 4 we need to have three equal-size
sessions running at the same time.

Please let me know if you will provide round the clock airport
transportation and if you will submit a proposal for our meeting. My
deadline is June 1; questions may be submitted to me at the phone
number listed on this page.

Qe Gre

Joe Jones
Meeting Planner

Piedmont Wholesaling Company

16834 Minsenheimer Boulevard
Knoxville,TN 37933
712 441 3256

44 Chapter Two
EXHIBIT 2-3 An Effective Inquiry Letter

Gossamer Fabric and Filament

May 1, 1994

Catering and Sales Manager

Broadacres Hotel
1000 Broadway
Lincoln, WNE) 68232

Dear Catering and Sales Manager:

Does the Broadacres Hotel have three break-out rooms each seating at
least 50? I’m planning our annual sales meeting and need at least
three rooms for concurrent meetings.

Here are our other requirements:

150 sleeping rooms available November 3 and 4

a breakfast buffet set-up for our group November 3 and 4
a banquet room seating 300 for November 4
fax and copying services available on site
airport transportation available 24 hours
optional activities for spouses

Please let me know if you have the appropriate rooms available for
November 3 and 4. Since I hope to finish our plans by June 1, please
let me receive your written proposal before then.

I look forward to hearing from you. Please call me (816-282-5241) if

you require more specifics for your proposal.

Sincerely,

Ryorte Sr fear
Kjersti Eriksen
Corporate Meeting Planner

18165 Gottschalk Avenue

Kansas City, MO 64124
816-282-5322

The Routine, Direct Business Message 45

EXHIBIT 2—4 Favorable Adjustment Letter

Westover Mortgage Corporation

Servicing Division

June 18, 1998

Mr. Thomas A. Calderon

6115 Roswell Street
Whittier, CA 90601

RE: Account # 448972

Dear Mr. Calderon:

We have received and posted your payment and have waived the late
charge assessed’ on June 16, 1998. Thank you for your alerting us.

To respond to your June 15 letter as quickly as possible, I telephoned

your home, but the line was busy. Therefore, I am faxing my response
in an effort to reach you ina timely manner.

Let me apologize for the frustration you have encountered. We at

Westover Mortgage Company (WMC) take pride in servicing our customers
professionally. It is our sincere hope that your future experiences
with our company will be as professional as other lenders with
whom
you have done business.

In response to your question about monthly payment coupons,

WMC sends
monthly statements to our customers, rather than a once-a-year book of
payment coupons. The statements allow our customers to be informed
each month as to the status of their loan, and, we believe, an active,
consistent monthly contact creates a better relationship with our
customers.

A monthly statement was produced on 5/11/98. Our system does not

indicate that return mail was received, so it may be that we have an
incorrect mailing address. Also, we show a telephone number of (714)
642-9708. Please verify this contact information and call me
immediately if there is a discrepancy.

Finally, I would like to thank you for taking the time to

write to us.
We are always looking for ways to improve our service,
and we need to
hear any concerns a borrower may have. I hope you find your
relationship with WMC to be a pleasant and professional
one.

Sincerely,

Gem foytny~
Joan Reysbergen
Vice President
(800) 770-3326

2721 South Bormann Avenue ° Suite 110 ° Santa Rosa, CA 95401

46 Chapter Two
Informational messages to customers should be form letters when the message Form Letters That
is the same to a large category of readers. Sell Your Firm
You may be thinking, "Form letters. How impersonal!" A good form letter
doesn’t have to sound impersonal, and it can do an excellent job of selling
your firm. The main thing to remember is that everything in the letter needs to
fit everyone on the list of recipients and fit the occasion.
Any business has communications that occur repeatedly. Think of loan ap-
plication cover letters for banks, legal documents, insurance policy renewal
letters, proposals to different clients on the same general topic, and tax
questions from an accountant. Your firm would be wasting time if employees
drafted original versions of each type of communication each time. Word
processing allows them to write and store paragraphs, letters, and sections of
proposals and reports, call them up from the computer's memory, and use them
appropriately.
The key word here is "appropriately." You may have received an inappro-
priate form response and wondered whether the writer had any awareness of
the question you asked. For example, suppose you write in to change your
address on a magazine subscription and you receive a form postcard saying,
"Thank you for your interest in XYZ Magazine. To change your subscription
address, please fill out this form with your new address.” Since you just sent
that information, you infer that this subscription center either has too few
- forms to fit its various possible situations or has hired careless help. Neither
interpretation makes the firm look good.
You would get a negative reaction from this next brief letter, too. It came
from a lawyer’s secretary mailing information in the lawyer's capacity as
president of an alumni club. It’s a classic example of inappropriate form use —
legal jargon in what should have been handled as a friendly and informal
notification.

March 26, 1998

Mr. Charles Luick

2245 River Run Drive, Apt. 4202
Irvine, CA 92714

Re: University Club Spring Seminar

Dear Mr. Luick:

above-captioned
Enclosed please find the registration forms regarding the
matter.

Very truly yours,

Claudia Chevalier
Secretary to Benjamin Sachs

find" rather than "the

Besides using distant, stiff language ("enclosed please
transmittal sound
enclosed registration forms"), this letter makes a simple
in the messa ge is in the Re: line,
absurdly legalistic. The only information
ns no information
which is unsuitable for this situation. The letter body contai
body has nothing but a
at all, not even a goodwill message. The letter
messa ge should read,
reference to the Re: line, which should be deleted. The
47
The Routine, Direct Business Message
 The registration forms you requested for the University Club Spring Seminar
are enclosed. To attend, just complete them and mail them to me with your
check by March 31. | look forward to seeing you on April 5.

Form letters have to fit all readers A form message must fit the reader’s situation closely enough that it is helpful
to whom they are sent. and doesn’t sound impersonal and generic.

The letter in Exhibit 2 — 4 is a "welcome aboard" letter to new customers

of an online Web/Internet access provider. Its purpose is partly to inform and
Resale is reinforcing a partly to reinforce the purchase decision. Doing this is called "resale." The ser-
purchase decision already vice provider is wise to use this technique, since switching providers is easy in
made.
a competitive market.
The opening paragraph links the reader’s favorable purchase decision to
her getting more benefits than she realized she would.
The "you" attitude underlies this whole letter. Each of the four paragraphs
beginning "It means ..." develops a different reader benefit, always in terms
that will make the reader think, "Yes! This is possible!" The last paragraph
combines goodwill statements with more reselling of the firm’s service.
The reader of this message will know this is a form letter and will not be
bothered by that fact.

48 Chapter Two
EXHIBIT 2—5 Welcome-News Form Letter

Universenet.com
1615 Walnut Avenue, Suite 105
Altadena, CA 91439

May 7, 1998

Ms. Marilu Agustin

7669 Pierce Street, # 3
Upland, CA 91833

Re: More Services, Bundled with Your Web Service Subscription

Dear Ms. Agustin:

Now that you’re a Universenet.com client, you have more benefits than our ads even
have time to talk about. What does that mean to you?

It means 24-hour-a-day, 7-days-a-week online help. If you want to customize your “start”
page at 2 in the morning and the screen freezes, there’s a calm voice on the tech support
line to help you get it moving again.

It means 10 megs on our server for your own personal website — anda tutorial and
consulting help for setting it up.

It means that each month our 20-page UniVersatility newsletter arrives, packed with
articles and our best new website finds to help you

e reserve travel e sell on the web e shop

e play games e chat e read the latest news
e research e win cool prizes e and so much more......

It means that you’ll get automatic notice of system and browser upgrades — and they’re
downloadable. It also means you get to download coupons for things you buy most often.
Selected sellers, by agreement, offer our customers special discounts.

We know the main reasons you chose us were reliable access and value for dollar. But
isn’t it fun to find out that the value is greater than we even promised, and continuing to
grow all the time? We’re proud to be your Web access provider. Watch for more goodies
when you visit us online.

Welcome to Universenet.com. See you on the ‘Net!

Bob VanMeer [email protected]

Vice President for Customer Service http://www.universenet.com/~vanmeer

The Routine, Direct Business Message 49

 Phones in Although many new communication options are developing, business persons
will continue using telephones well into the future. You need good telephone
Business
skills to be successful. In addition, improved technology has raised some new
concerns of which you will need to be aware.

Whereas standard telephones are fairly secure, cordless phones, both cellular
Electronic
and fixed-base, are essentially radios. The law restricts phone taps on standard
Eavesdropping
telephones, and taps are relatively hard to set up. In contrast, anyone who has a
radio receiver tuned to the frequency of a cordless phone can listen in. Do not
use cordless telephones for sensitive business information unless you know
that the signal is protected by encryption or some other means. If you use a
cordless phone at home, think twice before giving your credit card number or
other personal information over it.

Automatic phone company equipment keeps a record of all telephone calls'

Phone Logs,
date, time, duration, and number called. Employers can learn what calls em-
Automatic and
Manual
ployees are making. Courts can subpoena phone records in lawsuits.
You may wish to keep a phone log of your own. The log can help keep your
list of contacts updated, can assist your memory of who phoned whom and
what was said, and can cover you if someone claims you did not return a
phone call when you actually did. Don't keep a log carelessly, though, because
it also records what you did or did not do and say. Like the phone company's
records, a business person's phone logs could be subpoenaed as evidence if a
legal dispute arises.

Organizational Find out whether your organization has policies on telephone use. For
Policies on Phone instance, can employees receive or make personal calls? When? Under what
Use? circumstances? A responsible business person keeps personal phone use to a
minimum, but companies' policies vary on what that minimum can be.

Automated Voice In many companies, automated voice-mail systems instead of human

Mail - Necessary Evil telephone operators answer incoming calls. Callers hear a recorded "menu" of
options. ("If you know the extension of the person you are calling, press the
pound sign and the four-digit extension number now. For Customer Service,
press | now. For the Employment Office, press 2 now. For the Purchasing
Department, press 3 now" and so on.) Sometimes a caller can reach a human
operator by pressing the zero key -- but sometimes the zero key disconnects
him or restarts the menu. When these systems work badly, callers complain
that they have landed in "voice mail jail."
Most callers detest these systems but admit that their cost saving makes
them necessary. Where you can help, however, do so. If you anticipate that
individuals will call you, give them easy means of reaching you -- your direct
extension, or a means of moving quickly through the voice-mail queue.

Good Business Use Workplace telephone use creates an impression of the phone user and of the
of Telephones organization. As you listen to someone on the phone, remember that some of
the in-person signals are missing for both caller and callee. If the caller sounds
excited, you can't always tell whether she is enthusiastic, angry, or impatient
until you listen longer. Remain calm and positive even if you learn she is
angry.

50 Chapter Two
Some kinds of messages are inappropriate for the phone. If you have bad news
When You Call
to convey, or if you want to get a sense of how a person feels about a subject,
Others
you probably need the "richer" medium of an in-person conversation. You will
especially want to avoid leaving a potentially upsetting recorded phone
message if the subject is sensitive.

Plan before dialing, just as you plan before other kinds of communications.
You might reach the person or you might have to leave a voice mail message.
Prepare for either outcome.

Keep these guidelines in mind when you leave a message:

Leaving a Message
e Smile when you speak. The callee can hear the pleasant tone in the voice.
e Sound organized and professional.
© Be brief. If possible, keep your message under a minute (Some answering
devices allow only a short message, and business persons greatly prefer a
concise message in any case.) Stay on the point.
e If your message is too complex to cover in a one-minute message, tell the
callee what it is about. Don't just say, "This is Jim. Call me back"
e Speak clearly. Leave your full name and number slowly. Consider leaving
the number twice.
¢ Remember that voice mail messages can be stored and forwarded. Be sure
you do not create any problems on voice mail. Consider matters of
completeness, accuracy, and appropriateness of messages you leave.

In about 50 percent of all business phone calls, according to some studies,

information needs to travel only one way. If all you need to do is convey
information, conserve everyone's time. Phone when you are likely to reach a
voice mail system instead of the person. That way you don't interrupt the
person's other work and you do not have to make conversation. (If you must
get a short response directly from the person but don't want to talk long, call
when you know he is in but quite busy.)

Try not to start or continue a game of telephone tag (calling and leaving "call
me" messages for others, who then call and leave you "call me" messages, to
which you respond with a "call me" message). If you have to leave a message,
and the response you need is brief, try to give enough information that the
person could leave you the answer on voice mail if you were unreachable.

If your purpose is something that requires discussion and you believe the per- Reaching the Person
son might be too busy to listen, ask, "Is this a good time to talk?" If it is not,
determine when to phone back.
When you phone, have an agenda, at least a mental one. Cover it; listen for
any opportunity to do or say something that is helpful to the callee; then close
the conversation.
Develop some "exit lines" to signify the end of a call, especially if the
person is chatty. You can say, "I'd better let you get back to what you were
doing," or "I know you're busy," or "Well, thank you; you've been a great deal
of help."
When Others Call
When you answer the phone, consider these ways to both enhance the business You
relationship and use the time efficiently.
The Routine, Direct Business Message 51
 © Most of the time, answer with your business or department and your name.
e If you need to screen calls, answer with your business or department and
then find out who is calling. "May Itell her who's calling" works well,
even if the call is for you.
e Be courteous. Listen, and try hard not to interrupt.
e Sound organized. Keep by your phone the materials you will need to
handle phone tasks.

If you have someone screening your calls, have someone call your office once
in a while and have him tell you how he was treated.

Placing on Hold The "hold" button is another necessary evil in many businesses. Treat the
caller as you would wish to be treated:

-@ If you need to put the other person on hold, say why (smile -- he can hear
a smile) and say how long it will be.
e If possible, ask the person if he will hold, and explain that setting the
phone down to do your other task will get you back to him sooner.
¢ If your other task will take longer than about a minute, offer to phone the
caller back. People hate staying on the line for indefinite periods, and they
rapidly draw the inference that the callee doesn't think their time is
important.
¢ If the task takes longer than you thought it would, reconnect and say so.

Phone Use When the Occasionally you will deal by phone with a person who is angry. These guide-
Caller is Angry lines will help:

© Don't become angry in return.

¢ Don't argue. Listen, and say "Mmm-hmm," "I understand," "Go on," and
"So what happened after that?"
¢ Determine exactly what he wants from this call. You may need to use
paraphrase: "So what you're telling me is... ."
e If you sense that the other person needs to ventilate, let him talk it through.
If you can solve his problem, do so. If you cannot but know who can, refer
him to or connect him with that person. Do not agree that he is right if he
isn't, but listen empathetically.
e If the person becomes abusive, do not let him continue in that vein. Break
in firmly and say, "I am willing to help, but not to listen to threats (or
obscenity, or blame, or swearing). Let's talk about the problem." If he
continues, say you'll have to hang up unless the two of you can work
constructively on the problem. If he moderates his language, continue; if
not, don't get angry, but end the call.

Your Voice Mail Both at work and, increasingly, at home, you are likely to have a message
Answering Message device. Even at home, some incoming calls are probably business calls.

¢ Your voice-mail message -- the recording that represents you when you
are unable to answer -- should sound professional and businesslike.
¢ It should sound to the caller as though you care about the caller's message.
(If the call is a "nuisance call," you can ignore it, but if it is a welcome
call, you don't want to discourage the person from leaving you a message.)
52 Chapter Two
 ¢ Review your recording periodically to make sure it still says what you
want. For instance, equipment can malfunction, or information on a
recording can become outdated.

Don't let your machines take over jobs that you need to do. Business is still
about people. Don't sacrifice good interpersonal relations with your staff and
customers to speed and efficiency, or you may end up with a lot of time but no
people to talk to.

Make sure the fax form you use has full information for reaching you and your :
organization. That includes name(s), address(es), phone number(s), fax num- Using the Fax
ber(s), and e-mail address(es). Ascertain what kind of receiving fax your
receiver has. For example, if a person sends you something from a copy
service or a mailbox store, you may not be able to fax him back at that
number.

Good faxes are brief and legible. Use a large enough and bold enough type
face that the faxing doesn't blur it. Ten-point Times Roman is awfully small,
for fax. Twelve-point is better in most type faces. Send pictures and graphics
only if they are essential, because these scan slowly, slow the process at both
ends, and sometimes print out poorly.

Do not send long faxes. Most receiving fax machines have limited paper and
limited memory. If your 25-page fax runs all the paper out of the receiver's
machine and he is out for the day, his fax is useless for the rest of that day, and
he is likely to think you inconsiderate. Except in emergencies, don't send a fax
longer than five pages.

Electronic mail messages are messages entered into a computer and sent via Using E-mail
telephone or other transmission medium to another computer. Most never exist
in paper form, though any e-mail message can be printed out and kept.
Increasing amounts of business communication flow via e-mail. Exhibit 2 -- 6
summarizes in its fourth column the characteristics, advantages, and
disadvantages of E-mail. The other three columns compare E-mail with the
other communication media with which it has most in common.
Instead of having to produce and mail paper copies of memos, you can send
the same electronic message to one person or simultaneously to as many
people as you have addresses for -- literally by pressing one computer key
(once the addresses are all entered). E-mail saves paper and time, but it is so
easy to send that sometimes people send unnecessary material to people who
don't need it and don't have time to read it.
The steps in writing an effective E-mail message are the same as those in Analyze, plan, write, revise, and
composing a paper one: Analyze your audience, picturing the reader and his or proofread to avoid "enter key
regret."
her reaction to the message; write a quick draft; and revise and proofread
before pressing the "send" key. (Sending a message without analyzing
audience reaction and without revising and proofreading often leads to an
unpleasant feeling called "enter key regret.") Once it's gone, you can't call it
back.

Most E-mail systems automatically format a message as a memo and auto-

matically fill in the date and the From: line -- your E-mails are generally not
anonymous. You fill in the To: line with the person's e-mail address and you
write the Subject: line.
The Routine, Direct Business Message 53
EXHIBIT 2-6 E-mail Versus Traditional Business Communication Media

"ia MemoorLetter _
Communication

e Immediate e Fast—if you e Slow e Offers fast turnaround

reach the person e Can reach hard-to-reach e Receiver must be on E-
person mail
e Feedback permits e Can recognize e One-shot—an error? Too e Can fix mistakes after
fixing errors and fix mistakes bad! the fact
e Group meeting is e Conference call is e Usually one message to Can send to many
an option an option one receiver e Can replace or shorten
meetings
e Can forward to another
receiver
e Can verify message is
received
Can make hard copy
e Can store messages
e Low cost unless Low cost unless e Has high per-message cost e Has low per-message
visit digresses call digresses cost
Interrupts work Interrupts work e Doesn’t interrupt Doesn’t interrupt
in progress in progress Facilitates group writing
Raises productivity
Equalizes status and
promotes upward
communication
e High level of correctness Standards of correctness
expected are looser
People remain People remain e People are careful People feel freer, less
aware of receiver aware of receiver guarded
People forget human
receiver
“Flaming” occurs
Sarcasm, wisecracks
Swearing, bad language
Extreme statements
e A record is rarely Few people keep e People are aware of e Stored messages can be
made phone log document's legal status subpoenaed
Users forget hard copy is
possible
e Users presume message
is ephemeral
Security is not perfect
e Full range of e Wide range of e Very limited set of Limited set of symbols
visual and verbal aural signals symbols
signals
e Good for long, complex Not good for long,
matters complex ideas
e E-mail promotes
“windiness”

54 Chapter Two
Like good memos, most E-mails should be short and kept to one subject.
Readers resist reading multiple screens.

E-mail systems list all new messages (with senders and subjects). Some E-mail
systems tell how large an incoming e-mail message is. Readers are under no
obligation to read all the messages they receive, and some readers receive
Get a reader's attention with a
dozens, even hundreds, of E-mails daily. The more messages, the greater the well-considered Subject: line.
temptation to delete them without reading them. To ensure that yours is read,
write an informative subject line that conveys that the reader has something
to gain by reading it.

E-mail is less suited to longer messages, although some readers find long E-
mails acceptable. Note, however, that longer messages are generally more
important, sometimes more complex -- and more likely to be kept, forwarded,
and printed out. A writer needs to remember that longer E-mails require
planning, just as a longer hard-copy memo would. If your schedule and subject
matter demand that you write a multi-screen message, be sure that your main
point appears before the reader will need to scroll down.

Because computer screens look different from the printed page, when you pre-
pare an E-mail message be sure to break up paragraphs, make lists, and find
other ways to include white space. Don't right-justify. Don't use all capital
letters. Both these things make the copy hard to read. Do proofread before
sending. Typos can change your meaning.

E-mail has its own set of pitfalls, and some firms have written policy on E- Problems, Pitfalls,
mail to try to control problems. Here are some tips from experienced users: and Policies

e Assume your material is not confidential. It could be sent to more people

than you intend, be copied onto letterhead so that it looks like an official E-mail is not private.
notice, or remain in archives that unknown persons have access to in the
future. So don't call your boss names, arrange liaisons with your
significant other, or discuss last night's happy hour via E-mail, any more
than you would on a monitored phone.
E-mail is subject to
Realize that humor, anger, or any other emotion can be misinterpreted by misinterpretation if written
the reader(s) of your message. Users have devised a set of symbols (called and sent too fast.
"emoticons") for happy, angry, and other feelings using keyboard symbols.
For example (look at these sideways), :) means happy : ( means sad
>: (means angry __ ;) means just kidding (the sideways face is winking) --
and so on.
Realize that typeface choices make a difference even in electronic
messages. Using all capitals, for example, looks like "screaming" on a computer
screen.
e Picture your audience just as you would in writing a paper message. Doing
so will help you avoid sounding harsher than you intend. You are looking
at a computer screen, but don't lose sight of the person at the other end.
© Most of all, remember that, like a tape recording, your electronic message
may be sent where you never intended it to go and may be preserved
indefinitely. Think your message through and revise it rather than sending
your first reaction to something.

The Routine, Direct Business Message 55

If you use E-mail at work, The E-mail system in your workplace belongs to the employer, and so several
assume the system and its court cases have ruled. For example, Epson America fired a manager who
contents belong to your complained that the company had read her E-mail unlawfully. When she
employer. brought suit against Epson, the courts upheld the employer's right to access
employees' workplace E-mail unless in-house policy stated that it was private.

Thus, some organizations have written policy to clarify their position on E-

mail use. A typical corporate policy on E-mail might include the following
warnings to users:

e If you wouldn't say something in a business meeting, don't say it in an

electronic message.
¢ Normal workplace rules of conduct apply: Don't libel or slander others,
even public figures; don't make comments of a sexual, racial, or ethnic
nature; don't use company time to socialize with other employees or plan
nonwork activities.
e Because the computers are furnished by the firm for company use, the
firm has the right to review and control this use.
e Political petitions, ethnic jokes, chain letters, activities for individual
financial gain, and inappropriate disclosure of company information are
prohibited in E-mail just as they are in other office activities.

REVIEW Routine, direct business messages should get to the point quickly, cover the
necessary information, and either ask for action or close quickly but in a
friendly way. Business uses different conventional formats for memos
(messages that travel internally) and letters (messages that travel outside the
company).
Reports generally need internal headings. Letters and memos sometimes
use a few headings. A table or other exhibit can be considered for use in any
kind of written business message.
You can use forms or form paragraphs, stored on disk, retrieved, and
copied into word-processor files, for many routine messages to save you and
your staff time. If you can write an effective direct message for a specific
reader, you can adapt the message to serve as a useful form for sending to
other readers in similar situations.
This chapter discussed how to

Respond to a question or from a prospective customer

Write an effective memo to convey requested information
Ask for information efficiently
Write a favorable adjustment (customer service) letter
Answer a frequently asked question with a form.

Using the planning, rough-draft, and revision process, you can prepare such
routine messages efficiently whether you are responding in_ print,
electronically, or by phone. Chapter Two offered numerous guidelines for
using phone, fax, and E-mail effectively.

The "you" attitude, careful word choice, clear use of emphasis, and good docu-
ment design also contribute to the success of your communication.

56 Chapter Two
 APPLICATION EXERCISES
1. What are the format differences between letters and you would NOT use it?
memos? When is each used?
5. What time-wasting openers have you seen in
2. In the following pairs, which is the better subject line poorly written routine or good-news messages?
for amemo? Why?
6. What is "white space" and why is it important?
a. Parking Procedures
Opening New Parking Lot No. 7 on March 5 7. Explain “talking headings" and their importance.
b. Payroll Office Now Open on Saturdays
Paychecks 8. Find an example of poor layout (bad-looking night
c. Profits justification, too many typefaces put together, type
Profits Up 8 Percent This Quarter too crowded on the page, etc.). Write a paragraph
or two about why the layout is poor and how you
3. What is dated action? Discuss the difference would change it to make it more effective.
between these two requests:
9. How do you feel about voice mail? About
Because | need to compile the data by June 1, please telephone answering machines? Give one or two
send me your response before then. examples of problems you have encountered when
A prompt reply is appreciated.
using these media.

4, What is "resale" and why is it a good idea? When 10. Which of E-mail's characteristics do you think are
would you use it? Can you think of any tme when most important to business people? What are
some problems with E-mail?

CASES

1. Routine Form Letter: Revise for "You" Attitude. e Discount may not be used by dealers or on products
The goodwill letter below is factually correct but purchased for resale.
written with little "you" attitude and many negatives.
e Discount card is to be used by the person to whom the
The effect is to make the discount card sound too card is issued.
difficult to use. Rewrite the letter so that customers
will be encouraged to shop with the discount card. We hope that this program will be a service to you. Please
let us know if we can help in any other way.
Welcome Senior Citizens:
Thank you,
The Acme Grocery Company would like to welcome all
senior citizens to take advantage of our 5 percent Tom Jones and Gary Blake
discount on their grocery bill. Managers, Acme Columbus and Hamilton

We have listed below some points on how the program

works:
2. Routine Inquiry Letter: Deciding on a Display
Unit. You have developed a home business
e 5 percent discount is for persons 55 years of age and creating and selling jewelry and scarves and want to
older. start showing your creations at craft shows. Craft
fairs are becoming big business in your part of the
e 5 percent discount is available on Tuesdays and
country, and you and your assistant could easily
Wednesdays only.
drive from show to show on weekends.
Discount card obtained from courtesy counter must
be presented to the cashier at the time of purchase. Some shows are indoors and some are outdoors, so
you need adisplay unit that looks professional but is
e Discount is applied before tax is calculated and easy to handle and adapts to different terrain (unlevel
before . coupons. ground, a windy day). Some of the spaces you will
e Discount does not apply to tobacco products or beer. rent will be 6 X 6, some will be 6 X 8, and some will
be 10 X 10, so you will need a flexible arrangement of
Offer expires October 31, 2000. panels. You'll need to find out if you can carry the

The Routine, Direct Business Message 57

 display yourself or if two of you will have to go to to an out-of-country show because your company is
every show. Some shows are held in dimly lit still pretty small. Can you go to a Department of
buildings, so extra lights might be a good Commerce office and just talk to someone? You would
accessory. Can you afford the display system? Will prefer to get an experienced exporter to do the selling
all of the equipment fit into your Mazda minivan? for you—for a fee, of course. How can you tell if the
Write a one-page inquiry to Graphic Display overseas distributor is honest? You've read about
Systems, 31725 Williamson Parkway, Hauppauge, firms here in the United States called export
NY 11788, to find out if the panel display system management companies that will sell for you on a
advertised in the January issue of Special Events is three-year contract for 12 percent of gross sales.
the one for you. Would this be a better option? Can you find out in
Routine Reply: Selling Your Display time to attend a trade conference in Denver in March?
Unit. As the marketing manager of Graphic It is now February 7.
Display Systems (see Case 2-2), answer the inquiry Response: Becoming a Successful
about the display unit. Your product is made of Exporter. You are in charge of answering
aluminum and has three panels, which can be carried inquiries from new exporting companies (see Case
and set up by one person in 20 minutes. It features 2-5). The Department of Commerce offers
adjustable legs, ground pegs for windy conditions, everything from training in export terminology to
and panels either 6 x 6 or 6 x 3. For extra charges, trade shows in the United States and abroad. A
you will include lights, panel covers made of fabric, special service called the agent/distributor service
and personalized signs that can be put on the top of takes two months, but for $125 it can help a
a panel to identify the booth. You will pay for company find overseas distributors for a product. (A
shipping and handling if the person orders within credit report is available for an extra charge of
30 days. $100.) Trade shows are as follows: A catalog show
Customers can pay cash, by credit card, or in costs $100 to $300 and shows a company's catalog
installments, and you can ship the order within two or video to potential buyers overseas. A trade show
weeks of receipt. Write a response that answers all brings buyers and vendors together either overseas
the questions about the product and makes it easy to or in the United States (overseas fees range to
order. $4000 without travel expenses; U.S. shows are free,
Goodwill Letter: Saying Thank You. Write but the group of buyers is very small). Each district
a brief but specific letter to a company commending Commerce office (there are 68) has computerized
an employee who went beyond his or her job databases on countries, markets, vendors,
description to help you. If you haven't had a distributors, and so on. A person can just go; to a
positive business experience lately, use the Commerce office and look at the reports or
following anecdote for your letter (make up any subscribe for $360 a year. There is a trade show for
necessary details). marine equipment in Peru in June; the sign-up
The high heel of your shoe got stuck in an deadline is May 1.
escalator and came off as you were checking in for a Answer the inquiry in Case 2- 5. Make this
flight to Chicago. You were carrying only a change newcomer to exporting feel he or she has a chance
of shirts, as you planned to wear the same suit and of success in this growing market.
shoes for both days of the trip. There wasn't time to Routine/Welcome News Memo: Improving
return home and get another pair of shoes. The Lunch Service. You work in personnel at a
American Airlines counter clerk tried to find you a medium-size firm that hasn't had a lunch facility up
pair of shoes among the other employees at the until now. Employees either had to walk or drive off
counter; when that failed, she checked you in site or bring a brown-bag lunch. Your firm has
quickly and called a mechanic, who met you at the contracted with Service-USA for an on-site mobile
jetway and nailed the heel back on your shoe. It was lunch facility. It is a self-contained trailer with a
a temporary fix, but he told you there was a shoe walk-up window.
repair store inside the terminal at O'Hare, so you Write a memo to all personnel introducing this
could get it fixed right before your business amenity. Describe it as much as seems necessary,
appointment. and tell where to find it. You'll need to consider what
Inquiry: Selling your Product Overseas. types of beverages and food items, both hot and
Write the U.S. Department of Commerce to find out if cold, a facility like this can offer, and you'll need to
it is scheduling any trade shows this year that feature have some idea what they are likely to cost. You
marine equipment, your specialty. Will the show be won't set up the whole menu, but tell employees
in the United States or overseas? You are concerned approximately what they can expect.
that you can't afford to both pay a high fee and travel

58 Chapter Two
 To minimize waiting in lines, your company to face with corporate decision makers about their
has decided to stagger employees’ lunchtimes; one- sponsorship.
hour lunchtimes will be at 1 1:30, 11:45, 12:00, The food company is concerned that even if it
12:15, and 12:30. You'll need to devise an pays a large sponsorship fee, competing firms may
arrangement for which departments or sections go also sponsor certain events and dilute the effect of
to lunch at what time and explain this clearly to its expensive advertising. What is your policy on
avoid confusing anyone. selling television time to outside sponsors? (For
Mentally place yourself in this situation at a example, could one soft-drink company buy an
real organization. Try to think what questions official IOC sponsorship and another soft-drink
employees will have, and include the answers in company advertise during the television
your memo. Present the information in such a way broadcasts?)
that employees will be glad to hear about it. Your sponsorship package includes television
This message should run about one typed rights, market research on sports audiences, and
single-spaced page. merchandise licensing (such as "the official cereal
Routine/Welcome News Memo: Borrowing of the Olympic track and field events"). While costs
Office Equipment. Your company, Bellavista, are high ( 540 million for an official sponsorship),
Inc., is going to permit salaried employees to check the sponsor gets worldwide exposure and exclusive
out certain rather expensive items to take home for broadcast rights on the Olympics. Can you sell this
the purpose of completing work outside normal potential sponsor on being one of 10 to 15 major
working hours. The employee checks an item out on sponsors? If you can, add specifics about sports and
his or her credit card, just as in a video store. The the company's tie-in to a particular sport.
item will be charged to that credit card if it is lost, This letter should be one typed single-spaced
damaged, or stolen. page with attachments giving some details. (You
You will be in charge of checking the items don't need to prepare the attachments, but you
out. You can choose your own area (notebook should refer to them in your letter.)
computers, company training videos, camcorder for 10. Routine News to All Employees: Memo
practicing oral presentations). Mentally put on Recycling. You work in the administrative
yourself in the salaried position you'll occupy after office of Bridges, a not-for-profit organization that
graduation, and think about what company provides legal mediation services to firms and
equipment you wish you could work with on individuals. Bridges is large for this kind of
weekends. organization: 38 professionals and 87 support staff.
Devise a simple but foolproof system for An important part of your job is to monitor and
checking out an item. Then write a memo purchase supplies. Since Bridges is a service rather
announcing and explaining this arrangement. Be than a product organization, it uses very large
sure to develop the benefits to the reader. Emphasize quantities of paper, some plastics (trash bags,
(without talking down to the reader) that employees diskettes, etc.), and other common items.
are responsible for the equipment or item once it Bridges is committed to social responsibility
leaves company premises. and has had an internal recycling program for some
Anticipate employees’ questions, and answer time (for example, employees save used paper,
them in advance. Where do they find you (room computer printouts, and soft-drink cans from the
number, near what entrance)? What do they have to employee lounge; each person has a personalized
fill out? Do they need a supervisor's signature? If the company coffee mug to use instead of throwaways).
item is heavy, can they drive up to the service door? Realizing that recycling is creating a market for
Part of your grade on this assignment rides on how goods made of recycled materials, your boss asked
thoroughly you think these questions through. you to locate suppliers of recycled and recyclable
Also, consider how you can make this a positive office supplies. You have already done this.
benefit for employees without needing to hire a full- Write a memo, for your immediate supervisor's
time employee to run the program. signature, directed to all employees, explaining
This message should run about one typed your organization's use of recycled products. Before
single-spaced page. The To line should say, To: writing, think thoroughly about the possibilities
Salaried Employees of Bellavista. and limitations of recycling for a situation like this.
Routine Reply: Selling Company You may have to do some library reading on
Services. As licensing agent for the International recycled office products.
Olympic Committee, answer an inquiry from a large
food corporation of your choice regarding
sponsorship of the 1996 Olympics in Atlanta. You
want to encourage potential sponsors, and the goal
_of this letter is to set up an appointment to talk face

The Routine, Direct Business Message 59

 Making up appropriate details, tell what suppliers instance, high-quality paper has to be used for formal
you have located, what percentage of which of the legal communications.) Describe how employees can
organization's needs can be filled using recycled recycle in their offices. Make the process sound
materials, and how the costs will compare with those of reasonably convenient.
nonrecycled materials. (The organization may or may Be sure to make the message sound like welcome news
not be saving money, but it does care about recycling.) rather than just additional daily tasks for employees.
Be specific about what can be recycled: Printed forms? Think reader benefits and goodwill. Remember that your
Computer paper? Copier paper? What else? Explain what boss signs this memo.
supplies cannot be made of recycled materials. (For

60 Chapter Two
Refreshing your use of...
Parallel Structure

Parallel structure, used correctly, is helpful to the reader. Parallel structure is a highly effective
coherence device, because it helps to show relationships among ideas. The principle is this:

When ideas are similar, as in a series or. list, place those ideas in parallel grammatical structure.

Create parallel series of nouns, of verbs, of adjectives, of phrases, of clauses,** or even of sentences, to
contain parallel ideas. The sentence you just read contains a parallel series of prepositional phrases all
beginning with "of." (Yes, all but the first "of"are optional.) When you use indented lists, items should
be parallel in form — not two verb phrases, one clause, two noun phrases, etc., all in the same list.

Here are examples of CORRECTLY USED parallel structure:

Ye (Verbs) The manual said to roll, wrap, and tie.

Ye (Adjectives) The top contenders were educated, assertive, optimistic, and experienced.
Ww (Nouns) The parcel service delivered glassware, tools, and toys.
Ye (Verbs with Praeger Corporation reviewed the last year's market patterns, estimated the
complements) competition's strength, and decided to invest in grain futures.
Ve (Verbal noun Researching sales patterns, organizing the findings, and forming the results into a
phrases) coherent report took a week of the manager's time.
ve (Clauses)** They learned that their contract was unbreakable, that they had been misled, that
their money was nonreturnable, and that they could do nothing about it.

All these examples show correct use of parallel structure: Ideas are parallel, and the structure is parallel.

Errors occur when ideas are parallel but parallel structure is not used consistently in the series of ideas.
Here is an example:

WRONG: £& Zachary wondered about going into an electronics trade school or whether he should
study physics in college.

"Going into an electronics trade school" is a verbal noun phrase. "Whether he should study physics in
meeting
college" is a clause. The ideas are parallel, but the grammatical form is different. The reader,
different grammatical form and expecting non-parallel ideas, is forced to stop and sort out the problem.

WRONG: % The article also provides a few examples of ideas that have worked, have been put
into action, and how much money they saved the company.

verb phrase
Reading "have worked, have been put into action, and ...," the reader looks for another
beginning with "have. " Instead, there’s a clause (nota verb phrase) beginning with “how much..."

WRONG: & Companies wishing to employ specialized temps should review the temp firms’
willing to provide
environment, culture, success rate, average wage raté expected, and if they are
benefits packages.
completed the
In this example, all underlined elements are nouns, and all are parallel. But the writer
are, or are not, parallel.
series with an "if" clause. The reader has to reread to check whether the ideas
at least one clause and may
** A clause is a group of words containing a subject/main-verb group. A sentence contains
(the main clause) or dependent on the main clause.
contain several, either independent

The Routine, Direct Business Message 61

 Refreshing your use of...
Possessives

In English, the "marker" for the possessive noun is generally the apostrophe, sometimes the apostrophe and s
Plain plural nouns that are not possessive do NOT have an apostrophe.

(Alternatively, you can show possession by "of," as in "the efforts of Mark and Tony." This form doesn't create
problems. The ERROR commonly occurs where a writer needs to make a noun possessive or, what's even
more confusing, plural and possessive.)

For most singular nouns, you add _ 's to the singular. These examples are RIGHT:

The biggest problem was the mechanic's anti-computer bias.

aK Dilute this glue's consistency.
ve The quality control circle discussed Maurice's criticism.
We One of the police exhibits was a child's shoe.
Ve The prospectus's opening is weak.

To make most plural nouns possessive, add ' to the plural.

Consider that you pluralize first, by adding s_, then add the possessive marker.

Where the noun's plural form is regular -- that is, itends in s , the possessive marker is an apostrophe. These
examples are RIGHT.

We Profit cannot always be business owners' first concern.

We Conflict often reflects employees’ involvement with organizational objectives.

When the noun forms its plural irregularly (e.g., man * men; foot * feet; child + children) you still
pluralize first, then add the possessive marker, 's (men's work; different feet's sizes; children's toys.

WRONG: £& In an organization, different peoples' thinking styles can lead to conflict.

In this context, people is already plural. Just add the 's.

RIGHT: v¢ In an organization, different people's thinking styles can lead to conflict.

RIGHT: v¢ He began a successful business in men's sportswear.

Many writers err by writing a simple plural form when a possessive is called for. Sometimes they omit the
apostrophe; sometimes they even add more letters erroneously.

In todays fast-paced business world, adaptation to change is the key to survival.

Someone who plays the devils advocate can improve the quality of a group decision.
My bosses car failed to start this morning.

The possessives here should be today's, devil's, and boss's .

General Rule: Singular possessive = singular noun + possessive marker: company > company's
Plural possessive = plural noun + possessive marker: companies = companies'

No possessive pronouns have apostrophes.

RIGHT: ve The groundhog saw its shadow and went back to sleep.
RIGHT: wv These books are ours.

62 Chapter Two
Refreshing your use of...
Pronouns (Troublesome Ones Only)
Because business people are less fussy about spoken English than about written English, many college
students have learned language patterns "by ear" that betray them when they must write. We’ll look at two
pronoun problems: The misuse of "myself" by default, and the discomfort about "to him and me. "

Myself Many speakers and writers of English are baffled about objective-case pronouns that occur late
in the sentence. Some ill-remembered grammar ghost from the past makes them unwilling to risk "me"
toward the sentence's end, especially--horror!--if the sentence has a double object, as does the
CORRECT sentence, Ww "They asked Clark and me to send out bid requests."

Because "myself" is neither subjective case nor objective case, the writer latches onto it gratefully and
writes, &. "They asked Clark and myself to send out bid requests." That's (a) a copout, and (b) an error
"Myself," "himself," "herself," "themselves," and a few others, are used correctly in only two ways,

intensively: vw We ourselves are responsible. The -self pronoun is used to intensify

He did this himself. who did the action.
ve They solved their problems by themselves.

or reflexively: ¥€ Collard Co. distinguished itself this year. The do-er of the verb does an action that
ue The problem virtually solved itself. reflects back onto the do-er.
Look at examples of the "myself" problem:

ERROR: & Ted and myself completed the research.

You'd say, "Ted completed the research" and "I completed the research." So say, "Ted and I completed
the research."

ERROR: & ~~ It was kind ofyou to invite my partner and myself.

ALSO AN ERROR: & It was kind of you to invite my partner and1I. This brings us to...

The Diabolical Pronoun Double

‘You already know, in practice, the difference between the subjective-case pronoun (I, they, we, he, she)
and the objective-case pronoun (me, them, us, him, her). Think through this simple replacement:

Ye It was kind of you to invite my partner and me. Ye It was kind of you to invite me.
ve It was kind ofyou to invite her. Ye — It was kind of you to invite us.
Ye It was kind of you to invite her and me. What if the double element is a noun? Then write
Ye It was kind of you to invite my partner and me.

The fact of a double pronoun changes nothing. Objective case is objective case.) "My partner," "me,"
mo

"her," and "us" are all grammatically equivalent in that sentence. Everybody in the world might say,
& "invite my partner and I," so your ears are used to it. But in writing, it’s incorrect. You'd never write,
2 "It was kind of you to invite myself," or & "It was kind of you to invite I." So don't write, £ "It was
kind of you to invite my partner and myself," or & "It was kind of you to invite my partner and I." "My
partner and I" is correct when these words are the subject of the sentence.

Correct examples follow.

i They asked Kelly and him to defend them. (obj.) 7 You can call either Tim or me. (obj.)
v¢ Francis andI paid the bill. (subj.) Ye Give James and her your statements. (obj)

When you come across a double component ina sentence, then--such as a noun and a pronoun together,
or two pronouns, just select the pronoun you'd select ifyou had only one of the two components.

The Routine, Direct Business Message 63

 Refreshing your use of...

Affect and Effect

"Affect" is likely to be used in business only as a verb. "Effect" is commonly used both as a verb and
as anoun. You can't tell the difference between them by sound, so your ears won’t help you. But your
language sense will. The distinction is pretty easy, but you have to

be able to tell whether the word is doing a noun’s job or a verb’s job

and then, if it’s doing a verb’s job, ask yourself which meaning is intended. The verb "affect" means
one thing. The verb "effect" means a different thing.

VERB # 1: to affect: to influence. What itinfluences already exists.

Ye The heat affects our dispositions. (We already have dispositions; the heat influences them.)
Ye Will an absence affect my grade? (The grade exists. Will an absence influence it downward?)

VERB # 2: to effect: to bring about; to cause. The thing effected did not exist before.

ve The counselor effected a reconciliation.

ve We need to study this report and effect revisions.

Notice two things here. (1) There was no reconciliation until the counselor caused one. There will be
no revisions until we bring them about. (2) "Effect," as a verb, tends to be used with abstractions. It's
a formal word. Don't use it unless you truly want to be that formal, and don't use it unless you
understand its use. (Avoid the issue — you have other choices, like "cause," "make," or "bring about.")
Most of the time, the VERB you want will be "affect"-- to influence.

Now let’s look at the word when it’s doing a noun’s job. The good news is that, in business writing,
it’s almost always** "effect" - BUT ONLY IF IT’S DOING A NOUN’S JOB.

NOUN: an effect (the effect; this effect): an outcome, a result.

Ye What is the effect of an absence on my grade?

ve The effect of increased surveillance is decreased theft.

A noun is a thing--a something. When you write, speak, read, or listen, YOU KNOW ABSOLUTELY
when a noun is coming. A noun is generally preceded by a word that signals it: "a," "an," "the,"
"these," "this," "our," "Harry's," "the best," "several," and a few other similar words are familiar
signals to you that a noun follows. So if you're choosing between "affect" and "effect," and your
sentence starts, "The worst of World War II was... ," your choice WILL be "effect."
"Effect" is the noun you’ll need 98 percent of the time.

** (There is a noun "affect." You won’t get it confused with the other three words we’ve been discussing
because it sounds entirely different. It’s pronounced AFFect, with the accent on the first syllable. It means
“emotion, feelings, mood,” and you’ll come across it in psychology and probably in marketing. When you
need it, you’Il know, because it sounds unlike the other three, all of which are pronounced uh-FECT, with
the accent on the second syllable.)

64 Chapter Two
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Business
Writing Style
Business executives and managers say repeatedly that they are looking for good
writers. They want people who can use language well, say what they mean clearly,
and move information efficiently and accurately to where it is needed. The better
your business writing style, the better your writing will satisfy these needs of your
business readers. :
Good business style conveys the message without drawing either positive
or negative attention to the style itself. Good business style is concise, clear,
inconspicuous, credible, and suited to its medium and channel. It is courteous,
correct, natural, positive, and interesting. It must be readable—and many of a
writer's choices affect readability. It must be coherent, use emphasis appropriately,
and avoid the "isms" (sexism, racism, and so on). This chapter covers all these
characteristics of effective writing. It offers several generalizations about word
choice and explores four areas where your educated judgment must guide your
choice of words. Finally, the chapter looks at selected international aspects of
writing style and at computer aids designed to improve writing style.

67
 Unclear Style Plus Wrong Tone
Equals Lost Business
Fam the dec.
;
z f. ee

and Low Morale

‘Ymabranch manager in a marketing services company that operates in several
southern cities. During a slow January, all branches received a memo from the
boss in Mobile, Stephen Downey, saying, “Build business aggressively. Sign
anyone interested and able to pay.”
I'd been pitching Bolling & Co., an import-export firm that showed interest in
contracting with us for radio spots and local print advertising. But then I got
another memo from Stephen with strict orders not to do business with any com-
pany resembling Turetti Inc., another import-export company. The memo’s tone
BancManager discouraged discussion, and B & C was the same type of company as Turetti. —
Though I hated to losea promising contract, I called Bolling and said we could
not provide the precise service they wanted. We didn’t sign anybody new for
_ the next two weeks, and suddenly Downey walked into a staff meeting, having
flown in from Memphis for the sole purpose of reprimanding me. ‘I don’t know
ifyou're the kind of manager tthis company needs,” he said.
In my defense, T outlined the similarities between Turetti and Bolling.‘
| |followed your express orders,” I said.
He looked sheepish. “That's not what I meant,”Pie said, as all of us thought
; about the$15, 000, three-month, renewable contract we’d lost.

MEETING READERS’ People in business often must communicate with others whose experiences,
needs, beliefs, vocabularies, educational levels, and emotions differ greatly
EXPECTATIONS from their own. Writers are rarely safe in assuming readers’ minds are similar
to their own. Assuming too much leads to reactions like “But I told you!,” “But
I didn’t understand,” “But I clearly said. . .,” “But I thought you meant. . .”—
reactions that inevitably subtract from a business’s profits.
The more writers know about The first step needed to ensure that messages meet readers’ expectations
their readers, the more writers
can shape their messages to
does not come naturally to most people. Writers need to get outside them-
meet readers’ needs. selves, put themselves mentally into the reader’s frame of reference, and view
the message from the reader’s viewpoint rather than their own.
In Chapter One, you read about reader analysis. The more you know about
your reader or readers, the better you can shape messages to meet readers’
needs. Ask yourself all the audience analysis questions set forth in Chapter
One. Your answers to those questions will help you to write your business
messages in the style best suited to individual readers’ understanding.
When the message is highly important or the reader has unusual expecta-
tions, we can make additional inquiries about the reader. We might need to
consider the reader’s interests, biases, values, and priorities in choosing a
writing style.
Other potential influences on writing style include the relationship between
writer and reader, the reader’s likely attitude toward the message, and even the
kind of organization in which the message is sent or received. Will your read-
ers resist what you say? If so, is it because they dislike you or the unit you
represent, because the subject is distasteful to them, or perhaps because they
_ have fixed ideas about how the matter should be presented? If you write
assertively, will they dig in their heels harder? If you write deferentially, will
68 Chapter Three
they think you are a wimp? What will your readers find appropriate? Try not to
disrupt those expectations.

Because business readers are usually rushed, with many things competing for CONCISENESS
their attention, they expect efficient, businesslike messages. A concise com-
munication is easy to get through rapidly. The message must contain every-
thing necessary for understanding but waste no words.
Don’t repeat an idea without a reason. Don’t use extra words. Redundancy Redundancy is needless
is useless and irritating to a reader. Most redundancy comes from careless habit repetition of an idea.
or a wish to impress. People say, “These are true facts” as though “facts” failed
to express truth strongly enough. Facts are true; false facts aren’t facts.
Have you heard people say that ingredients are “combined together’?
“Combined” means “put together.” How about “revert back”? “Revert” means
“go back.” Here are a few more common redundancies and wordy phrases:

completely destroyed destroyed

adequate enough adequate or enough
assemble together assemble
on an occasional basis occasionally
a total of $945.95 $945.95
at this point in time now, at present
each and every each or every
| for a period of six weeks for six weeks |

Editing out empty words will yield better emphasis for important words.

Business writers must write so clearly that the meaning won’t be mistaken CLARITY
even if the reader’s attention is divided. A variant of Murphy’s Law makes
clarity essential: If anything can be misunderstood, it will be misunderstood.
Nothing should be ambiguous. The language must be simple, plain,
and clear.

Good business style is plain, unobtrusive, and “businesslike” rather than clever INCONSPICUOUSNESS
or artistic.

Anything in your writing that calls attention to itself calls attention away
from the message.

“Anything” could be an overlooked error, such as an unclear expression or a

sentence structure problem. It could be something that is not wrong in itself
but inappropriate for business, such as a word the reader does not know, a
pompous expression, a metaphor, a showy stylistic trick, a literary allusion, or
any of dozens of other poor choices.
What calls attention to itself in business writing might be perfectly accept-
able elsewhere. But if a business reader has to stop to figure out or think about
anything conspicuous, he or she is for that instant not thinking about the
writer’s message. If the busy reader is handling many simultaneous messages,
this message might get lost.
Business Writing Style 69
 Writers must be keenly aware of any personal biases or opinions so that their
CREDIBILITY
own “blind spots” do not weaken their messages. Even when writers attempt
to persuade, their writing style must strike readers as balanced and sensible.
A calm, balanced style raises the Precision in word choice, accuracy in facts and presentation, and full, un-
credibility of a business derstandable development of ideas contribute to a writer’s credibility. So does
message.
avoidance of overstatement. Enthusiasm is attractive until it carries a person
away. People overstate their case when their enthusiasm takes them beyond
what is true. Business readers want factual information. When extreme terms
are used carelessly or too frequently, they stop sounding true. The message is
not taken seriously.
Watch out for words like extremely, really, awfully, tremendously, terri-
bly, such a, so much, really a lot, sky-high, wonderful, marvelous, and im-
mense. Use them infrequently enough that when you do use them they haven’t
been “used up.” If everything is “wonderful,” then nothing is. A word to watch
closely is very. You will rarely need this word; avoid it unless you have a
compelling reason to use it.
Be careful with the superlative degree of adjectives and adverbs— the -est
form of a short modifier, like newest, or the most form of a longer modifier, like
most unusual. Thrown about carelessly, these words lose their power to
persuade or impress. Don’t say that something is “the greatest,” “the newest,”
or “the best” unless you can demonstrate that fact—and then do so at once.
Avoid declaring that “orders increased spectacularly” or using expressions
like “a whopping” 45 percent. State the percentage and let the fact speak for
itself, giving the reader a context for evaluating the number if necessary.
Words like spectacularly and whopping imply that the facts are not substan-
tial— that the reader has to be urged to see them as substantial.

SUITABILITY FOR Writers need to choose medium, channel, and format with care and make style
choices that work well in the channel selected. Many writing decisions relate
MEDIUM AND to the level of formality.
CHANNEL Business letters, memos, and reports can assume a wide range of formality,
depending on receiver, topic, and situation. At the formal end of the scale,
Style, medium, and format consider a letter a law office might send to someone it is proceeding against in
affect one another. The style of court or a mid-length memo report containing a research and development
an electronic mail message
might differ greatly from that of proposal. The longer documents become, the more likely they are to be for-
a formal report. mal. At the informal end of the scale would be a brief memo from a supervisor
reminding subordinates of an upcoming meeting or a good-news letter from a
company making a favorable adjustment for a customer.
Writers also use the medium of the letter, memo, or other written form with
a view to attractive and appropriate format. Skilled business writers prevent
paragraphs from getting too long and gray. They make use of white space
(space containing no type, like margins, spaces between paragraphs and
around headings) so that the reader’s eye gets a rest between chunks of type.
They employ other elements of eye appeal, like underscoring, graphs, or in-
dented blocks, where appropriate.
A message that is attractively organized and carefully crafted for its medium
represents you and your organization well. It sends a positive nonverbal mes-
sage over and above the content and adds credibility to that content. Poor use
of the medium sends the opposite message.

COURTESY - During the typical hectic business day, writers must remain aware of courtesy.
All receivers of business messages should be treated with respect. In most
70 Chapter Three
cases, the necessary polite and positive words are ready in our memory, and all Few things are free, but you can
we have to do is remember to use them. For instance, instead of “Get these give—and receive—courtesy at
no cost.
corrections back to me on the double,” try “I’ll appreciate having these cor-
rections back by 5 p.m.”
Sometimes you will write to someone who has annoyed you or disrupted
your expectations. Using positive, courteous language in response to a nega-
tive message will be profitable. While you may be tempted to send a disre-
spectful or angry message, you and the business unit you represent cannot
afford its cost.

Business readers expect error-free standard English. Your business style must CORRECTNESS
show a competent grasp of businesslike usage, grammar, and word choice.
When is a word “correct English” or “incorrect English”? Many people
believe that all of English falls neatly into rigid “right” and “wrong” categories.
They are surprised to learn that usage experts differ over some elements.
Nevertheless, unless you are sure about an individual reader, do not assume
your reader prefers loose standards. You are safer taking a conservative ap-
proach to usage, so keep these points in mind:
e Business readers expect competent use of standard English.
e The way writers use the language makes an impression, good or bad.
e Business communication must be appropriate to the reader, the
subject, and the situation.
Refer to your dictionary and the handbook section of this textbook when in
doubt. Learn which elements of English may be changing. Some errors grad-
ually become correct, but others will always be incorrect. Until most educated
users view a changing element as correct, you will be wise to avoid the risk.

The language of your message should sound comfortable, familiar, and natural. NATURALNESS
“Write as you would (carefully) speak” is good advice. Think of the way you Write as you would (carefully)
speak when the subject matter is important, your knowledge is thorough and speak,
well organized, and an influential listener is present. If your writing has that
sound, it will sound natural to business readers.
However, “natural” does not mean “error filled.” Do not pattern your busi-
ness writing on careless, informal elements of spoken English such as “Well,
like all of us, really, you know, feel like, well, our professor, you know, is just
too hard.” This looks ludicrous in writing and it sounds nearly as bad when
uttered aloud. Readers expect complete, coherent sentences and accurate
word choice. They expect you to say what you mean clearly and correctly and
will be bothered if you do not.

When you put your ideas in writing, you need to conform to a rather conser- Note Differences between
vative set of rules. In speaking, a less strict standard applies. Written and Spoken English
For instance, many businesspersons—even highly educated ones—some-
times use “between you and I’ or “on behalf of Chris and I” in speaking. Of
course, these are errors. Between and of are prepositions; the object of a
preposition is in the objective case. Thus, me, not J, is correct. So prevalent is
this error in speaking, however, that businesspersons, even those who know it
is incorrect, rarely feel very critical of the person using it. When they encoun-
ter the error in writing, though, they react quite differently.
Business Writing Style 71
 PROFESSOR WILSON,
BETWEEN 4OU AND T...
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DRABBLE reprinted by permission of UFS, Inc.

To many audiences, careless use of the language is highly irritating.

The spoken form of a language changes more rapidly than does the written
form. In fact, written language acts as a brake to slow down the evolution of a
language. What this means for business communicators is that in writing they
must adhere to the conventions of standard English. If those writers rarely
read, they will form all their language patterns on the basis of the spoken form.
When those patterns are put down in writing, they are glaring errors to many
business readers.
Writing is typically a more deliberate act than speaking. Unlike most listen-
ers, readers assume writers have the opportunity to revise their work and to
check for errors. Readers often keep written messages on file, and errors in
those messages can come back to haunt the writers.
You may be objecting, “If the language is changing and most of us make the
error in speaking, why don’t they just declare it correct?” “They” are not just
one decision maker but many people. Eventually a persistent error becomes
standard, but meanwhile we must write for our business readers’ needs. Most
readers feel strongly about correctly written English, and we would be foolish
to disregard their expectations.

Avoid Outdated Expressions To sound natural and conversational, choose familiar words and normal sen-
tence structure. Do not use stilted or outdated expressions such as “per your
request” or “please find enclosed.” No one speaks these phrases, so, in general,
do not write them.
Most such expressions were common during the last two centuries, when
businesspersons were the social inferiors of the wealthy classes they served.
The language they used to address their patrons was subservient. For example,
a businessman would close his letter with “Your most humble and obedient
servant.” A few such expressions carried over into the early 20th century. Here
are examples:
Enclosed herewith is. . .
I beg to submit...
I offer for your kind consideration . .
I take the liberty of sending. . .
I wish to acknowledge receipt of your letter. . .
Modern practice recommends doing away with expressions like these. If
you have enclosed a price list, say simply “Enclosed is our price list.” Better
yet, say, “Our enclosed price list shows. . .” so that you get your reader using
your material. If you are sending a proposal or an application, say, “Here is a
proposal I hope you'll consider.” The last phrase in the preceding list simply
72 Chapter Three
means “I have received your letter.” Usually there is no need to mention that
fact at all. If you are responding to a person’s letter, obviously you received
that letter.
Outworn expressions will strike a wrong chord with today’s business
reader. They are wordy and unnatural in modern communication. If an ex-
pression springs into your head that “sounds like business talk,” think again; it
may be one of these time-worn phrases. In general, if you wouldn’t say it, don’t
write it, ;

Many words have multiple denotations, or dictionary meanings, and many Use Accurate Denotation and
have connotations, or emotional associations. Connotation
Explore the different denotations of an ordinary word like key. A key opens
a lock. A key is also a list of answers to an exam. An island in a row offshore
from the state of Florida is a key, as is the lever you turn to wind a music box.
Composers write music in a key (for instance, the key of G major). Pianos and
computers have keys. The top stone in an arch is a key, as is the scale-of-miles
graph on a map.
All of the preceding examples are nouns, but key has many other meanings
as a verb, adjective, or compound word, especially in idioms. A person who is
keyed up is tense and excited. Key often means indispensable (key decision
maker, key player).
These examples do not begin to exhaust the meanings of that one symbol.
You know these meanings, and the people with whom you communicate know
them. But you can see how misunderstandings can arise if a speaker or writer
does not make clear from the context which of these many meanings he or she
intends.
By estimate, the 500 most common words in the English language have a
total of about 14,000 different dictionary meanings. That gives you an idea of
the potential problems created by multiple denotations. Add to this the matter
of connotation, the array of emotional associations that accompany some
words.
A thorough grasp of connotation is one of the most useful skills a writer can
develop. In informative writing, you should choose words without strong
connotations. In Chapter Eleven, we'll examine techniques for writing persua-
sively and read about ways a persuasive writer can use word connotations to
create the desired emotional appeal to the reader.
Some words have few emotional associations. It’s hard to get excited about “You say I have funny ideas. Is
that funny ‘ha-ha’ or funny
words like building, report, or material. Words like these do not create strong ‘peculiar’?”
feelings for most people. Many words, though, have some type of emotional
association, and some are heavily laden with connotations. The emotions con-
jured up differ widely in kind and in degree, and they differ from person to
person. To a person who has high power, the word power will feel quite
different than it will to a person who feels threatened and powerless.
Consider the word fight, whose denotative meaning is “to struggle or con-
tend with an opponent.” But what connotative meaning does the word carry
to a kindergarten teacher? To a football team? To a resident of south-central
Los Angeles during the riots of May 1992? To a business competitor or a
politician? To a person battling a grave illness? To you? :
Consider a few more examples. What does freedom mean? How about
victim? How does blue make you feel? What about red? How about forgive,
lawyer, regret, gift, vagrant, magic, fascist, snake, discount, Mercedes-Benz?
You probably do not have entirely neutral feelings about any of these words.
Business Writing Style 73
 The fact that words evoke feelings, along with the multiple denotative
meanings many of our most common words have acquired, creates a paradox
for business writers. Words have denotational meanings only because users of
the language agree on those meanings. Nevertheless, because of the different
experiences people bring to the act of communicating, no two users agree
exactly on either the denotational or connotational meanings of all symbols.
Naturalness might mean different things to different readers. Sometimes you
will write for highly educated readers. These readers’ expectations, based on
the kind of material they read most frequently, will differ from the expecta-
tions of an uneducated audience and even those of a general audience. In
meeting the expectations of an educated audience, you will sometimes use less
familiar words and do less explaining. Don’t assume, though, that a highly
educated reader always wants to read at his or her top comprehension level.
All business audiences expect and appreciate ease of reading and clarity.
Sometimes you will write for less educated readers. For these readers, you
must write quite simply without talking down to them. Whatever their level
of education and sophistication, all of your readers deserve respectful treat-
ment. For all readers, avoid choosing odd synonyms over words they know. Do
not flaunt your ability to create an ornate phrase. All business readers react
negatively to obvious efforts to dazzle them.

POSITIVENESS An old story tells of a pessimist and an optimist contemplating the same eight-
ounce glass containing four ounces of milk. The pessimist remarks, “It’s half
empty.” The optimist counters, “It’s half full.”
Businesspeople can make the best or the worst of a situation by the way
they view it and talk about it. You are aware that people make decisions based
not only on facts but also on how they feel about those facts. Using positive
language can make a great deal of difference in how writers and readers feel
about facts.
Business communicators are wise to keep in mind the feelings a given word
can call up in a reader or listener. In business, a person who receives a letter
beginning

We regret that we cannot, with existing information, honor your recent claim. You
failed to provide. . .
will have an unpleasant reaction to the negative feelings that accompany the
words regret, cannot, claim, and failed.
Positive words can convey the same message without the negative effect.
The negative message you just read could begin
As soon as you send us the transaction number (see top right corner of invoice), we'll
be glad to send you the replacement cordless phone you requested.
Although you may need to use negative words in exceptional circum-
stances, watch for opportunities to replace with positive language such nega-
tive expressions as these:

error excuse poor reject

refuse deny fault incompetent
doubt unfortunately guilt ridiculous
you never. . . you always... why??? I told you so

74, Chapter Three

 Most readers react positively to positive language. Truthful, positive word
choice is not false word choice, and it does not strike a reader as false unless
it is overdone. Common sense, truth, and good taste should guide all word
choice. For best effect, choose words with positive connotations whenever
you can. Avoid bringing a negative note into your business writing unneces-
sarily.

Writing— and reading— about facts and figures need not be dull. A business INTEREST
style can have ample variety, visual appeal, and activity. You have some choices
that will raise the interest level of your written messages. Where appropriate,
you can
e Select active-voice instead of passive-voice verbs.
e Select action verbs such as show, prove, or drive rather than be verbs
or weak, vague verbs such as have, seem, and do.
e Choose concrete, specific words instead of abstract, general words.
e Use the precise word needed instead of a vague word needing many
modifiers.
A writing style that adds interest often makes the message more readable as
well. The style used in the following memo could have “defaulted” to passive
voice and weak word choice. Instead, the writing is lively and active.
The air-pump kneepad sales look good, at midquarter report. Regions 3, 4, and6 sold,
respectively, 7,218 units, 9,194 units, and 12,320 units.
At $32.74 wholesale, the pads compete on price as well as quality. Revenue for
regions 3, 4, and 6 amounted to $236,317.32, $301,011.56, and $403,356.80.
At the end of the quarter, we should decide on promoting them in our other three
regions.
Price can rise approximately $3.00 once our buyers recognize the value our product
offers.
Sometimes, however, interesting writing might work against your goals as a
writer. For instance, if you have to smooth someone’s annoyance or convey
unwelcome news, bland rather than colorful writing might serve you better.

A number of factors affect the readability of a message, including word counts, READABILITY
use of active voice, noun clumps, length of paragraphs and sentences, and use
of white space.

Several business communication experts, including Robert Gunning, have de- Consider “The Numbers”
veloped numerical readability formulas."
To use most readability formulas, business writers take a sample of the
document they want to check. They count several things: words, sentences,
and number of long words. Using a simple mathematical formula, for each
piece of writing they generate a reading on a scale. Gunning’s formula, called
the Fog Index, uses school grade levels—not only the usual kindergarten
through high school grades but college and graduate levels as well, ending in
the high 20s.

1Robert Gunning, The Technique of Clear Writing, rev. ed. (New York: McGraw-Hill, 1973).

Business Writing Style 75

 Some communication experts advise you to write at a level just below your
reader’s education level. We say, “When in doubt, keep it simple.” (Do not, of
course, write so as to insult your reader’s intelligence.) Few business messages
are written too simply. The unreadable ones usually offend by being too long
and using too complex words, sentences, and paragraphs.
Word counts tell only part of the story, however. Readable writing includes
many characteristics. Some add interest to writing; others help the reader
grasp quickly who does what or what does what.

Choose Active Voice Use active rather than passive forms of verbs. Active voice and passive voice
are covered in Appendix B, but let’s briefly examine the difference this choice
can make in business writing. :
First, recall that in active voice, the subject of the sentence is the doer of
the verb’s action.
subject/doer verb receiver of action
—— —_

The manager coached the new employee.

In passive voice, the subject of the sentence is the receiver of the verb’s action.
The subject of the sentence does not act but instead is passive (is acted on).

oF
receiver of action verb eee
doer
The new employee was coached by the manager.
In a passive-voice sentence, the doer either appears in a prepositional phrase
late in the sentence or does not appear at all, as in this example.

receiver verb
The new employee was encouraged to use positive language.
As these examples show, a passive-voice verb differs from an active-voice verb
in that the passive-voice verb always has the passive participle (taken, built,
chosen, shown, completed) and some form of the verb to be.
Passive voice is not wrong; it has its uses, as we'll point out later. But
business writers choose active voice most of the time, for several reasons.
First, active voice is shorter. Compare these active-voice verbs and their
passive-voice counterparts. Note that passive voice is always at least one word
longer than active voice:

promotes is promoted
has done has been done
is fixing is being fixed
gave was given
did was done
will ask will be asked

You have been urged to cut excess words whenever you can. Sometimes you
can do so simply by changing passive verbs to active verbs.
Second, active voice is livelier, more vivid, and easier for the listener or
reader to picture mentally. In the sentence “Ted Farmer supervises three
workers at the drilling site,” the reader can easily visualize a man guiding other
workers near some drilling machinery. In the sentence “Three workers are
76 Chapter Three
being supervised at the drilling site,’ the reader cannot so easily picture the
action because no doer is mentioned. An action without a doer remains ab-
stract. Even if we add the phrase “by Ted Farmer” at the end of the sentence,
the reader has to wait for that detail, and chances are the detail will make little
impression.
Third, overuse of passive voice makes a writing style dull and heavy. Imag-
ine reading paragraph after paragraph in which nobody ever exactly does
anything; things just are done.
A decreased error rate was reported in the accounting department. The rate was
lowered from 1.4 percent to .9 percent. The department should be commended, and it
is expected that more confidence will be placed in any projections that are based on
figures received from accounting.
Readers prefer to read about people doing things, for example, “The account- Using active voice lets you show
ing department reports a decreased error rate.” If you cannot write about people doing things or things
doing other things.
people doing things, let the reader see things doing other things, as in “The
low error rate permits increased confidence in projections.”
If you see too many passives as you revise a letter, memo, or short report,
ask yourself, “In this sentence, who does what or what does what?” Your
answers should yield sentences with active-voice verbs to replace some of the
passives.
In some cases, you might have good reason to keep some passives. Used
sparingly, passive voice can add variety. In addition, using passive voice is a
deemphasis technique. Business writers sometimes need to state things with-
out drawing much attention to them. In bad-news messages, for example,
negative information must be communicated, but the wise writer talks about
reasons for the unwelcome news before actually giving it, uses positive lan-
guage, and usually buries the bad news in a long sentence in a long paragraph.
Frequently the writer also uses passive voice in that sentence to keep the
reader from picturing the news vividly and becoming angry about it. For
instance, the sentence “Because of heavy absenteeism caused by flu cases, the
ambitious production target was not reached in February” tends to downplay
and deemphasize an unwelcome piece of information.
Sometimes the doer of an action is so unimportant or routine that mention-
ing the doer in an active-voice sentence would overemphasize him or her and
seem absurd. For example, in a routine short report, it would seem silly to say,
“The men and women on the production line turned out 700 units—exactly
the quota—this month” or “Our grounds workers cleared all the leaves on
schedule.” If the information is routine, report it without undue emphasis on
the doer. The best form might be passive voice: “The production department's
quota of 700 units was met”; “Ground raking around the plant was completed
on schedule.”
Passive voice tends to spread in business writing because businesspeople
are interested in facts, numbers, quotas, trends, and accomplishments— more
sometimes than they are in knowing who produced them. That doesn’t mean
businesspeople are unfeeling. They care about data because they must make
decisions based on it. Though facts may occupy more of a typical businessp er-
son’s attention than people do, it’s a rare businessp erson who prefers to read
long strings of passive-voice sentences.

English lets us use a noun to modify another noun. We do this daily: “The Avoid Noun Clumps
parking-lot machine wouldn't take my coins”; “The evening accounting class
Business Writing Style 77
 is full.” Short “stacks” of nouns modifying other nouns create few problems.
However, business, industry, government, law, and many academic disciplines
have generated a long-winded, pompous, intimidating, official-sounding style
of writing. s
This undesirable Style is heavy on long words, noun clumps, long sentences
and paragraphs, unnecessary abstractions, technical jargon, and excessive
prepositional phrases. The style overuses passive voice and nominalizations
(nouns made out of verbs by adding one or more suffixes—for example, the
verb stratify becomes the noun stratification). Such devices can make a two-
page memo or policy statement virtually impossible to read. The reader wea-
ries and perhaps desires no further exchanges with the writer.
In the following example, a daily metropolitan newspaper quotes a schol-
arly business journal:? :
In another case, a high technology composites design house chose to expand out of
the protected Class 1 custom aerospace market into the competitive Class 2
automotive adhesives business.
Those four-noun clumps make for hard reading. Watch out for “noun abuse” as
you write and revise. If you find yourself overusing noun clumps or writing tall
“stacks,” break them apart.

Shorten Sentences and When you write, try to help the reader see the “skeleton” of the sentence,
Paragraphs S>V
the subject and the main verb. Also, the reader should be able to see imme-
diately which phrases and other modifiers belong to which words. If that
succeeds, your idea will take shape in the reader’s mind with no struggle.
Shorter is easier. The longer a sentence is, the harder it can be for a reader to find its
“backbone.” Long sentences, even when perfectly grammatical, slow a reader
down. Most experts say a business writer’s sentences should average no more
than 16 to 17 words. Sentence length can comfortably vary between 5 and 25
words.
Paragraphs in business letters and memos should be fairly short; a good
average is six to eight lines. Paragraphs in reports, especially lengthy reports,
can be longer. Even then, you should consider the reader’s eyes and divide
paragraphs that have become very long.
A paragraph is long enough when it contains the material the reader
expects
to find there. A typical paragraph contains
e A topic sentence.
e Sentences that develop the idea in the topic sentence (the
number
varies).
e A sentence that sums up and provides a transition to the
next
paragraph.
Exceptions to this outline exist. You might see a very brief paragra
ph whose
sole purpose is to provide a transition between sections,
or a one-line para-
graph placed alone for emphasis, or a long paragraph
containing a narrative.
Business readers are accustomed to standard-length
paragraphs, though. In
general, you should meet their expectations.

“Stephen King It’s Not,” Los Angeles Times, July 13, 1992,
p. D-1.
78 Chapter Three
 When in doubt, keep a paragraph short. No paragraph should be stretched
out or padded to make it seem more important.

On a page of a business message, all the space that contains no type is called Use White Space
white space. It includes margins, space between paragraphs, space around
tabulated material, and the like. Picture the appearance of a page without white
space, a page filled solidly with type. Such a page makes most people resist
even starting to read. Readers like white space for several reasons:
e It lessens eye fatigue.
e It makes a message seem easy to read.
e It lets the eyes travel rapidly and determine a message’s meaning
quickly.
e It makes a page more attractive graphically.
Use white space thoughtfully. A page should look full and developed but still
invite the eye.

What makes a message coherent? Basically, good standard English and sound (CQHERENCE AND
sentence structure are necessary for all coherent business messages. If writing
is flawed at this basic level, coherence is impossible. TRANSITION

In addition to using correct English and good sentence structure, a writer can Achieving Coherence
do the following to help a reader understand the links among ideas:
. Put the ideas in an order that makes sense.
. Repeat key words as necessary.
. Use synonyms for key words.
. Use appropriate pronoun substitutes for key nouns.
= . List or enumerate key ideas. (The list you are reading makes use of
eR
MA
NH
W
this coherence device.)
6. Use conjunctions and transitional expressions to show relationships
among ideas.
7. Use parallel structure to show equality among ideas.
The following memo body uses several of these devices. Italics highlight some
of the repeated key words, synonyms, and pronouns.
When Trident Computers’ fine sales staff hits its highest energy level, previous sales
records tumble. Holiday season is coming, and all of us would like to see another
record year.
We'd like, therefore, to ask you what sales incentives would make you feel most like
outdoing yourselves.
Here are some of the incentives being considered for different levels of achievement.
(Keep in mind that the larger the award, the fewer persons would be eligible.)
e Rotating engraved plaque for Salesperson of the Month.
e 2 percent added commission aboveaset level.
e 14-karat-gold lapel pins, with more valuable gemstones for higher levels of sales.
e Added days of paid vacation.
e One-week trip to Hawaii,
Business Writing Style
 Please tell your manager by August 12 which of these would energize your sales the
most. And if you have other ideas, please pass them on as well.
Trident is shooting for the happiest holidays ever—for all of us.
Repetition with variation can Study the effect of the key word repetition. Holiday at the beginning ties in
often improve coherence. with holidays at the end. Some form of record appears more than once. The
same is true of Trident Computers, incentive, and energy. Sales is repeated in
sales staff and sales incentives. The writer is careful not to repeat a word too
often. In addition, she varies the form of the key word. Too frequent or un-
varying repetition can strike a reader as odd or monotonous.
The indented list uses parallel structure. The pronouns some and these refer
to the incentives on the list. Other pronouns—we, us, you, your, and your-
selves—recall the nouns Trident Computers and sales staff.

Reviewing Transitional The memo uses only two transitional expressions: therefore and and. Also, the
Expressions sentence Here are. . . that introduces the list is a transitional sentence. When
other coherence devices work as they should, a writer may not need many
explicit transitions.
Following are some frequently used transitional words and phrases.

Transitional Adverbs Most in the first list are transitional adverbs. Consider what each one
means and how it is used:

therefore for example accordingly furthermore

thus on the other hand next hence
nevertheless alternatively however in contrast
meanwhile consequently moreover then
also otherwise

Transitional expressions help Notice that some of these words, like alternatively and nevertheless, express
explain relationships among contrast. Others, like meanwhile and then, indicate a time relationship among
ideas.
the ideas they link. Still others, like thus, consequently, and accordingly, show
that the idea coming after them follows logically from the idea preceding them.

Coordinating Conjunctions Coordinating conjunctions can express the same kinds of links among
ideas that transitional adverbs do. Remember that conjunctions can “conjoin”
clauses in sentences; adverbs cannot. Coordinating conjunctions are few
enough to remember easily: and, but, or, nor, yet, and, in very informal writ-
ing, so. One of these can connect two independent clauses with only a comma
between the clauses.

Subordinating Conjunctions A subordinating conjunction makes a clause dependent. It signals a reader

to look for another clause to complete the sentence. Here are some subordi-
nating conjunctions:

before after that in order that who (whom)

though where unless as long as whoever (whomever)
although wherever why as though what (whatever)
if when since whether which (whichever)
as whenever because whose how (however)
as if until while

80 Chapter Three
|@asie 3—1 Techniques for Emphasis and Deemphasis |

Short sentence with one idea Longer sentence with several ideas
Independent clause Dependent clause
Beginning or end of sentence Middle position in either sentence
Beginning or end of paragraph or paragraph
Parallel structure Avoidance of parallel structure
Parallel structure, indented, para h styl
; 5 numbers, letters, Parallel structure, Perce eye
sometimes with
or bullets
White space around idea Inclusion of idea in paragraph Elements receive emphasis
Repetition Single statement or implication when they differ from an
established pattern. Make sure
Concrete, specific language Abstract, general language emphasis always works in your
favor. Errors receive emphasis
Active voice Passive voice too, but you don’t want that
Second person (you) Third person (he, they) kind of attention in your
writing!
Full development Sparse development
Mechanical signals such as all caps, No mechanical signals
color, underlining, italics,
boldface
Verbal “flags” (most important, above No verbal flags
all)

Once you have learned how to use transitional adverbs, coordinating and
subordinating conjunctions, and other means of achieving unity and coher-
ence, you will have mastered an important business-writing skill.

When your message is neutral or favorable, consider using one or more em- EFFECTIVE. EMPHASIS
phasis techniques for the main idea. When your message calls for sensitivity or
indirectness, one or more deemphasis techniques are appropriate. Table 3—1
lists techniques for emphasizing and deemphasizing.
One principle of emphasis is making an element different from what pre-
cedes and follows it. For this reason, emphasizing many elements has the effect
of emphasizing nothing. Overuse of emphasis techniques also makes a message
seem rough and jerky.

The “isms” —sexism, racism, ageism, and so on—are enemies of business AVOIDANCE OF
productivity. Nevertheless, some people feel threatened when those they per- “ISMS”

ceive as unlike them seem likely to gain in power or economic success.

In the early part of the 20th century, nearly all business and professional
leaders— managers, doctors, politicians, bankers, salespeople, executives—
were white males. Language, including business language, promoted this as-
sumption. Over the decades, the business world has assimilated many new or
underrepresented worker populations and has supported their gains in power
and economic security. Examples of these groups are women, minorities, el-
derly persons, and workers with disabilities.

Business Writing Style 81

Stereotypes Reading only about white male managers, executives, bankers, and the like
tends to reinforce in a reader’s mind the idea that only white males can hold
these positions. For changes to occur, people have had to change the way they
think and talk about these groups. Not everyone has changed. In addition,
discrimination has become more subtle.
The “isms” work against A group that lacks power can do little to prevent others from applying
understanding and cooperation. negative labels. Meanwhile, the labels create negative images in the minds of
people who hire, train, evaluate, and promote workers.
A rigid and unchangeable negative image of a group of people is called a
stereotype. Stereotypes appear in forms like these:
e You have to expect old Ted to be set in his ways. He must be at least
50.
e Ming is shy and unassertive— Chinese women are like that.
e Japanese men are evasive and sly.
e Latino men are hot tempered.
e If you hire workers with disabilities, you'll have to pick up a lot of
slack.
Often stereotypes take the form of jokes, sometimes jokes told in the presence
of a member of the targeted group. The target is supposed to “join in the fun”
and “be a good sport.” Or he or she hears, “Of course we don’t mean you.”
Jokes containing stereotypes have no place in business communication.
We encounter at least two kinds of “labeling” offenses. The first suggests
that the status or accomplishment of a person who belongs to a certain group
is unusual for that group. For example, when a newspaper reports, “Gerald
Lanham, an African-American banker, said today that. . . ,” it subtly implies
that there is something strange about an African-American being a banker. The
article should say simply, “Gerald Lanham, a banker, said. . . .”
The second type of labeling applies a racial, ethnic, gender, or other label
with nearly every mention of the individual, whether or not the label is rele-
vant to the matter being discussed. Phrases like “my Jewish friend says” or “our
Latina sales associate” may seem to send a subtle signal that the labeled indi-
vidual is not really “one of us” in the mind of the speaker.
One of the most damaging kinds of stereotype is the sweeping generaliza-
tion. Like most of the other offenses, these inclusive and rigid statements can
hit an individual in any category—sex, race, ethnic group, age, and so on.

“Soft” Categories: Think for a moment about generalizing and categorizing. Are they wrong in
Generalizations with Growing themselves? Certainly not. They are natural and necessary functions of the
human mind. If we do not make generalizations on the basis of our experience,
Room
we cannot learn. For example, from getting burned once by touching a hot
Generalizations and categories radiator, we would not be able to predict that a second hot radiator would
are useful as long as new burn us. Similarly, categories serve a useful purpose. When we alphabetize a
information prompts us to
revise them. Stereotypes, which list of names, we create a useful category. When we tell a child, “Do not talk
do not change, are harmful. to strangers,” we use a Category to ensure the child’s life and safety.
Categories and generalizations can become harmful stereotypes when they
are created too quickly, when their scope is too inclusive, or when new,
different experiences cannot modify them. As perceptive people gain more
experience with members of a group different from themselves, they learn that

82 Chapter Three
these individuals are different from them in some ways, similar to them in
other ways, but also quite different among themselves. Individuals are seen as
individuals, and differences among groups become less meaningful. In other
words, the categories and generalizations “soften.” They resist becoming set in
concrete. Revision is not only possible; ‘it is constant. Responses are more
rational. The individual using the categories and generalizations is able to
grow.

You have probably heard people say things like “Women are emotional and Sexism
vindictive. They shouldn’t try to manage. They especially shouldn’t manage
other women.” The proportion of female managers who are not good at man-
aging is probably the same as the proportion of ineffective male managers.

Another kind of sexism occurs when a male executive writes in a memo, Labels, Descriptors, and
“We're meeting with a lady construction engineer today. . . .” That executive Sexism
may be implying a warning or a hint that the “lady” isn’t to be taken seriously.
Remarks of this kind should be avoided and discouraged.
We need to use sex-neutral word choices: firefighter, police officer, and
mail carrier have replaced fireman, policeman, and mailman, stewardess,
male nurse, and foreman have given way to flight attendant, nurse, and
supervisor. The person who chairs‘a meeting might be the chairperson, pre-
siding officer, or, simply, chair. We can use synthetic instead of manmade and
humankind or people instead of mankind.
We need to avoid words and phrases that make women seem small, weak,
or trivial. Avoid using and discourage the use of expressions like “the little
woman,” “the gals,” “little lady,” “the gentler sex,” or “a small but mighty
voice.”
Details of physical appearance are irrelevant in speaking of a woman or a
minority group member. For instance, since you would not write, ‘John
Brown, the burly corporate executive,” it is equally inappropriate to write
“Mary Ward, the diminutive vice president.” Similarly, expressions like “she’s
too mannish” or “she’s too feminine” are impossible to interpret objectively.
They convey someone’s value judgment based on taste (which is in no way
objective). They are not meaningful but are certainly prejudicial.

One language difficulty is the need for a singular pronoun to refer to a mixed Singulars, Plurals, and
group or to an individual whose sex is not known to us at the time we write. Sexism
We have several options; clarity and gracefulness of style determine which to
select.
e If the reference will be made only once, no problem. Say be or she or
him or ber. (“Each manager has selected his or her assistant.”) If used
more than once, however, the phrase will begin to call attention to
itself and away from the message.
e Change to plural. (“All the managers have selected their assistants.”)
e If you know the message will not be read aloud, he/she, his/her, and
him/ber are acceptable (though ungraceful).

Business Writing Style 83

 e If you can ascertain the sex of the recipient of a letter or memo, do so.
If you can determine your recipient’s level of sensitivity on the “he or
she” issue, do so, and write with that in mind.
e Some readers still find bim and he perfectly acceptable as common
gender. Use them only if you are certain you will not offend.
e In a long document with examples (“Manager A,” “Manager B”),
alternate sexes in your examples: Let Manager A be a woman, Manager
B a man. Let some subordinates be women, some men.

In colloquial spoken English, many people use they or them to rename a

singular. This is still an error in writing.

Racial and Ethnic Prejudice Another offense is discrimination against ethnic and racial minorities. Hateful
language, with racial, ethnic, sexual, and other slurs is still alive; in fact, recent
court cases have shown it to be protected by the First Amendment. Examples
are not necessary; this kind of language is easy to identify. It has no place in
business writing or speaking.
Not all prejudicial language is blatant. Some takes the form of adverse as-
sumptions and generalizations. (“Wouldn’t fit in”; “Our customers just
wouldn’t take to him”; “Too brassy”; “Wouldn’t be able to hold his own in our
fast-moving organization.”)Sometimes a stereotype takes the form of a “back-
handed compliment” —an ostensibly positive comment setting an individual
apart from what “everyone knows” about a group. (“You’d never expect some-
one named Juana to be five minutes early for work all the time, but she is!”;
“Krisha is the most productive African-American worker I’ve ever seen.”)No
group is “always” or “never” or even “usually” anything. Across sexes, races,
and ethnic and other groups, we see the whole range of human types and
behaviors. Some Americans are evasive and sly, as are some Japanese, some
Swedes, some Australians, and so on. Negative labels for Caucasian males are as
inappropriate as negative labels for any other group.
Business communicators should avoid any wording suggesting that the pres-
ence and accomplishments of minority members, women, or any other single
group are unusual for that group. For business persons to make such remarks,
even in ignorance and with good intentions, is bad humanity and bad business.
We all need awareness of receivers’ perceptions of what we say. Sometimes
those perceptions are surprisingly different from ours.

Bias Against Workers with Of the many groups seeking to find a productive place in the economy, persons
Disabilities with disabilities have faced some of the more serious language and labeling
barriers. For example, a phrase like “wheelchair victim” creates a mental image
of helplessness. That image, not the fact of the trained worker who uses a
wheelchair, often blocks opportunity for the worker.
Workers with disabilities often face insensitive language and treatment
daily, some of it absurd. For instance, a worker who uses a wheelchair some-
times finds people talking very loudly to him as though he were hard of hearing
as well. People with disabilities also may bear unnecessary labels, such as
“Curtis Baxter, the handicapped vice president of Warwick Inc., announced
ground-breaking ceremonies. . . .” Baxter’s disability has no bearing on the
subject. There is no need to mention it.
In offering guidance to help remove language barriers, writing experts say,
“Put the person first,” that is, make the mention of the disability, if needed
at

84. Chapter Three

all, secondary to the person and his or her abilities or accomplishments. If you
need to, say “a person who has a partial hearing loss” or “a worker who uses
braces.” Most of the time, the disability will be irrelevant and you will need no
descriptor at all.

We have not devoted space to all the groups who can be harmed by adverse Other “Isms” and Writers’
word choice in the business communication. environment. Stereotypical im- Responsibility
ages and language directed against any group, however, must be discouraged.
Stereotypes do great harm because they sustain negative images. People who
hold stereotypes see what they think they are going to see, even if it is untrue.
Even more stubbornly, they tend to exaggerate the importance of a negative
and ignore a much more important positive.
Members of certain groups are becoming increasingly active in discourag-
ing the language of discrimination. Older workers know they do not have to
put up with “old coot” or “bluehair.” The American Association of Retired
Persons (AARP) is a large and influential group. Ethnic groups have formed
antidiscrimination societies to protest language that denigrates them. Several Avoid using discriminatory
associations of women executives and managers speak out against sexism. language yourself. Challenge it
if you see or hear it from others.
Discriminatory labels are less frequent than they used to be, but attitudes
change slowly and sometimes grudgingly. It is important to avoid discrimina-
tory language yourself and to challenge it if you see or hear it from others. This
does not mean that you can never say a person has a disability, is female, is
Asian-American, and so on. If you use the descriptor only when it is relevant,
though, it will not create an image of “differentness” or inferiority in a receiv-
er’s mind. Suppose Curtis Baxter in our earlier example was invited to join the
governor’s advisory group on making buildings accessible to people with dis-
abilities. Baxter’s being himself a member of this group makes the fact relevant.
The language we use in business can help make the mix of people around
us work for the prosperity of everyone. We all need all of us, working pro-
ductively.

Writers about business communication agree on five basic principles govern- WORD CHOICE: SOME
ing word choice: GENERAL PRINCIPLES
. Choose short words over long words.
. Choose plain words over pompous words.
. Choose familiar words over unfamiliar words.
. Use concrete, specific words rather than abstract, general words.
=.
mb
NY
WwW
A Choose precise nouns and verbs over adjectives, adverbs, and
prepositional phrases.

When you write—and when you revise— follow these principles unless you
have good reason not to (we'll point out some exceptions as we go along).

Modern English abounds with synonyms, as a scan of your thesaurus will Choose Short Words over
reveal. Often we have a choice between a short word and one or more long Long Words
synonyms. In general, choose the short word unless it’s odd, unfamiliar, or

Business Writing Style 85

 imprecise. (You don’t want your word choice to call attention to itself, make
your reader stop.to decipher meaning, or cause other problems.) Here are
some examples.

advise tell
endeavor try
transpire occur, happen
substantial large
insufficient not enough
| subsequently later |

Consider, however, that some long words are necessary. A short word for
what you mean may not exist, or the connotation of a shorter word may be
wrong for your purpose. Especially as you revise, if you find a string of long
words, try to substitute shorter words for some of them. Strings of long words
discourage a reader and slow comprehension.
Other considerations might suggest choosing a longer word sometimes.
Some longer words are not at all difficult. Also, using too many short words
makes a writing style seem childish.

Choose Plain Words over Weed out wordiness and pretentiousness, as in the following examples:
Pompous Ones

along the lines of like, such as

above-mentioned these
ascertain the data get the facts
at all times always
conceptualize think of
eliminate the possibility of prevent
the manner in which how
| until such time as until |

Choose Familiar Words over Some short words are unfamiliar. For example, instead of gaffe you’d choose
Unfamiliar Words the synonym mistake or blunder for most audiences.
Unfamiliar words are even harder on a reader than long words are. Readers
can often figure out what a long word means if they are familiar with some of
“T hear you talking, but the it. If a word is unfamiliar, though, readers have no choices other than stopping
words are so big they don’t to look it up or skipping over it and trying to guess from the context what
leave any room for the ideas.”
it
means. As the writer, you don’t want readers to stop or skip, because
that
interrupts the logic of your presentation. You don’t want readers to guess
what
you mean, because they might guess wrong. And you don’t want to irritate
readers, because you want to build and preserve a good business relationsh
ip.
Here are some examples of possible unfamiliar words and suggest
ed sub-
stitutes:
86 Chapter Three
 concomitant accompanying
stratum layer
malfeasance wrongdoing
dissimulate pretend
controvert dispute
| vigilant watchful |

Observe caution in using familiar words. Sometimes the familiar word is not
the right one. For instance, an envoy is usually a messenger with high status.
To call an envoy a mere messenger could give offense. Be certain of the
connotations of the words you choose.

A few people really enjoy thinking mostly in abstractions. Though readers can Use Concrete, Specific Words
manage some abstractions, most would rather read about concrete, specific Rather Than Abstract,
things—things they have actually seen and known about. Concrete words
General Words
permit readers to visualize meaning and thus remember more easily. The
following example illustrates abstract, general language:
Woodleigh and Sons intends to seek a growth pattern by encouragement of capital
investment and intelligent use of leverage, while holding to its ideals of community
service and corporate citizenship.
It’s hard to sustain interest at this level of abstraction. Readers can’t pin this
kind of writing down. They wonder just what constitutes “a growth pattern.”
Does “encouragement of capital investment” mean they should expect a new
public stock offering? Which of the several ways to use leverage (corporate
debt) will be chosen? And what will be done for the community?
Abstractions are sometimes useful in business writing. Sometimes a writer
can begin a piece abstractly and get down to concrete examples soon after. If
writing becomes laden with abstractions, however, readers grow bored and
sometimes suspicious. Abstractions, even more than ordinary words, mean
different things to different people. Business writers can hide in abstractions.
Abstractions and generalities are sometimes misused to blur meaning. Some
business writers, when in doubt about whether a statement can be made,
simply state their facts more generally. Then no one can exactly say they’re
wrong. This amounts to evasion, however, and no business writer does well to
arouse distrust in a reader.
In the example just given, stockholders who bought stock expecting divi-
dend income might suspect that “a growth pattern” means profits will be
reinvested instead of paid out to stockholders. Readers can’t really tell what
the statement means. It sounds vaguely good, appropriate, and sound, and it
doesn’t tell readers a thing.
Here are a few examples of concrete, specific words and some abstract,
general categories to which they might belong:

Scanlon Plan gain-sharing plan employee benefit

union demand for $2 raise wage dispute disagreement
June 16 sales for Southeast Valley _ sales figures data

Business Writing Style 87

 It’s possible, of course, to overspecify. A cafeteria manager writing a short
report for the accounting department wouldn’t name all the cafeteria workers,
dishes offered, and employees served. A writer should be as specific as the
reader will find meaningful.
Abstractions and general language also deemphasize. Sometimes a business
writer needs to report something without drawing attention to it. For example,
suppose a minor mistake was made, discovered, and corrected. Use of con-
crete, specific detail and active voice (who did what) would tend to inflate the
importance of the mistake, and the mistake has already been corrected. The
business writer’s best decision in this case is simply to state the event in
general language and passive voice and move on to more important and pos-
itive things.

Choose Precise Nouns and Weak, general, imprecise nouns and verbs need describers— adjectives for the
Verbs over Adjectives and nouns, adverbs for the verbs. Choosing strong nouns and verbs will permit you
to cut many adjectives and adverbs. Examples of weak verbs are go, make, do,
Adverbs
have, and any form of be. Instead of “Model P-614 will be a good seller for us,”
write “Model P-614 will sell well.” Rather than “Volume went upward,” write
“Volume rose” or “Volume climbed,” and then say by how much.
Let the verbs in your sentences work hard. Don’t overwork the nouns. And
especially don’t put the whole burden on the adjectives and adverbs.
A major noun problem occurs when a writer chooses inexact nouns and
then has to nail them down with descriptors. Avoid words like area, situation,
concept, and progress, which say little in themselves. Such “empty” words
require more words before a reader can determine their meaning. What
“area”? Name it: “Word processing needs. . . .” What “situation”? Say “The
electrical short on the cutter... .” State the “concept.” Delineate the
“progress.” Pin these abstractions down.
Watch for -tion, -ance, and -ment nouns. Often you can change a noun
phrase to a single strong verb. Here are a few examples:

make an examination of examine

for alignment of to align
the preparation of proposals preparing proposals |

VARIABLES AND The last element of word choice concerns several “judgment-call” language
categories, including slang, euphemisms, jargon, and a category best called
JUDGMENT CALLS “new language.” Your judgment must guide you here, because all these cate-
Use a given slang term, gories contain some useful and some useless words. The criterion for judging
euphemism, jargon word, or
new term only if your audience whether to use a given slang term, euphemism, jargon word, or new term is
knows it and will receive it well. whether your audience knows it and will be receptive to it.

Slang Slang is highly informal, nonstandard English. Closed groups that guard their
closeness generate slang. You're “in” if you know it; you’re “out” if you don’t.
Slang has come from junior high school student cliques, soldiers, the drug
subculture, truckers with CB radios, and dozens of other groups. Much of
it
disappears rapidly and is replaced by other short-lived slang.
88 Chapter Three
Reprinted by permission: Tribune Media Services.

Ms. Dog could be “best of show” or a major disappointment. With slang,

audiences can’t always tell.

Some slang enters the mainstream of language. For example, far out was—
but is no longer—a popular expression. You'll recognize dudes, punch him
out, cool, dis, and many others. Rarely would any of these belong in a business
message. Take a word like guys however. This word might appear in a memo
to someone the writer knows quite well. Or the writer might use vanilla to
refer to a plain version of something (a car, a computer) that could have extra
features but does not, or say that the car or computer that does have the extras
comes in flavors or even tasty flavors.
People might argue that these words are not slang but are instead colloquial,
though highly informal. But this distinction is not the point— the point is the
reader’s expectations. If the reader will appreciate your saying “It blew me
away!” when something has astonished you, go ahead and write it. Ifyou have
any doubt whether the reader will accept a slang expression, simply find a
more conventional way to say what you mean.

People are uncomfortable with some basic facts of life, among them death, old Euphemisms
age, sex, mental or physical disability, and drug abuse. Most of the world’s
languages have generated euphemisms for these and other “taboo” subjects.
Euphemisms ate words and expressions intended to soften the impact of
these ideas (at least until the euphemisms become too closely associated with
the subjects themselves and new ones must be found). Ideas that make busi-
nesspeople uncomfortable include failures, financial losses, emotional out-
bursts, bad debts, and lies, to name just a few.
Euphemisms soften shock. For instance, a corpse is the loved one, a widow
is the bereaved. Undertaker and mortician are former euphemisms that began
to sound too harsh; now we have funeral directors, grief therapists, and ven-
dors of cemetery lots who offer preneed planning.
No one suggests that you call all uncomfortable ideas by their real names. If
you do, you will offend many people. In many cases, a euphemism keeps
people from being disturbed unnecessarily, and that’s good. It’s hard to object,
for example, to the “Special Olympics” held for “special children” (children
with disabilities). Likewise, if a newly bereaved person says a “loved one
passed away,” most people understand and sympathize.
Closely related to euphemisms are dysphemisms. These are unfavorable,
ugly, shocking, sometimes disgusting words and phrases for uncomfortable
ideas. Some dysphemisms for drunk include blitzed, bombed, plastered, and
hammered. (These are mild ones; some others are unprintable.) In provoking
laughter, dysphemisms offer a person an alternative way to deal with uncom-
fortable ideas.
Business Writing Style 89
 Some euphemisms are necessary. Using offensive language would be foolish.
Business communicators, however, must develop a sense of the appropriate-
ness of euphemisms. Where ideas are oversoftened, people may regard the
language used as prissy, cowardly, or evasive. When euphemisms go too far,
they can make people suspicious, since writers and speakers sometimes use
euphemisms on purpose to deceive. In extreme cases, euphemisms can draw
ridicule. For instance, pundits have taken sniper-shots at congressional ex-
pense account padders by suggesting they are “ethically challenged.”
Go easy with euphemisms. Readers and listeners aren’t stupid. Their suspi-
cions flare when they feel someone is avoiding the truth. Assess your audience.
Don’t offend, but don’t say what is untrue.

Jargon Jargon is the specialized language of a given occupational group. Accoun-

tants, lawyers, finance people, doctors, and telephone line repairers all have
their specialized language. Here are some examples and the associated spe-
cialties:
sinking fund (finance)
connectivity (computer information systems)
OABs, for “opinions, attitudes, and beliefs” (marketing research)
SKUs, for stock-keeping units (inventory management)
animal-unit-month (range management)
redlining (insurance)
deadheading (transportation)
NIMBY, for “not in my back yard” (waste management)
Specialists need their jargon. If you work in a specialized setting and use specialized terms, be sure your
Use jargon, however, only with audience knows what they mean. When communicating with other specialists,
others who understand the
language of your specialty. feel free to use the jargon. It would be an error and a waste of time not to, for
specialized terms are usually coined to shorten a long explanation or to name
something new, something that had no name before.
When communicating with nonspecialists, use specialized terms only if the
reader is familiar with them. If the reader is not, either (1) define the term
before you use it or (2) find another way to say what you need to say.
Insecure writers sometimes try to impress a reader by using terms that are
“above” that reader’s comprehension. Business readers are seldom impressed
by someone else’s jargon. Instead, they get annoyed, suspicious, or sometimes
even insulted.
New Language All language changes, though slowly. Each time something is invented, it is
named. Thirty years ago, the word software didn’t exist. When it first appeared,
it was considered jargon. Today, when even very young children use software
to play video games and do homework, software can’t be considered jargon
any more.
New words enter the language Many new words gain acceptance slowly. The useful word Ms. has had a
constantly. Many, though not hard struggle. The word prioritize still bothers some people, but the synonym,
all, are useful to business-
persons. Avoid using new rank according to priority, is four words long.
words your readers or listeners We pick up new language from conversations with others and from the mass
do not know. media. We casually speak of “the learning curve,” “stonewalling” someone, and
being “at the cutting edge.” Many new terms begin as metaphors, then spread
and develop until most businesspeople know what they mean. For instance,
managers who have negotiated rich financial packages for leaving positions are
said to have golden parachutes. Managers who are so well compensated in
90 Chapter Three
their present jobs that they cannot think of leaving have golden handcuffs.
Managers who accept a sweet retirement deal take the golden handshake.
Underlings who have only modest retirement deals have tin parachutes. The
language of corporate takeovers generated a long list of metaphors, including
white knight, poison pill, and sharkproofing.
In making your judgments on these judgment-call word choices, follow
your audience’s preferences. When in doubt, use familiar standard English.

The best business style contains varied sentence structure and vocabulary but THE GOAL: A
remains readable. When writers can go beyond correctness and find the exact
word needed and the best sentence and paragraph structure for the thought,
MATURE BUSINESS.
they are mature stylists. WRITING STYLE
This skill does not develop by accident. Most writers build their vocabu-
laries by reading attentively rather than by memorizing vocabulary lists. They
build variation into their writing style by observing how other effective writers
achieve their desired effects.
The more business writers read, the more they can observe and learn from
professional writers whose efforts appear in the business press.
Reading also helps business writers stay abreast of the latest developments
in business. The “what” to write is integral to the “how” of writing it. Reading
makes business writers more knowledgeable and effective businesspeople.

“Pye found my voice, Penny. It’s deep, wise, and compassionate.

° ty _ 3)

Drawing by Leo Cullum; © 1992 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.

Whether you write with a keyboard or a pen, readers hear your words in their
heads. Skilled writers create an excellent impression of themselves and their
business units.
Business Writing Style 91
 Good business writing appears in the many books published on business sub-
jects, as well as in the business section of any metropolitan daily newspaper, in
The Wall Street Journal, Barron’s, Fortune, Money, Entrepreneur, Business
Week, and many other business periodicals. Nearly everything this textbook
says about good business writing characterizes the writing in those periodicals.
To become a more skilled Business writers who make reading some of this material part of their daily
writer, be a daily reader. routine profit in two ways. They enhance their mastery of the language, and
they broaden their understanding of the business world. If you are taking other
business courses besides communication, you will find that reading business
periodicals makes the material in those courses easier to understand. In the
business world, you will find that your reading will add to your effectiveness
on the job.
When you read an issue of The Wall Street Journal or Business Week to
develop your language power, notice how these professional business writers
write. Note their word choice. (When you come across unfamiliar words, try
to figure out their meanings from context first. If you cannot, then look them
up, make a note of their meanings, and try to learn them.) Notice the ways
professional writers avoid passive-voice verbs— how they keep the style lively,
interesting, but in no way distracting. Try to incorporate in your own writing
some of the things the pros do.
Keep on reading as much good writing as you can possibly find time for.
Keep building your mental word bank. Make a good friend of your dictionary.
The more words you know, the more varied the audiences you can write for
and the better you can choose your words for each audience.

WRITING FOR You may have read that Japanese writers and speakers use extraordinarily
polite language, begin their letters with a pleasant reference to the season of
READERS IN OTHER the year, and favor indirection. If you have seen British business letters, you
COUNTRIES may have noticed many expressions termed “outdated” in this chapter. The
tone of British business correspondence seems formal by our standards.
An American business writer who is likely to write for non-American read-
ers should try to learn as much as possible about those readers’ expectations.
These two examples do call for some adjustment on the part of the writer.
Though many Japanese readers diligently study the ways of other cultures, an
effort to write using some of their conventions is likely to please. British
business is more attentive to hierarchy and status than American business.
Glenda Hudson, a British scholar teaching in the United States, has remarked
that what we consider naturalness in writing can seem breezy and disrespect-
ful to British business readers.* Our standards of courtesy may fall short.
Differences among languages may or may not affect the way we write for
non-U.S. readers. For instance, you may know that German words and sen-
tences tend to run long. The German language uses compound words where
speakers of English would use phrases. German sentences can be exceedingly
Plain language becomes even complex. This makes little difference, however, when German readers are
more important as you
reading English. They will prefer that we keep it simple.
communicate with people
whose first language is not Short, simple sentence structure and word choice are even more helpful to
English. people whose first language is not English than they are to the rest of us.

>Glenda A. Hudson, “Internationalizing College Business Communication Courses:

Addressing the Expanding Outer World,” paper presented at the meeting of the Association for
Business Communication, San Antonio, Tex., November 1990,

92 Chapter Three
Metaphors and slang can baffle non-American readers, though some jargon may
be quite familiar to them.

The newer versions of the major word processing programs offer computer- COMPUTER AIDS TO
assisted spelling checkers, writing checkers, and thesauruses. These tools are
often a great boon to business writers revising their messages. REVISING

Upon command, you can send a spelling checker through the document you Spelling Checkers
have keyed in. Most spelling checkers work by comparing the words in your
document with the words in their dictionaries. The spelling checker stops at
any word it does not recognize, asks you onscreen whether the word is mis-
spelled, and suggests corrections.
The program’s dictionary does not contain all the words in the English
language. Therefore, if you have used an unusual word, the spelling checker
will highlight it as a potential misspelling. It will also highlight any customer’s
unusual name as a potential misspelling. However, the program will let you put
the new word into its dictionary if you wish. Once you do, you need never
accidentally misspell that word again.
The drawback of many spelling checkers is that they show you only the
words they do not recognize. If you misspell one word and accidentally hit the
spelling of another word, the program won’t signal you. If you enter you for
your, the program will accept the error because it recognizes you as an ac-
ceptable word.
Newer versions of spelling checkers help users check “suspicious” spellings.
These checkers contain lists of frequently misspelled or easily confused words.
If you confuse accept and except, the program may help you. Regardless of the
program’s capabilities, however, the responsibility for correct spelling lies
with you.

Certain elements of good writing can be checked by a computer program. Writing Checkers
Many software companies offer packages to help a writer avoid specific writing
weaknesses, including
e Excessive use of passive voice
e Overuse ofJ me, my
e Clichés or inappropriate euphemisms
e Faulty parallel structure
e Vagueness and excessive abstraction
e Wordy phrases
e Subject-verb agreement errors
e Noun-pronoun agreement errors
e Some punctuation problems
e Some usage errors
e Incomplete word processing changes, such as the the or this itt.

Typically, the program has in memory alist of things it has been told to
recognize as problems. In your document, the program will pick out any
element corresponding to its list, offer suggestions for revision, and ask you
whether you want to make any changes. You would then key in what you want.
Sometimes you would make the change. Sometimes you would not.
Business Writing Style 93
 Language is complex, and a computer program knows only what a program-
mer can tell it. Because language includes many variables that require a writ-
er’s judgment call, many elements of good writing are beyond what a com-
puter program can check—at least for now.
Good business writers get more People with weak writing skills will find writing and spelling checkers help-
benefit from spelling checkers, ful for solving some of their writing problems. People with good writing skills
writing checkers, and
thesauruses than weak writers may find a writing checker an irritation. One writer commented that Lincoln’s
do. Writers need to know when Gettysburg Address would have been severely criticized by a typical writing
and when not to take the checker. It “offended” by repetition, abstractness, and “wordy” phrases such as
computer’s recommendation
and where the computer is not fourscore and seven years ago. But few would suggest that Lincoln’s famous
helpful. speech contained weak writing.

Thesauruses Are you stumped for an elusive synonym? Do you know that the word you
need exists, but you have been thinking for 10 minutes and it won’t come to
you? Use a computerized thesaurus to help you find it.
The newer versions of the best-known word processing programs offer a
thesaurus. Usually all you have to do is press a key, enter or highlight the word
you want to replace, and send the program searching.
Some thesauruses offer both synonyms and antonyms (words with mean-
ings opposite to those of the given words). Some offer help in deciding which
words belong in which contexts.
Some thesauruses merely offer lists of synonyms. If you are unfamiliar with
many of the words on the lists, seeing the synonyms will not help you much,
and you will need to consult your dictionary. The better your existing sense of
language, the faster and more effectively you can use a computerized thesau-
rus. Often just seeing the synonym onscreen will let you say, “That’s the one.”

REVIEW Analyzing readers’ expectations permits writers to adapt their style to fit the
task and the audience. In general, good business style is concise, clear, and
inconspicuous. Style choices affect writers’ credibility. Messages should be
courteous, correct, suitable for the medium selected, natural, positive, inter-
esting, and readable.
This chapter also covered means of achieving coherence and effective em-
phasis. Language choices must not convey bias, whether intended or unin-
tended, against any group. In general, readers prefer short, plain, familiar,
concrete word choices emphasizing lively verbs and nouns. For different read-
ers and situations, however, writers must write at the level most acceptable to
their readers.
As language changes, slowly but continuously, new words enter the lan-
guage. Writers must make sensible word choices within the evolving catego-
ries of slang, euphemism, jargon, and new general business vocabulary.
Increasingly, communicators must interact with persons from other nations
and cultures. Reading business news improves our understanding of non-U.S.
communication audiences and also builds word power.
Computerized spelling and writing checkers can improve writers’ ability to
revise the messages they craft.

Analyze yourself as a business writer. Make a list of your strengths

and
weaknesses. Be as impartial as you can. Give yourself credit where
you deserve
it. Set some meaningful goals to improve your weaker areas. Start
by marking
the Business Writer’s Self-Analysis.

94 Chapter Three
 Business Writer’s Self-Analysis

Below are some fundamentals of good business writing. On a scale of 1 to 5

(1 = “needs attention”; 5 = “good habit formed”), mark the extent to which
you have formed good habits.

DoI

Have and use a good desk dictionary?

Have and use a grammar/usage handbook?
Read to increase my word power?
Understand my purpose clearly before beginning
to write?
Remember that each message makes an impression of me
and of the unit I represent?
Analyze my own intentions and motives?
Analyze the needs of my reader?
Choose my medium carefully?
Choose words carefully for denotation and connotation?
Strive for a sincere, courteous, businesslike tone?
Use a plain, clear, correct style?
Both write and revise?
Seek—and take constructively—the criticism of others?
Bee
oe
yee
eS
ie
ee
ny
ae
CS
te
es % oe By
etry
nate,
Goruk
os RE,
oth
Uae
Oe Always write from a firm foundation of
honesty and ethics?

Business Writing Style

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
1. What elements of style interfere with readability? d. This design is tremendously unique. We expect
2. What are the different denotations of these words: it to create a real sensation in the market and
state, stick, down, drag, draft, crash, bar, pick, generate astronomical sales.
pull, turn, out, jump, ice, gross, clip? e. Quality circles are the best trend in
3, What are the various means of emphasizing an participatory management in years. Wherever
idea? they are implemented, productivity is going to
rise.
4. Revise the following examples to improve
conciseness. 6. Revise the following examples to make the
language more positive.
a. Oftentimes it was necessary for Rob to
communicate both verbally and in writing with a. Your communication exceeds the boundary of
people quite a bit higher in the organization. your job classification. You are intruding on
His productivity reflected that he did this well someone else’s job, for which you have no
because his tasks were accomplished in a authority.
timely manner. b. The sales department should not have told you
b. Our organization accepted and understood the we could make this component for what you
fact that many of its recently hired employees are willing to pay.
were new and not yet fully or adequately c. Stop trying to tell me how to do my work.
trained. If Colin, a new mid-level employee, d. Your work is never going to measure up. Start
had admitted what he did not know and asked looking for another job.
for help instead of guessing or trying to figure e. Your demands are unwarranted. You are asking
out what to do, he would have received help for service that you have not paid for.
and it would not have been held against him. . Rewrite the noun clumps in the following
As it was, he completely destroyed the project. examples.
c. Our new work space was square in shape, a. Our production line job rotation policy
surrounded on all sides by partitions. Each requires management level employees to
Monday at 9 a.m. in the morning our supervisor exchange places twice a year with ten-year
convened us all together in this common area veteran line workers.
and outlined the work for the week to come. b. This consumer opinion marketing report
d. When the delivery drivers returned back to the discusses winter season outerwear buying
dock Friday afternoon, they received checks in trends.
the amount of their regular pay but also c. The inexperienced retail bank branch manager
including a holiday bonus as well. demanded that merchant customer service
e. Many sources agree that Peale’s sets the tellers perform loan office filing tasks as well.
standard for customer service, and their d. Ability to formulate adequate crisis situation
success in gaining new markets is attributed to control plans became one of the most
their customer service. Peale’s is an example of important public affairs officer promotion
what customer service is all about. Their criteria.
corporate legends, for example, put Peale’s e. The year 1979 was the earliest that detailed
customer service on a pedestal. When it all office absorption information statistics were
boils down, the customer is what will tracked. No office space demand forecasting
determine the fate of any corporation. models were then available.
5. Revise the following examples to improve . Rewrite the following examples using active
credibility. voice.
a. We all want you to feel very, very welcome in a. All his statements were communicated by
this organization. It’s one big happy family. My memo and no opinions were ever given by
door is always open. Bring all your problems to phone.
me. b. Organizational leaders need to be told when
b. This plan for tripling sales is awesome, and I customers are disappointed by service
just can’t understand why no one has thought representatives, so that corrective action can
of it before. I’m positive the chief is going to be taken.
love it. c. It has been made very clear by Ms. Allbright
c. We'll have no problem improving efficiency. that turnaround time must be improved. If
We're going to make productivity our middle rebuilt machines are not returned to users by
name. the promised date, penalties may be assessed.
96 Chapter Three
 d. Because fault was admitted, the clerk was felt e Being overqualified for a job can lead to a
to have obligated the firm. He was admonished number of problems. Being able to finish tasks
and directed not to be misled into any similar early sometimes gives people time to disturb
error in the future. other workers and to arouse discontent. Often
e. Critical comments should not be made in they hope to be promoted when no legitimate
public, especially when these remarks can be promotion path leads upward from the job
overheard by subordinates or customers. they hold. Hiring the most talented person for
a job is not always a good idea. Too lowa level
9. Improve coherence and transition in the following
of challenge can make them discontented.
paragraphs. You may need to reorder ideas,
rewrite sentences, and add or change transitional 10. Eliminate the “isms” in the following examples.
words. a. Most of the engineers enjoy working with

a. We cooperated on a project with a worker Marie. She’s one of the guys. You never hear
who was new to the department, who knew her whining about equal opportunity. She pulls
the company well, but did not adhere to its her share of the load.
guidelines. This was Allen. The project was . We're multicultural here. We have hardly any
critical to a new-product offering. Management Caucasians, and we all get along just fine. Why,
I’m even starting to like watermelon and tacos.
had promised delivery by June 1. Allen always
said his part of the project was on schedule. . We all need to slow down and help Faye out
now and then, right, Faye? When Faye and my
Our department is frank. If something is not on
mom were kids, nobody had ever heard of
schedule we are encouraged to say so. Allen’s
part was actually behind, and falling farther
computers.
. Kent, our auditor, an epilepsy victim, is no
behind every week. We counted on Allen but
problem at all as long as he takes his medicine.
he caused us all to miss the deadline and the
Don’t worry about Kent. In fact, he has an idea
whole department looked bad.
for automating one time-consuming step in the
b. In interviews, applicants should display
audit.
confidence. Applicants have only 20 or 30
. The vibrant Shelly Norcross, newly promoted
minutes in which to present themselves. If they
marketing vice president, will improve the
do not give full, developed responses to
scenery around headquarters, and I’m not
questions, the interviewer has no means of
talking about landscaping.
differentiating their skills from those of other
Mark doesn’t seem to understand that nurses
applicants for the job. The initial impression
avoid bragging about their own skills. He’s
sets the tone for the entire interview. If they
always volunteering instead of rotating duty
walk, move, and shake hands timidly, they may
the way the rest of us do. He’s just a typical
be judged unable to hold their own with co-
self-promoting male.
workers and clients.
. That new division manager thinks she can get
c. One unethical behavior is knowingly her program going just by asserting her shiny
withholding information another person has a
new authority. Pushy broad! There’s a reason
right to have. Sometimes products are so
for the glass ceiling.
shoddy that they harm others who rely on
11. Make word choice in the following examples
them. Recognizing the various kinds of
shorter, plainer, more familiar, and more concrete
unethical actions is the first step to applying
where needed.
pressure to stop them. Unethical people are
ready to lie for the sake of gain. Still another a. Workers will please curb their loquacity during
unethical act is taking money for inferior goods any hiatus in the workday. It is requisite that
or services. we apply ourselves with diligence in order to
d. Laptop and notebook computers are win through to our goal.
commonplace in the 1990s. Only 10 or 15 . These reports are abysmal. Do not expect
years ago a “portable” computer weighed 60 plaudits in return for this infelicitous
pounds or more. Now a seven-pound computer compendium.
can hold many large application programs and . Despite expeditious and concerted application,
still offer a user plenty of computing power for we are not sanguine about our nascent
doing work. The old portables took up a great organization’s ability to overcome our larger
deal of desk space. Laptop computers can and better funded adversaries.
communicate via fax and modem with distant . Vis-a-vis your rather byzantine plan, surely you
sites. Short battery life between charges is a are cognizant that actual authority for carrying
drawback of many laptops. it out emanates from my office alone.

Business Writing Style 97

 e. No one wishes to denigrate your intentions; c. You heard the CEO say bonuses are going to
yet the prodigality of these expenditures be paid even with the fourth-quarter losses?
suggests that full understanding of your Get outa here!
fiduciary responsibility may to some extent d. The new manager RIFd three assistants. Then
have eluded you. Kay and David got bogus appraisals when they
12. In the following examples, make it easier for the expected at least average ratings. You and I
reader to locate the subjects and verbs. aren’t hearing about all scheduled meetings. Go
figure.
a. One of the brokers who accepted an
e. You think Tom isn’t playing with a full deck?
inappropriate offer and several others who
You're clueless. Get alife.
knew about the case received formal warnings.
b. An individual faced with a crisis and not 14. Discuss the differences among the following sets
knowing whether to consult management or of terms. Which are most euphemistic? Least
act decided to act. Litigation, by the time she euphemistic? What connotations distinguish them?
was able to convince management that the Add to each set if you can.
decision was correct, was in excess of $3 a. garbage, refuse, trash, landfill contents, waste,
million. recyclables
c. During one whole week in late January, while b. servants, staff, retainers, people, help, associates
we were working hard ona proposal, at the c. false teeth, dentures, bridgework, appliance
worst possible time, the only area marketing d. arrest, detain, bust, apprehend, take into
sales rep, despite the looming deadline, custody
decided to decrease the number of hours spent e. spy, secret agent, intelligence agent,
on site. investigator, private eye
d. Working all day Saturday and Sunday, f. indoctrination, education, programming,
coordinating with engineering, and calling in brainwashing, orientation
two temps to assist, the pricing department g. dying, “no codes,” slipping away, terminal,
had the proposal ready Sunday night, though going into the great sleep, going away
the program manager seemed neither to realize . Cheap, reasonable, inexpensive, great value
nor to appreciate the extra work done to bring steal, liberate, pilfer, embezzle, rip off, snitch
his project in on time. lie,
=e prevaricate, stretch the truth, fabricate, tell
e. The most important way people gain a little white lie, falsify, embroider the truth
promotion in Bayard-Bookman, a multistate 15. Rewrite the following examples using the Jeast
retail organization specializing in hard goods, disturbing words. Consider connotations, and
especially audio equipment and household keep in mind that what you say must sound
appliances, is through positive visibility. sincere and credible.
13. In the following examples, identify and, if . You’re wrong.
necessary, translate elements of slang. For each, . You don’t have a job any more.
discuss circumstances where the term would be . You are insubordinate.
appropriate or inappropriate. . We don’t have enough money.
a. You think this was an epic sesh? Take atall . Your work is poor.
glass of reality. The big guys weren’t even PRP
wet
moan We can’t do what you want.
listening to you.
b. I’m new here. Can you throw down the 411?
Where’s the supply room?

CASES
Discuss the problems of writing style in each of the follow- Dear Ms. Parsons:
ing cases. What paper personality is established in each
Id like to introduce you to the services of our agency, Blaze
message? What style elements create it? What are its advan-
Word Processing. When you finish this letter I'll hope I've
tages and disadvantages?
interested you enough to get in touch with us and send us
As your instructor directs, rewrite one or more mes- some of your high volume word processing production work.
sages to correct the style and other problems.
We pay exceedingly close attention to each and every
client's particular and special needs. We do this whether we
1. Letter from a Word Processing Agency to a are retained on a temporary or permanent basis. We don't
Prospective Customer make erors. We absolutely always get it right the first time.
98 Chapter Three
 We serve law firms, general medical offices, out-patient to an increased number of clients with unprofessional
surgery Clinic facilities, other professionals, and lots of budgetary habits.
general business organizations. We can work 24 hours a
| hope this information will save you interest on your account
day if extra effort is required by your time schedule. Pick-up
in the future and look forward to doing more business with
and delivery can be arranged for a very slight extra charge
usually in the neighborhood of 5 percent. you.
P.S. We are also enclosing a lovely nature calendar as a
We would like to be considered the next time a new person
personal gift to you.
is needed in your office or when your capabilities are
exceeded by your work load. Tell me if | can give you any
further information on your particular and unique needs. . Letter from an Insurance Agent to an Insured
Remember, Blaze is hot! Ms. Imelda Cronin:
Sincerely, Your claim for insurance to cover the repair of your car and
your neighbor's was received in this office last Thursday.
. Letter from Property Tax Department of a Thank you.
Development Company to a Purchaser
You claim that your car rolled out of the driveway and
Dear Mr. Eddings: smashed into a neighbor's car across the street and now
you want us to pay for the repair to her car and to yours as
This will acknowledge receipt of your letter dated October well. First let me tell you that your right, your covered for the
30, 1992, in re Account Number 13-07687, addressed to damage to her's. | sent an adjuster to her house and all the
Mrs. B. Knabesvater. necessary forms have been completed and her car is
Now that your property has been paid in full, the Warranty already in the shop being fixed to her satisfaction.
Deed was sent to the Recorders Office on October 22, 1992. Now about your problem. | am sorry to tell you that there is
Therefore your 1992 and subsequent tax invoices will be nothing | can do for you. Even though you were not driving
mailed to you directly by the Breen County Tax Office. the car, we must assume that you neglected to set the brake
It is incumbent upon you to keep the Assessor's Office or put it in park. So that leaves it up to you to fix.
aware of any change in your address in the future. You are eligible though to receive, under your auto
insurance clause F, $15.00 a day of coverage to cover the
Per the terms of your Real Estate Purchase agreement, the
rental of another car while your's is in the shop being
ownership records could not be recorded to your name from repaired. | hope it doesn’t cost too much. If you refuse to
the Trustee name until such time as your contract was paid rent a car, we will still pay you $10.00 a day to cover the
in full.
bus or whatever.
The questions relating to your for sale signs have been
Also, since this claim did require a settlement on our part,
referred to the Architectural Committee and you will
doubtless hear from them shortly. we will be raising your insurance premiums. | can't tell you
how much, but someone will be in contact with you soon
We are desirous that the foregoing has been responsive to about that.
your inquiry and please do not hesitate to contact this Office Thank you for coming to us with your problems. We are here
if we can be of additional assistance.
for you.
Sincerely yours,
Sincerely,

. Collection Letter

Ms. Chamblee:
This is to inform you that your account at our store is OVER
DUE.
It is our policy to write an informational letter to all new
patrons, like yourself, immediately if we do not receive a
payment on time, by the first of the month. Recognizing that
you may be used to more lenient credit policies and may not
have read the credit agreement, we do this for your benefit,
so that you are aware of our no-grace policy and can plan to
make all future payments ON TIME.
If you neglected to read our contract, let me remind you that
any LATE PAYMENTS, those received after the first of the
month, are not credited to your account until the following
month and thus incur extra interest. Unfortunately, we have
been forced to adopt this policy for our own protection due
Business Writing Style 99
(haple Jour

Short Reports
and Proposals
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 Short Reports: An Organization’s
From the desk of... Information -- and Its Records
Just follow the reports to see how interconnected an organization’s departments
are! I can’t supervise sales without reports from production. Production can’t
move without information from purchasing and logistics. Purchasing and logistics
must have budget documents and authorizations from finance, accounting, and
central administration. We, in sales, report projected sales and actual revenues.
Naturally, all the other functional areas depend on what’s in our sales reports.
Laura Marks And that’s only one report chain. We all depend on the timeliness and accu-
District Sales Manager racy of numerous other departments’ reports.
Some of our reporting is computerized and automatic and some is oral, but I
still need many written reports. We write sales proposals to major prospective
buyers all the time, and no two are the same. Lots of reports are nonroutine —
feasibility studies and reports of new procedures, for instance. A good short re-
port condenses a matter to its essentials for a reader to use now for a decision,
and keep and refer to later. You can bet that I look at a subordinate’s report-
writing ability when I’m thinking about promotion potential!

During a brisk discussion in a department meeting, you might hear your boss
say, “That’s an interesting idea, but we need more information.” Then he looks
at you and says, “Why don’t you study it and then write up advantages and
disadvantages for me as a short report. We can make the decision at the next
meeting when we have the facts.” You have just been handed an opportunity!
You will be helping shape the decision, and you have a chance to look good.

Report writers in business gather, analyze, organize, and offer information to

support business decisions. In your college classes you have probably been
assigned long reports to research and write. Some business reports are com-
parable to these in length and scope, but most reports that you'll write in busi-
ness will be short (a page, or a few pages), and done in memo, letter, or manu-
script format (manuscript format hasa title page). Often you’ll process a lot of
information and condense it to the few pages your manager has time to read.
Purpose and Audience How you write the report will depend on the report's purpose. Much of the
time your task will be to gather and present information very objectively. The
boss may have asked you for a report in order to support a decision, but bosses
often consider multiple perspectives, not just one report, in making the
decision.
Some of the time your purpose may be persuasive as well as informative.
Are you trying to explain direct-mail advertising to a client? Persuade your
boss to buy some new computer equipment? Describe the labor situation in a
plant where a strike is threatened? Tell others in your company what you
learned at a seminar? Describe to a client why he or she should use a particular
kind of network software? Each of these purposes would lead to a completely
different report, not only in content but also in the way that content
is
presented.
102 Chapter Four
In each of the above cases, as in many business situations, the successful busi-
ness communicator may be trying to sell with the report, even when the per-
suading is neither direct nor obvious
The selling aspect is obvious if your task is persuading your boss to buy
some computer equipment or a client to use particular software. The selling is
subtler when, in explaining direct-mail advertising, you also suggest how the
client can use it. Likewise, in describing the labor situation, you may also be
recommending a way to avoid the strike. Finally, in talking about the seminar,
you may be recommending a change in your company's procedures.

What combination of audiences will read the report? How will the audience re-
act to the report? Are you simply informing them about something they will
probably agree with, or persuading them to do something they may resist? As
in all communication, the report should be written for those who will read it.
(See Chapter One for more on audience analysis.)
_ Once you have decided on the purpose and audience of the report, you
must plan how you will achieve that purpose with that audience. At this stage,
your planning directly concerns the report, its form, and its content.

Sometimes when you are writing a short report, you already have all the infor- Content
mation you need. More often, however, you will have to do at least some re-
search to complete the report, gathering information from company records,
the library, or an electronic database. Occasionally you will have to create new
data from primary research. Chapters Five and Six describe how to complete
the research you need.
Once you have gathered your information, you must decide how much of
it to include. To learn enough about a subject to write a report on it, you need
to gather more information than the reader will need and select the details that
are most important.

What you include in the report will depend on who your reader is and what
you expect her or his reaction to be. Are you reporting on matters on which
readers will accept what you say as fact, or must you have authorities to
support you?

How much of what you know will help the reader to reach a logical
conclusion? The report should give the reader all the information he or she
will need to reach a logical conclusion -- and no more. Assume the reader is a
busy person; do not include anything irrelevant. Be sure, however, to include
everything that could be important. It is not always clear what the reader will
consider important, and it is better to err slightly on the side of inclusion.

If you have gathered information from a variety of sources and reached your Need to Attribute?
own conclusions, you can report those conclusions as your own, without attri-
bution. Often, though, you will report on what others have said or written. In Document where
those cases, you must always credit your sources, for two reasons. First, needed, to preserve
claiming others' works as your own is plagiarism (a subject covered fully in integrity as writer and
Chapter Five) — it is unethical. Second, proper attribution will give the report to meet reader
greater credibility. Suppose you are recommending to the treasurer that she expectations.
move the company's investments into shorter-term notes because interest rates
will rise. A forecast of higher interest rates from the Chairman of the Board of
Governors of the Federal Reserve is generally stronger support for this
Short Reports and Proposals 103
 recommendation than an unsupported assertion that rates are likely to rise.
Methods for attributing materials from outside sources also are described in
Chapter Five, and examples appear in Appendix C.

Memo, Letter, or The short report may be in memo format (appropriate for a short report to be
Manuscript Format distributed just within the company) or /etter format (suitable for a report to be
distributed to outsiders). Or it may have a somewhat more formal structure,
with the familiar manuscript format, as in a report to the board of directors.
The difference between a memo and a memo report, or between a letter
and a letter report, is not a sharp division. What makes a report a report?

In general, a report presents analyzed results of data gathering

to a decision maker, whether inside the firm or outside the
firm.

Some long letters and memos do that; those are, in fact, letter reports or memo
reports. Some long letters and memos fulfill other purposes.
In business, long reports use manuscript format, with a title page, table of
contents, and other added pages (see Chapter Eight). Long reports in business
also have a cover memo or cover letter of transmittal. Short reports in manu-
script format have atitle page but not usually a table of contents. They need a
cover memo or letter of transmittal. Memo and letter reports do not have the
title page and table of contents, and the first paragraph of a memo or letter re-
port IS the transmittal.

Form Reports Some business reports, especially routinely recurring reports, use a form. A
form saves time for writer and reader, since the organization pattern pre-exists.
The writer need not worry about whether she has omitted parts of what is
needed, and the reader can depend on having everything he needs -- and can
look for it in the same place and the same order every time.
Forms can be hard-copy printed documents for users to fill out. Forms can
also be stored on computer disk. A writer can obtain the empty form on disk,
complete it as needed, and print it out.

This chapter’s examples will show memo and letter reports. Most will be
memo format because most short reports you'll write will be for the firm’s
internal use.

Headings and Graphics In memo, letter, or manuscript format, writers should use headings and should
in Short Reports use graphics (exhibits such as tables or figures) when appropriate.
A couple of good section headings, even in a one-page report, can often
help the reader understand quickly. Headings should be descriptive, not short
and vague like “Problem” or “Three Areas.” A section heading should tell the
reader what that section will say. Look at this chapter’s exhibits to see
examples of informative headings.
Exhibits, if used, must be worth Although short reports do not have a great deal of space to spend, use an
the space they require. exhibit if it contributes enough to the reader’s understanding to justify the
space it takes. (Chapter Seven contains much more about graphic presentation
of information.) Look at Exhibits 4-1 and 4-2 to see the possibilities of a
formally-treated graphic. Exhibit 4-4 and 4-5 each include an informally-
treated table. Feel free to use bulleted or numbered lists where appropriate.
They open up the format and contribute to ease of reading.
104 Chapter Four
The style of your report will depend on the report’s purpose, audience, and
Report-Writing Style
message. As you write and revise, apply the principles you learned in Chapters
One, Two, and Three. Be clear. Cut out all wordy expressions. Write in un-
complicated complete sentences. Use language that is appropriate for the audi-
ence, and do not be slangy or too informal -- stay with standard English.
Recall that business readers are busy, with very little time to read your report.
Make their job as easy as possible.

Organize according to expected reader reaction. To convey information with Choose direct order or
no unpleasant surprises, use direct order and make language active. Tell the indirect order based on
reader the conclusion early; then support it with facts, experts’ opinions, how receptive your
reader will be.
charts, and whatever else is appropriate. Repeat the conclusion at the end.
(Exhibit 4-1 will use this order.)

If the report reaches a conclusion that you expect the reader to dislike, you
might want to choose indirect order. You might get better results by leading
the reader to the conclusion, providing the evidence early, and getting the
reader to agree with one thing at a time. By the time you state the conclusion,
the reader will probably have reached the same conclusion. (Exhibit 4-2 will
use this order.)

Here are common types of short reports, although reports of these kinds are COMMON TYPES
not invariably short. A feasibility study or a proposal for a major project, for OF SHORT
instance, could run to hundreds of pages. We’ll look at eight common types of REPORTS
short reports, but be aware that there are other kinds of short reports besides
these. Also, your organization might name its reports differently or have its
own internal system of classification.

Justification Reports Justification reports build a case for solving a business

problem in a certain way. They make a recommendation. A shaping statement
for a justification report might be, "Here is what we should do, and here are
the reasons."

Feasibility Reports __Afeasibility report presents results of a study of one or

more means of solving a business problem. Sometimes one means is recom-
mended; sometimes no recommendation is made. The word feasible means
workable -- do-able. Feasibility reports answer a question like, "Will this
work?" or "Which of these solutions is most workable?"

Proposals A proposal is an offer to do specified work, usually in exchange for

money or other resources.

Progress Reports Progress reports are periodic reports that exist within the
framework of a project with a beginning and an end date.

Periodic Reports Periodic reports are routine business reports completed at

regular intervals. They might be daily, weekly, monthly, quarterly, or yearly.
Of all the report types, periodic reports lend themselves most to the time-
saving possibilities of a form report.

Audit Reports A formal audit report is the document in which a CPA states,
after completing a full review, whether a firm's accounting practices are or are
Short Reports and Proposals 105
 not in accordance with Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP).
Every annual report of a publicly traded company contains such a statement.
Less formal audit reports can cover other studies -- any study, in fact, that
compares how things are actually done with how things should be done.

Abstracts (Summaries) Business persons have too much material to read.

The higher they rise in organizations, the more they are expected to know.
Sometimes they request abstracts of published articles or books from their
staffers.

Procedures and Instructions A procedure report records all the steps in a

task that is likely to recur and to be done by different people.

Next we will examine at least one example of each kind, beginning with a
justification report.

Justification Reports A justification report recommends a course of action and offers good evidence
demonstrating its rightness. Justification reports tend to be persuasive rather
than strictly informational. They stress objective information but do not cover
multiple solutions to a problem. The ultimate decision still lies with the reader
of a justification report, but the writer of such a report “owns” more of the de-
cision than does the writer of a feasibility report. The reader of a justification
report relies strongly on the judgment of the report writer and trusts him or her
to have done thorough and objective research.

Exhibit 4-1 shows a fairly typical justification report. The scenario calling for
the report is as follows: Same-Day Systems Service delivers on-site repair for
computer servers and minicomputers that are under warrantee. Same-Day,
which contracts its services to major vendors, operates 16 service vans.
Consultants and repair specialists drive these to customers’ sites. The vans
carry large numbers of parts and supplies but few heavy items. (Many
customers’ problems are solved without replacing parts.) The vans are fairly
compact but must be reliable.
Michael Vo is gathering information for a this year’s upgrade of about 25
percent of the fleet. He has read about electric vehicles (EVs) and believes
they should at least be considered. Vo analyzes his decision-makers. The
owners are aware that air-quality requirements are likely to become more
restrictive. They have a balanced perspective about the environment, but they
have not followed the development of electric vehicles or talked about major
changes in the makeup of the fleet. They are free to accept or reject his
recommendation, but part of his job is to examine thoroughly just such
choices, so they are likely to trust his information and take his
recommendation seriously. On the basis of the information he finds, the
characteristics of the firm, and his reader analysis, he writes the report shown
in Exhibit 4-1 (pages 108-109).

This justification report is structured in’ direct order. The two-sentence

introduction reminds the reader of the issue and sets the stage for Vo’s
recommendation. Right after the recommendation, Vo’s next sentence “pre-
dicts” the structure of the report body by naming the strongest reasons for
trying out electric vehicles. :

106 Chapter Four

Headings guide the reader through the report. The style is highly condensed,
since Vo can take for granted a great deal of reader knowledge about
upgrading the company’s vans. His report emphasizes what the reader does
not know: The new information that aligns Same-Day’s needs with what EVs
can offer.

Feasibility reports explore thoroughly one or more courses of action to solve a

Feasibility Reports
problem. They conclude by showing which one, or ones, will work. The report
is presented objectively. The writer’s exploration might reveal that one means,
or several, or none, will work. Sometimes one is clearly superior; sometimes
two or more are about equal. The decision is up to someone other than the
writer, however. The decision maker might to consider other factors besides
what the feasibility report writer has been asked to cover.

Examine the feasibility report example offered in Exhibit 4-2 (pages 110-111).
The report writer, Kendra Geissler, was asked to get four estimates on
repairing the parking lot at one of the properties managed by the firm where
she works. As she did so, the problem turned out to more severe than she or
her boss expected. Geissler presented and discussed her findings. In a table she
offered cost and time estimates from the four contractors but made no
recommendation. The reader, Mary Altman, must look at cash flow, possible
tax consequences, vacancy rate among similar properties, and several other
considerations before deciding whether to spendalittle now anda lot later, or
spend a lot now.

A proposal writer offers to do specific work that will solve a decision maker’s Proposals
business problem, in return for money or resources. To obtain the reader's
authorization, a proposal must show value in return for what the writer is
asking for. Whether short or long, a proposal outlines a work plan that solves a
problem, shows its benefits, sets forth its costs, and demonstrates that a
specified person or persons can do the work.
Within an organization, a person might have a good idea that will pay off
for the organization but cost money in the short run. Unless the work is already
authorized as part of the employee's regular duties, he or she might need to
write a proposal.

Look at the example in Exhibit 4-3 (pages 112-113), which proposes a line of
study and requests authorization for expenditures.
Snoqualmie Ski is a catalog-based business offering good quality ski
equipment. Catalog customers apply for credit in the usual way and understand
they will receive their order as soon as credit is approved. The marketing
supervisor's reading has convinced him that the World Wide Web will
eventually replace most direct-mail catalogs and that Snoqualmie has not
optimized the Web as an advertising outlet and revenue source. He wants to
find out what more it can do. He writes a proposal to M. K. Olson, Managing
Partner requesting authorization to study the problem in more depth than his
usual responsibilities would encompass.
Notice that Wendland can assume Olson already knows quite a bit of
back-ground. The proposal is concise. Its format is open and readable. Olson
has clearly "done his homework," and can estimate costs and timeline closely.
He mentions the competition's move into electronic commerce. He offers
reasons for the expenditure and conservative but confident expectations for
payout. The proposal ends with a request for action.
Short Reports and Proposals 107
EXHIBIT 4-1 Justification Report

Mo: G. Robert Belarus, Senior Partner and CFO

From: Michael Vo, Program Analyst ye 0
Date: August 19, 1998
Subject: Trial Lease of Two Electric Vehicles (EVs)

In advance of the October 15 decision date for replacing four of our 16 fleet vehicles, I have studied pros and
cons of leasing Zero-Emission Vehicles (ZEVs), instead of standard internal-combustion engine (ICE)
vehicles, on a trial basis.GM’s EcoStar (photo shown in Figure 1 on p. 2) is the likeliest choice.

Recommendation. We should lease (three-year lease) two GM EVs and two standard ICE vehicles for our
fleet. We would be able to take delivery of the EVs on or about February 15, 1999, about the same time we’d
be getting the new gasoline-powered vehicles. This would allow us to compare the vehicles in our situation
and gain information for future fleet decisions. Support for this recommendation follows.

Eventually most fleets will see pressure to use ZEVs. If we begin our move now, we can gain cost savings
because of manufacturer incentives and learn as we do so. The EVs are suited to our type of business, and we
could gain community name recognition by being “early in” to the environmentally cleaner vehicles.

Manufacturer Incentives Make EV Lease Prices Comparable to ICE Lease Prices

Manufacturers are under pressure from air-quality agencies to produce low-emissions vehicles. California Air
Resources Board (CARB) mandates will require that, by 2003, ten percent of all newly manufactured
automobiles for sale in the state must be ZEV.

At present, manufacturers are absorbing most development costs, intending to recoup costs later when demand
rises. As lease customers we would benefit from manufacturers’ price breaks. Although GM’s actual cost of
manufacture is about $100,000 per vehicle, we would be able to lease on the basis of a sticker price of
$34,000, which is comparable to the lease price of a standard ICE van.

Modification and Maintenance Costs Comparable

Costs to modify the EVs for our firm’s needs will be the same as the costs we pay to modify our gasoline-
powered vans.

In the fleet garage we will need to install battery transfer and battery charging stations, but costs (estimates are
between $22,000 and 28,500) are in keeping with the upgrades of the garage facility we have performed in the
past. These costs will be offset by the information we gain about costs and benefits of EVs in our particular
situation. Vendors indicate they will negotiate with us about the additional training our service personnel will
need. This training will be minimal, in part because maintenance costs for EVs (aside from batteries) are low.
EVs have fewer moving parts. They do not require tune-ups, oil changes, smog checks, or warming up.
Gasoline-powered vehicles require more maintenance overall, and as they age, costs rise.

At present, most EVs are powered by lead acid batteries. As battery technology improves and prices of the
newer batteries comes down, we can change over to the nickel-metal-hydride or lithium batteries, which will
weigh less and extend the mileage range.

EVs Are a Good Fit

EVs are suitable for our particular business and operating area because our needs, in general, play to the EVs’
strengths:

108 Chapter Four

 Dazor2

e We use small vans and carry relatively light Figure 1: General Motors EcoStar Van
loads.
e Battery change-out will not be the problem it
would be for some users because our specialists
make numerous short trips with frequent returns
to the fleet garage. Mileage per battery charge is
70-100 miles.
e Battery life is longer in temperate climates like
ours, although some of this advantage would be
negated by idling in traffic and by air
conditioner use.
e In our service area we don’t do much hill
driving.

Speeds and acceleration rates for EVs are

comparable to those of ICEs. EVs are sufficiently Source: California Energy Commission. (1998, April 22).
responsive, accelerating from 0 to 60 mph in 8.5 Alternative transportation fuels. Available:
seconds, They are quiet. http://www.energy.ca.gov/afvs/drive_clean.html
[1998, June 8].
Leasing EVs Early Offers Advantages

Southern California is air-quality-conscious. In response to public pressure, government sets policies

requiring manufacturers and users to lower emissions. A transition to less dependence on fossil fuels is
beginning, and we would gain by starting early. By the time other firms figure out what the government
mandates are going to require of them, we will be up and running with ZEVs.

We will be making a bona fide contribution to cleaner air quality, sooner, than others will. Being early into
ZEVs may be worth some media releases.

One about getting the vehicles (and the effect on air quality).
One or more on how they’re working out (and the effect on air quality).

Any favorable media coverage on the basis of being a good community citizen will offer us some name
recognition as well as positive competitive differentiation. (If we get EVs later, when everyone else does,
media interest will be nil.)

Conclusion and Recommendation

and
Anti-emissions pressure from air-quality groups, both governmental and advocacy, will continue
probably intensify. Enough of the public is “green-cons cious” that we could gain positive exposure for
enough for
adopting a technology that fits our business better than most. EVs are fast enough and responsive
freeway driving, and they will accommodate longer-range batteries as these become available.
we
On our normal fleet replacement schedule we would replace four standard ICE vans. Onatrial basis
GM EV vans along with two standard ICE vans and should begin a running comparison
should lease two
between costs of operating the two kinds of vehicles.
deciding whether
Comparing costs over the three-year term of the leases should offer an actual cost basis for
your approval, I’ll work with Corinna Vargas in
to replace the whole fleet gradually with EVs. With
Purchasing to place the order for these four vehicles on a lease basis.

Short Reports and Proposals 109

EXHIBIT 4-2 Feasibility Report

Yan de Griff Properties, Inc. , of Van Nuys

To: Mary Altman August 2, 1998

From: Kendra Geissler
Subject: Paving at 2402 Nevada Avenue (Northridge)

On July 12 you requested that I explore means of parking lot repairs and upgrades at 2402 Nevada Avenue:
specifically, whether we could patch the cracks in the parking lot and re-layer it or whether the existing
paving would have to be pulled up and replaced. One of your concerns was the depression in the center of
the main lot on the building’s north side.

I sought bids from four paving companies for both options. As I talked to the contractors and reviewed
property records, however, more information came to light and a third option had to be considered.

Reasons for Third Option

The existing paving has never been replaced. The original layer of asphalt was put down 46 years ago when
the property was built out. A second layer was applied about 20 years ago.

Two of the paving contractors (Mooney, Herrera) believe that cracks in both those layers have allowed a
great deal of seepage during winter rains over the course of at least 15 years. Both contractors said that the
soil under the low center section does not fully dry out. It is wet and unstable, and will sink further. I
discussed the possibility with Mauser and with Mencke & Warren. Their reps said this “could” be the case
but that they doubted it. Drilling for soil samples was inconclusive because of recent rains. The only way to
know for sure is to tear up that section, which commits us to at least partial repaving.

I asked all four pavers to estimate the job three ways (see Table 1 on p. 2):

Patch and re-layer the existing asphalt

Demo existing asphalt layers and fully resurface the lot
Demo existing asphalt layers, dry out or replace subsoil (if necessary), and fully resurface the lot

Note: The third option could cost more than Table 1 shows if it rains while the area is open.

Mooney Inc. and Herrera & Sons gave their estimates for all three but were reluctant about the second
option. Mauser and Mencke & Warren said the third option was probably unnecessary but were
not willing
to guarantee afirm price on the basis of option two.

Cost and Time Estimates

Here are the estimated costs and time required. Note that for the third option, additional
time (not possible
to estimate at present) would be needed between demo and actual resurfacing, depending
on degree of soil
wetness and depth of soil requiring replacement, if required.

110 Chapter Four

 Table 1
Four Paving Bids Under Three Options

Contractor Patch and ReLayer Demoand Full RePave Demo, Soil, Re-Pave

If we spend the money for the third option we will be able to capitalize it over three years. If we spend for
only the first option, we will be paid back sooner but may have to go for the third option within two years,
according to both Mooney’s and Herrera’s reps.

Effects on Rent

Area commercial buildings in top condition are renting for about $.60 per square foot. Paying for the third
option would strengthen our position as we negotiate with prospective tenants. Based on comps, I believe
that we could support a rate of $.60 per square foot under option three. Option one would require a
disclosure statement on our part and would probably hold the rent down to about $.52 per square foot.

The present tenant has agreed to be out by September 30. We are advertising the property at present.
Ideally, a new tenant could move in as of December 31. Herrera is the most heavily scheduled of the four
pavers, but any of the four could schedule our job within the November 15 - December 15 window.

Scheduling of the other necessary repairs is in progress; an early decision on the paving would facilitate this
planning.

Short Reports and Proposals 111

 EXHIBIT 4-3 Proposal — Internal - Memo Format

Snoqualmie SRi -- Quality Ski-wear and Equipment

14 FF South tndustry Road, Cheney, WA _99004

MEMORANDUM

To: M. K. Olson, Managing Partner

From: Rick Wendland, Marketing Supervisor
Date: March 17, 1998
Subject: Expanding Web Presence to Improve Profit

Last May, Snoqualmie Ski increased its advertising coverage by beginning a Web page.
Total cost was $3,755. We saw a 3.2 percent increase in business during last ski season
owing to Web-based orders, which more than covered the expenses, but we expected a 9
percent increase from this source. Most Web customer inquiries did not result in orders.

I've studied the problem and determined that these factors contributed:

* Customers resist sending credit-card authorizations electronically because of the

perception that they are still not 100 percent secure.
With no reliable means of checking creditworthiness of a buyer who orders via
the Web, we cannot safely ship to first-time customers before we know payment
will be made.
The time lag between the day a customer sees the product on the Web page and
the time we receive payment and can ship appears to discourage buying.

Urban customers have not been our primary target market because they have numerous
other choices. They can buy their equipment and ski-wear immediately at one of the
major sporting-goods retailers.

Electronic Commerce a Good Option for Our Customer Base

Our most profitable customer base has historically been suburban or quasi-rural, young,
professional, and computer-literate. One characteristic of this market segment is
impatience. I believe that if we offer a means of immediate payment we will experience
much more profit from Web exposure. At least one mail-order competitor, Bear State
Winter Sports, has a more extensive Website than ours and is implementing payment by
electronic commerce.

I am requesting your authorization to explore electronic commerce for Snoqualmie Ski.

My reading since December 1997 has shown a considerable rise both in customer

112 Chapter Four

awareness of electronic commerce and customer confidence that transactions are
sufficiently secure.

Resources Needed

I am requesting the following support:

Funding for a short course on electronic commerce offered May 7 by Eastern

Washington University. Cost: $300 for 7 hours.
Funding to attend Quake.com conference in Sacramento, California, July 11-13,
1998. Cost is $476, including lodging and meals. Airfare is $344.
(Estimated) $900 for external consultant fees. This sum is contingent on our deciding
to implement electronic commerce.

I will be able by mid-July to recommend to you whether electronic commerce is right for
Snoqualmie Ski, and, assuming it is, would be able to have a system up and running on
an expanded website by September 1998, in good time for next ski season. Based on my
reading thus far, I am convinced that a secure means of electronic payment will give us
the increase in business we sought from Web exposure; in fact, a 15 percent increase is a
reasonable expectation.

Please authorize this activity and a total of $1120 for the short course at EWU and the
conference. I will be happy to answer any additional questions you may have.

Short Reports and Proposals 113

 Proposals move within organizations but also travel between organizations and
between individuals and organizations. Many business-to-business sales
require a proposal as one phase.
If you’re a seller, find out if Sometimes a number of sellers compete for a customer's order. When buy-
there’s an RFP, to make sure ers need to spend a high dollar amount for products or services, they often
that your proposal can issue a Request for Proposals (RFP), in which they outline their needs and ask
compete. for specific data in a certain order. Following the specified format, prospective
sellers write up their best offer, stressing the ways they believe they can outdo
their competitors. The buyers compare proposals, contact the sellers whose
offerings best and most economically fit their needs, negotiate only with those
few, and select the best.
If you are writing a proposal in response to an RFP, read the RFP
carefully. Your proposal must meet its requirements. If it doesn't, it will be
"nonresponsive," and a nonresponsive proposal will not be considered, even if
it is better than any of the proposals that do follow the RFP.

Progress Reports Progress reports generally exist within the context of a project with a start date
and a finish date, which distinguishes them from routine periodic reports. A
progress report informs the authorizer, at intervals, how far along a given
project is relative to the schedule called for in the plan. The reader could be a
customer, a client, a government agency, your boss, or corporate headquarters.
A progress report tells what the project is and concentrates on what has
been done since the last report. The report tells which steps in a plan have been
completed, the dates they were completed, any problems encountered, and
methods used to solve them.

The progress report shown in Exhibit 4-4 is in letter format. A software com-
pany has retained a consultant to create a business plan for a new product and
expects written notice of steps completed. This simple progress report from the
consultant emphasizes the parts of the task that are on schedule, accounts for
the one that is not, and shows that remaining steps will be on time. In the
next
to last paragraph, the writer uses the progress report to keep communication
open with the client and to head off anything that might interfere with timely
completion.

The report ends with a confident statement. The tone builds good custome
r re-
lations throughout.

Periodic Reports In most organizations, reports on many subjects flow through the
firm daily,
weekly, semi-monthly, monthly, quarterly, semiannually,
and annually. The
con-tent of these periodic reports, though usually routine,
tends to be a firm's
most basic and important information.

Most departments submit these regular reports. Here are a

few examples:
¢ A production department reports number of units produ
ced in a day, a
week, a month, or a quarter.
¢ A marketing department reports amounts spent for advert
ising, research,
and promotion.
¢ Asales department reports amount of goods or service
s sold per time period.
e A finance department regularly reports a firm's
cash assets, capital
assets, loan balances, purchases, and many other
114 figures.
Chapter Four
 e An accounting department reports accounts receivable and accounts
payable.
@ All departments submit budget projections at least annually.

All these departments, and many others, submit many additional kinds of peri-
odic reports.

In fact, so many periodic reports are written in business that forms tend to be Form reports can be great
designed for routine periodic reports. Using a well-designed form, writers are time-savers.
sure of supplying all needed information. Completing a form report takes
much less time than writing the report from scratch each time. In addition, the
reader of a form report knows right where to look for each piece of
information.
Not all periodic reports can make use of forms. Sometimes information is
needed periodically for just a few "periods" -- a few weeks, or a few quarters.
Sometimes the information will always be needed, but won't fit neatly into a
few blanks.
Because periodic reports tend to go each time to a reader who is familiar
with the topic and the format, periodic reports can be quite lean and straight-
forward. .
Planning periodic reports, a writer should consider what order of elements
will work best both for this report and later ones of the same kind. It's helpful
for readers of periodic reports to be able to look for the same information in a
logical place, as well as the same place, from one report to the next.
An example of a periodic report is shown in Exhibit 4-5.

Audit reports inform a business person about the accounting practices of an Audit Reports
organization or department. Companies often have their own internal auditors.
When they do not, and for specific purposes even when they have their own
auditors, they call on external firms to perform audits for them. Internal audit
reports may be long or short, formal or informal. External audit reports are
short and highly formal.

All publicly traded firms must be audited annually by a CPA (Certified Public
Accounting) firm and must publish the audit report as part of the 10K and
annual report. (Privately held firms are not under this obligation.)
When an auditor has finished the review of the organization’s accounting
practices, he or she writes a report containing the evaluation. The report will a-
prove, approve with qualification, disapprove, or withhold opinion. The lan-
guage for each of these tends to be constant because the external audits are in
essence legal documents. A considerable body of law sets forth rigorous
expectations about record-keeping practices in businesses. The auditors’
evaluation is the audit report, and the language of the report uses consistent
language care-fully so that any court of law is likely to interpret the wording
the same way.
An example is shown in Exhibit 4-6, but you can examine annual reports
or 10-K reports of any publicly traded companies to find very similar
examples.
The short audit report shown in Exhibit 4-6 states the CPA firm’s
opinion that the firm’s financial statements represent fairly their financial
position. The report specifies the report’s scope: the time covered and the
financial records examined. A disclaimer restricts the CPA firm’s
Short Reports and Proposals 115
 responsibility to only the opinion it has expressed based on the audits, and
specifically says the CPA firm has no responsibility for what the audited
firm does.
A CPA firm’s report will be longer if it must present an approval with
qualification, a disapproval, or a decision to withhold opinion, since the
auditor generally states the reason for whichever of these opinions is given.

Internal audit reports’ emphasis is less on legal rigor and more on informing a
reader about which internal procedures are effective and which need improve-
ment. Like the external audits, these internal audits scrutinize a system’s
records and procedures but may audit matters beyond the financial. For
instance, a computer analyst might write an audit report about a computerized
inventory system, and a security manager might audit and report on a system
to prevent shoplifting. Internal audit reports may contain more development
and comment.

Many audit reports have to give the reader information he or she doesn’t want
to hear — that there are avoidable losses and errors, for instance. The reports
may recommend changes to prevent future problems. An effective writer
presents findings and recommendations tactfully to minimize emotional
response and motivate cooperation.

One way is to use passive, indirect phrasing. For instance, if a company’s

inventory storage area is found unattended and locked, the report could say so
in either of these two ways:

The storekeeper left the inventory locker abandoned and unlocked on three
occasions.
Three times over the four-month period, the inventory locker was
unattended and not properly secured.

The first version accuses someone of dereliction of duty, using direct phrasing
and emotionally charged words like “‘abandoned.” The second version cites
a
relatively rare occurrence in which someone was careless. The first sentence
is
short and direct. The second isalittle longer and passive and does not mention
the storekeeper.

Exhibit 4-7 contains an example of a short internal audit report. This

example
is written to the person responsible for preparing the status report.
The writer
de-emphasizes the negative findings and concentrates on the propose
d change.
The language is relatively informal, and the tone constructive and
helpful.
Abstracts and Summaries Several kinds of summaries fall into this next report category.
Periodical in-
dexes such as ABI/Inform (see Chapter Five) offer not only
bibliographical
information about periodical articles, but also brief summaries
of the articles’
contents. These are often written by staff rather than by
articles’ authors.
Scholarly journals preface all major articles with abstrac
ts, written by the
authors, which briefly summarize the research findings.

Ifyour instructor assigns a long report as a course

requirement, he or she
might request a preliminary part called an executive
summary (see Chapter
Fight). Indeed, long reports in business usually have
such a summary because
116 Chapter Four
not all a report’s potential readers will need all the detail of the full report. An
executive summary is often separated from the long report and sent upward in
the organization by itself. From this you can infer the care with which writers
need to prepare summaries.

A third type is a support document a subordinate prepares for a superior who

needs information but lacks the time to find it and read it in depth. These ab-
stracts are condensations of longer documents — long reports, journal articles,
or books, for instance — with information selected on the basis of the
requester’s specific need. The subordinate will locate appropriate material,
read and under-stand it, and select and write up its most important elements.

The abstract contains accurate bibliographic information about the source

document. Abstract writers refrain from commenting or interpretation. They
have two choices in presenting content:. They can use phrases such as “Smith
and Dahl argue that. . . “ and “The article concludes with. . .” or they can
simply say, briefly, what the source document says. Exhibit 4-8 shows an
abstract report.

A procedure is a method for doing a task. Most often, it is a clear, logical list Procedure Reports
of instructions, with as much concise explanation as the reader will need to
per-form the task. Sometimes pictures or diagrams amplify the procedure.

Organizations can make efficient use of well-written procedures. One use is

training. If a new hire receives written procedures for doing several parts of
the job, the newcomer can become useful to the firm faster. The new person
not only needs less direct supervision, but also has a ready reference for any
part of a task he or she is uncertain about.

Some tasks in an organization occur regularly but not very frequently -- so that
a worker might not remember from one time to the next just how to perform
them. Sometimes the task goes to a different worker each time. A written
procedure assures that the task is done right.

Writers of procedures have to imagine themselves performing the task: What

is done first? What then? What then? They must visualize what the work
area will look like, and refer to things the reader will see.

A good written procedure does these things:

e takes a task apart into its components

e puts each component in order
° names everything specifically -- machines, tools, supplies and so on.

Writers of procedures must not assume readers know everything the writers
know. For instance, what if the procedure in the Exhibit 4-9 had begun with
"Label #202 grey plastic tub with batch number"? Readers might have wop-
dered where they were supposed to get the batch number, or where those tubs
were to be found.

Procedures are especially important when a task has many steps, each to be
per-formed in a certain order. The ability to write good procedures depends on
the ability to think clearly and anticipate a reader's questions.
Short Reports and Proposals 117
 EXHIBIT 4-4 Progress Report, Letter Format

Planning Consultants, Inc.

4544 Opportunity Way, Albuquerque, NM 87443
(505)-555-7834

June 17, 1998

Ms. Elizabeth T. Sheffield, President

Sidereal Software, Inc.
995 Fourteenth Street
Albuquerque, NM 87402

Dear Ms. Sheffield:

The business plan for your security firewall software package is on schedule for completion
by July 22, as we agreed when we began to write it. Status of each section is as follows:

Section Due Date

Executive Summary
Product June 10 Completed
Marketing June 10 Completed
Management June 17 Have your comments; will complete
changes by June 22.
Market June 24 Research completed. You will receive
draft by June 20.
Operations July 1 Writing was begun June 15. On schedule.
Financial July 8 Will begin June24.
Printing and Binding July 22

Please let us know your schedule so we can meet to go over your comments on the market
section by June 22nd and get the changes incorporated by the 24th. If you are going to be
out of town again, we will fax the market section to wherever you are and ask your
comments by telephone.

Everything looks good for completion well before your presentation to the venture
capital group on August 1.

Sincerely,
ee 00 Haubmqlor

Darnell Washington
Senior Associate

118 Chapter Four

EXHIBIT 4-5 _— Periodic Report

MEMORANDUM

To: Carol McInerney

From: Pete Gruwell
Date: October 15, 1998
Subject: Control of Time-and-a-Half Overtime -- Shipping Department

The shipping department's third quarter under the revised overtime policy ended
September 30, 1998. Here are our figures:

Jack Adams base pay $10.75 = 20 hours @ time-and-a-half $ 322.50

Gib O'Flaherty base pay $ 9.32 30 hours @ time-and-a-half 419.40
Richard Bivens _ base pay $ 8.80 22 hours @ time-and-a-half 290.40

Total regular employees overtime $1,032.30

None of these drivers exceeded the limit of 5 overtime hours in any given week.
Overtime was necessary during only 6 of the 13 weeks in the quarter.

To relieve pressure during heavy weeks we drew on a pool of temporary part-timers

receiving $6.00 per hour. Paul Cassatt, Timothy Burton, Richard Wainel, and Michele
Tosi worked 84, hours in all.

Cost of part-time temporaries was 84 hours x $6.00 $504.00

Total cost of overtime pay for the quarter: $1,032.30 + $504.00 =| $1,536.30

As you requested, we will continue to monitor and report the handling of hours needed
beyond the hours of our full-time regular drivers.

Short Reports and Proposals: 119

EXHIBIT 4-6 External Audit Report

To the Board of Directors and Shareholders of Gallaghan & Sons Construction Co., Inc.:

In our opinion, the accompanying consolidated financial statements appearing in this annual report present fairly,
in all material respects, the financial position of Gallaghan & Sons Construction Co., Inc., at December 31, 1997
and 1996, and the results of their operations and their cash flows for each of the three years in the period ended
December 31, 1997, in conformity with generally accepted accounting principles.

These financial statements are the responsibility of the Company’s management; our responsibility is to express
an opinion on these financial statements based on our audits.

We conducted our audits of these statements in accordance with generally accepted auditing standards which
require that we plan and perform the audit to obtain reasonable assurance about whether the financial statements
are free of material misstatement. An audit includes examining, on a test basis, evidence supporting the amounts
and disclosures in the financial statements, assessing the accounting principles used, and significant estimates
made by management, and evaluating the overall financial statement presentations. We believe that our audits
provide a reasonable basis for the opinion expressed above.

Markovic & Sampier, LLP

Certified Public Accountants
January 28, 1998

EXHIBIT 4-7 Short Internal Audit Report

To: Rosa Fernandez

From: Arlene Williams
Date: July 22, 1998
Subject: | Review of Weekly Status Report

To improve the usefulness of the Weekly Status Report, I recommend that the average daily hours worked be
taken from the cash register sign-on and -off times rather than the handwritten sheets that are now submitted by
each store. This change will reduce the cost of preparing the report, as the store managers will no longer be
required to prepare the manual hours-worked sheets. It will at the same time improve accuracy of the sales-per-
employee-hour data that we use to evaluate store managers.

In a review of the status reports for the fiscal quarter ended April 30, in 17 stores the hours worked were reported
below hours that were actually paid, as detailed in the payroll records, every week. In the other 15 stores,
reported hours worked were below hours paid between 5 and 10 weeks and above in the remaining weeks. In no
week did any store’s reported hours worked exactly match hours paid.

The change can be accomplished by having the payroll department give a copy of the one-page Payroll Summary
by Store report, which it already prepares, to the clerical employee who does the Weekly Status Report.

120 Chapter Four

EXHIBIT 4-8 Abstract Report

To: Ada Hsiao, Operations Manager

From: Martin Reznicek
Date: September 7, 1998
Subject: Summary of Seiders, K., & Berry, L. L. (1998, May). Service fairness: What it is and why
it matters. Academy of Management Executive, 12 (2), 8-20.

As you requested, I have summarized relevant portions of Seiders and Berry’s article on customers’
perceptions of fair treatment, which appeared in the May 1998 Academy of Management Executive. Using
the literature of the social psychology of justice as a basis, the authors performed both qualitative and
quantitative research to arrive at their classification scheme and their recommendations.

Customers who buyaservice rather than a tangible product feel vulnerable to potential unfairness,
especially if they lack expertise in the area or cannot observe the service being delivered (e.g., auto repair,
surgery, phone service, law, computer service). “Service fairness is a customer’s perception of the degree
of justice in a service firm’s behavior.” The justice may be of three kinds:

e Distributive justice, which addresses the outcome: Loyal customers expect occasional preferential
treatment; average customers expect all to receive the same outcome; customers who have an extreme need
may expect to have that need served.
e Procedural justice, which addresses the process: People expect consistency, unbiased treatment,
accuracy, willingness to correct a problem, inclusion/representation, and ethics.
e Interactional justice, which addresses the way people are treated during the service event: “Customers
expect respect, honesty, courtesy, politeness, candor, and professional decorum.”

Customers react more intensely when an unfairness is severe and/or recurrent. A perceived “outrageous”
unfairness provokes an instinctive, punitive, retaliative reaction. A less absolute unfairness (i.e., “when a
line is crossed” from what a customer will accept to what he will not accept) will prompt a more reasoned,
deterrent reaction. The customer’s action will try to influence the service firm to correct its ways.

The customer’s perception of fairness is as important as the actuality. A business must monitor and
manage both the service itself and customers’ perceptions of the service. Companies can prevent many
problems and solve many others by

e Examining operations closely to see where unfairnesses, whether perceived or actual, are likely, and
taking preventive steps.
Examining their policies and practices, asking,
Is what we do logical?
Are problems or perceived problems correctable?
Do operations contain enough flexibility?
Do operations respect customers’ needs and perspectives?
Do we do what we say we do, consistently?
Training their front-line service-delivery employees (not just the customer-service department) in
The importance of service fairness
The kinds of situations (company-specific) most likely to create fairness problems, whether
perceived or actual
Skill in explaining what a company does, and why
e Being ready both to explain what happened and to offer compensation.
e Taking responsibility: We are accountable. We don’t make excuses or blame someone else.

Short Reports and Proposals 121

EXHIBIT 4-9 Procedure Report

To: Garrett Versacci, Training Department Date: June 16, 1998

From: Mary Clare Mulloy, Quality Control Chief
Subject: Procedure for Line Inspection of Baked Chicken Entree

Here, as you requested, is the procedure for sampling, weighing, and visual inspection of the 15.5-ounce frozen
baked-chicken entree. This procedure samples the product just before it is packed into 48-package cartons and
freezer-stored. Note that there are two other inspection points on the line.

This sampling procedure is to be followed each afternoon for 30 minutes. The half-hour must be between the
hours of 2:00 p.m. and 4:00 p.m., since that portion of the workday has proved to be the most error-prone.

Sampling Procedure

(1) Take #202 grey plastic tub from stack near entrance to production room.
(2) Get batch number from production supervisor.
(3) Label #202 grey plastic tub with batch number.
(4) Watching the automatic counter, remove every 100th package from the line. As you remove the package,
depress the red button on the counter to adjust the count by one. Depending on the speed of the line, 15 to
20 packages will be selected.
(5) Stack the packages in labeled #202 plastic tub.
(6) Hand-carry tub to laboratory room B-112.

Weighing Procedure

Preliminary comment: Weight of contents (15.5 oz.) and weight of package (.5 oz.) combine to 16.0 oz. For best
customer satisfaction, we allow slightly more overweight tolerance than underweight tolerance.

For each package, perform these steps:

(1) Weigh unopened package. Weight (including package weight of .5 ounce) is expected to fall between 15.8
and 16.7 ounces.
(2) Record weight of each package in data-book labeled "15.5-oz bkd ckn ent." Record weight of unopened
package, date and time of sample, batch number, and date and time of weighing.
(3) Telephone the production supervisor (x-4242) if
e Any package weighs less than 15.25 oz. (is more than .75 ounce underweight.)
e Any package weighs more than 17.25 (is more than 1.25 ounce overweight) making sure to give batch
number and sample date and time.
(4) Add weights of all packages and divide by number of packages. Average weight should be 16.0 oz. If
average weight is less than 15.8, or greater than 16.5, telephone that average, with batch number and time of
sample, to the production supervisor.

Visual Inspection Procedure

(1) Open each package. Examine placement of chicken pieces, butter beans, and potato yums.
(2) Compare the appearance of each with the set of photographs in the laboratory labeled "visual tolerance 15.5-
oz bkd ckn ent." Photo 1: Ideal appearance
Photos 2 through 5: Appearance imperfect but within tolerance.
Photos 6 through 10: Appearance outside tolerance
(3) Telephone the production supervisor (x-4242) if any package is outside tolerance.

Disposition of Samples

(1) Cover each entree with plastic wrap.

(2) Return all packages to tub labeled with batch number.
(3) Fill out routing form (#9, blue).
(4) Hand-carry tub to room B-113 (Nutrition Analysis) and place in refrigerator near the Kjeldahl units.
(5) Place routing form on spindle next to refrigerator.

122 Chapter Four

Decision makers often request short reports from knowledgeable sources both REVIEW
inside and outside the organization. The report writer gathers and analyzes per-
tinent business information and presents it in organized form to support the
requester’s business decision. A short report, although less formal in presenta-
tion than a long report, generally requires a writer to follow the same steps in
its preparation

deciding on the purpose of the report

analyzing the intended audience
gathering and analyzing information
making structural choices
e format
© organization pattern
e headings and graphics (if any)
e drafting
e revising

A short report may be formatted as a memo, a letter, or a manuscript report (an

abbreviated form of a long report). Reports require good business style: clear,
uncomplicated, concise, correct, and reader-adapted. A directly-structured re-
port begins with a brief summary of its conclusions and recommendations. A
busy reader who is not averse to the findings might use the report without
having to read it in full. If the report findings will be contrary to reader
expectations or displeasing, the writer uses indirect structure.
Chapter Four contained examples of justification reports, feasibility
reports, proposals, progress reports, periodic reports, audit reports, abstracts
(summaries), and procedures.

Short Reports and Proposals 123

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
Think about your major and the career to which it We would like to upgrade the computers in the
engineering department to UNIX workstations.
may lead. What kinds of short reports are you likely
to write? How will these reports affect your career?
When would you use a memo report? When would Each of the following sentences conveys the
you write a letter report? Why? same information that might be found in an
Read the following first sentences from reports. audit report. How do they differ? When might
Decide in what circumstances, if any, each is each be appropriate?
appropriate. Consider the audience and the purpose
The department is substandard in its processing of
of the report. How can these sentences be improved? orders.
a) From a progress report:
Orders are being processed more slowly than
corporate standards.
We are sorry to tell you that the project is
three weeks behind plan and will not be
completed until June 30. ; ch Describe the difference between a justification
report and a feasibility report.
b wa From an audit report sent to the
When might you use a table in your report? A graph?
company controller and to the manager
A photograph?
of the accounts payable department:
Look at the progress report in Exhibit 4-4. Assume
the marketing section of the plan, due on June 10,
In the attached review of the accounts payable
department, you will see that the department was not completed on time, is not yet completed,
is on standard in six areas, above standard in and won't be completed until July 5. You still expect
five, and below standard in three. the plan to. be printed and bound by July 22. How
does that change your report? How would your report
c) From a justification report for upgrading change if, due to the delay in the marketing section,
your department's computers sent to the you didn't expect to be able to deliver the plan until
director of information systems, who August |?
must approve such upgrades:

CASES
Proposal: Class Report. You are assigned a encryption. It is now the end of June 1994, and your
major report for this’ class to be completed over the status report is due. The aircraft identification
remainder of the term. Write a proposal to your module was scheduled to be completely written by
instructor selling him or her on the concept for your May 15; it was completed on May 10 and is now in
report. Write your proposal as though you were in testing, as planned. The tracking module is to be
competition with other class members to do this written by July 23 and is about a week behind
particular report. Include a timetable, with specific schedule. The communication module uses programs
checkpoints for completion of research, completion that have been used for many years, so it is fully
of first draft, and so on. While price is not an issue, developed and tested. The encryption module,
you must show why you are qualified to report on however, is behind schedule. Your company's
your subject. mathematicians have been unable to make as much
Progress Report: Computer Software progress as expected in developing the
System Development. As project manager for mathematical model that is needed before the
the development of a military computer software programmers can begin writing the program. The
system, you are required to submit progress reports model was scheduled to be completed in April 1994;
to the Department of Defense each quarter. The the expected completion date is now July 31.
software will allow the U.S. Navy to track the Although you can make up some of the development
locations of all its aircraft worldwide through time, completion of the overall software system is
satellite communications. The system is very expected to be three months behind the scheduled
complex, involving not only tracking but also date of May 15, 1995.
encryption of the data so they are available only to Write a status report on this project to the
navy personnel. Department of Defense.
The software has four major modules—aircraft
identification, tracking, communication, and

124 Short Reports and Proposals

 Senior monthly ticket $38.00 aa $34.00
(allows 21 weekdays rounds of golf)
Residents’ round, City course 12750 SHQ5 +52%
Residents’ round, Ocean Course 14.50 OF25 +57%
Usage
Average rounds per senior ticket = 11.5
Average cost per round = $3.30
City Course-48% of play is by Seniors
Ocean Course-26% of play is by seniors

Short Memo Report: Raising Golf Prices sales force to sell only to the home furnishings
for Senior Citizens. As recreation department superstores.
manager for your city, write a memo report to the Smoky Mountain's selling cost has averaged
city council asking for a rate increase for your two 14.2 percent of sales for the last seven years.
local public golf courses. The facts you have Because of the lower prices and thinner margins on
collected over the past few years are shown in the the new line, you think your selling cost should not
table above. exceed 10.5 percent if the line is to be profitable.
You think seniors should pay $45 for a You plan to hire a sales manager and six direct
monthly ticket good for a maximum of 15 weekday salespeople. Their compensation and other costs
rounds. You have nothing against elderly people, will be as follows
but all costs are going up, and this increase would
raise between $100,000 and $160,000 a year to use
for scheduled maintenance and approved capital Salary $75,000 --
improvements at the two courses. Commission 1% 5%
The Golf Division's Enterprise Fund gave
Fringe benefits $20,000 1%
$500,000 to the city's general fund in 1992, which
and taxes
leaves enough for maintenance and improvements.
Travel $50,000 $30,000 each
With the fee increase, your operation could improve
the courses even more and give more money to the Office support $60,000 $5,000 each
city for other areas with budget cuts, such as police
and fire coverage. Sales of the new draperies and curtains are expected to
You recognize that it's hard for the city council be $4 million for all of 1993, well short of the
to vote for a rate increase for senior citizens, but $10.00 million that is in the budget for the year. You
you think you can give them enough facts to show expect that the new sales force will increase sales of
why the increase is fair and would benefit the city as the product line to $12 million in 1994 and $20
a whole. million in 1995.
Write a persuasive memo to convince the city Write a justification report to your boss, the vice
council. Use graphics if possible. president of sales and marketing, that she can use to
Justification Report: Expansion of Sales persuade the president of the company to approve the
Force. As national sales manager of Smoky expenditures for the new sales force. The vice
Mountain Drapery Company, you see that your president agrees with your proposal, but you don't
company is losing market share to competitors. In yet know what the president will think.
January 1993, Smoky Mountain introduced a new Memo Report: Biotech Manufacturing
line of lower-priced curtains and drapes. It has not Space. Your company, Bioclone, Inc., has
taken off as other companies' similar lines have. It developed a line of modular DNA that both
is now November 1993, and you are analyzing the commercial and university biotechnology labs can
problem. use as tools in their research. You are about to
You see that your salespeople, who convert from a research to a manufacturing
traditionally have sold to department stores, company, and you need more space. As facilities
furniture stores, and interior designers, are unable to manager, you have been asked to survey the market
call on the offices of the new kinds of home stores, and select a building for the additional facility.
like Bed and Bath Boutique and Simpson's. You
decide the answer is to create an entirely separate

Chapter Four 125

You decide that your criteria for the new plant are The improvements you will need are minimal—
its size, availability of future expansion space, only about $5 per square foot—but the landlord
cost, tenant improvement allowances, location, will not contribute anything toward them. Rent
parking, and mass transit availability. After is $11 per square foot for the 140,000-square-
several weeks of reviewing properties, you have foot building, which has 210 parking spaces.
narrowed your list down to four. There is bus service close by, but it serves only a
Property 1, located near the university and relatively small residential area.
most of the biotech labs, meets your minimum Write a report to management recommending
size of 100,000 square feet. There are another one of these buildings and explaining your
100,000 square feet on which the landlord will recommendation. Use tables to compare the
give you first right of refusal, which will allow buildings. Use a map of your city to show
for future expansion. Rent is $12 per square foot, locations.
net (Bioclone has to pay real estate taxes, which Short Research Report: Financing
for this property are estimated at $1.75 per Export Sales. Alphomer Technologies, Inc.,
square foot). The landlord will pay up to $15 per a manufacturer of telecommunications
square foot in tenant improvements—the interior equipment, has started to receive many requests
improvements needed to turn a building shell for bids from Mexican and Canadian companies
into a finished plant. You estimate that for a new since the signing of the North American Free
building, the total cost of the work you will need Trade Agreement. As assistant treasurer, you
will be $25 per square foot. The building has a have been assigned to find out how to get paid if
parking lot with 300 spaces, but there is no bus you accept an order and ship it. You know it is
or rail service near the building. difficult to collect a receivable from another
Property 2 also is near the university. It has a country if the customer chooses not to pay. Your
total of 125,000 square feet that will rent for $15 investigation tells you that in addition to selling
per square foot, gross (the landlord pays real on open account, you can accept cash in advance,
estate taxes). This building is freestanding, with insist on a letter of credit, or use export credit
no adjacent expansion area. The tenant insurance.
improvement allowance is $17 per square foot. Accepting cash in advance is, of course, the
There are 180 parking spaces, and the building is easiest option for you and the most secure.
one block from a bus stop with buses from all However, many of your potential customers are
over the city. relatively small companies, and they are either
Property 3 is located in an older area unwilling or unable to give you the $50,000 to
downtown. It has 137,000 square feet on two $100,000 that a system costs before it is even
floors. Rent is $6.50 per square foot. The shipped.
interior is completely finished, with 30,000 Export credit insurance, which is offered by
square feet of office space, which will suit your the Export-Import Bank of the United States,
needs. The manufacturing area will have to be guarantees that you will get paid if the customer
completely redone, with new plumbing and air does not pay, whether for its own reasons or
conditioning. The landlord has agreed to pay half because of currency restrictions that prevent it
the improvement cost, which you expect to be from paying.
$28 per square foot for the 107,000 square feet of Under a letter of credit, a bank guarantees
plant area. Parking is available near the building payment of your invoice. You need only provide
in commercial lots that charge $6 per day or $90 proof of shipment.
per month. Excellent public transportation After doing some library research to fill in
serves the building. the details on export finance procedures and
Property 4 is in a suburban industrial park policies, recommend aset of policies for
and recently was vacated by another biotech lab Alphomer Technologies in a report of not more
that wanted to be closer to the university. than five pages.

Short Reports and Proposals

|
Reading 4-1 WINNING
Don M. Ricks

with each other, Consultant asks them: What do you

THE PAPER WARS

When the Readers of managers are in charge and talking

want me to tell the Writers in your people? What do you

most want them to do when they write a memo or report
conducted at the management level in order to
determine what should constitute the initial step.”
They should just say, ‘““We asked all the managers
what they thought we should do first.” I have a
for you? The Readers within senior executives—industry mountain of reading every day. I don't have time for
to industry, agency to agency, large organization and word puzzles
small, in North America and abroad—have been giving 4. Tell them to give me all the information I need to do
the same five answers for 20 years what they want, or to understand what they think I
should know—and only that information. A report
1. Have them tell me, right at the beginning, why they should not read like a final examination in the
are writing. If they want me to approve an subject. It's not a test of how much the writer
expenditure; if they want me to attend a meeting; if knows. Nor should it be a collection of the odds and
they want me to reverse a decision; if they want me ends that happened to come to mind at the time of
to read their memo and offer my opinion; even if writing. Writers should plan each document by
they just want me to note the thing and file it; I need asking themselves, “If I had to make this decision,
to know that first. Then I can listen to what the what would I want someone to tell me?” They then
document says. And the more negative or should select, from everything they might say, only
troublesome their news may be, the more I need the data that will help me; and then they should
them to announce it in the first paragraph. I don't make sure I get all of it.
want to read clear to the end and then have 5. Also remind them that I, too, am human. I prefer to
something sprung on me be addressed as a fellow member of the same species,
2. Tell them to explain things to me. They should not an automaton. Especially if the issue is
especially explain what seems so “obvious.” troublesome, a constructive tone is important.
Making me aware of the obvious is probably the When someone starts off with, “It has come to our
reason for writing the memo or report in the first attention .. .,”1 feel like kicking him in the teeth.
place. I've got plenty of work of my own to keep But if he starts with, “I'm sorry to be the bearer of
track of; they should never expect me to be on top bad news, but you need to know that .. .,” the
of the details of their operation. But when there is disappointment is easier to swallow.
something I should know, their job is to make sure I
find out. I'm never offended when someone makes Consultant has been getting these five messages
my work easier by delivering up information in an from people's Inner Readers, week in and week out, for
explicit, interpreted form I can understand years. The part of us that reads is straightforward. It just
immediately and put to use wants to get the desk cleared and go home feeling the day
3. I want them to use words I can understand. In fact, has been worth living.
they should make mental pictures for me. I want
them to keep their language simple and concrete.
Instead of saying “Market trends for appliances
appear to be improving,” they should say, “People
Source: Don M. Ricks, Winning the Paper Wars(Homewood, Il .:
have started buying more appliances.” I don't want Dow Jones-Irwin, 1990), pp. 74-75
to have to figure out what they mean by “An
inclusive series of personal interviews was

Chapter Four 127

(haplei Give

Secondary Research
for Business
Reporting
This chapter stresses the practical value of reports to business organizations. You
will develop skill in conducting secondary research, that is, locating business
information that is already in print. You will read about computer-assisted
searching tools in libraries and see how computers can help you locate resources
much more easily than business students could only a few years ago. Many of the
library resources will continue to be useful to you in your business career.
You will see how to handle secondary information with integrity while not
letting the mechanics of documentation become obtrusive.

129
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
 The Cost of Not Knowing --
From the desk of... When the Library is Free

Our firm, Banyan Manufacturing, got hit with a $500,000 court judgment. What
for? Sexual harassment. One guy, a mid-level manager, kept bothering one
secretary. She told him she wasn't interested in him and finally complained to her
supervisor and to human resources, but nobody took any action. He'd make some
suggestive remark every time he saw her. He didn't care whether others heard. It
was really unpleasant, but the rest of us couldn't do anything about it.
Eileen Klein She finally consulted an attorney and filed suit. The higher-ups pled ignorance,
Internal Auditor but the judge didn't buy it. "Newspapers, the management literature, and trade
journals in practically every occupation have covered this topic," he said. "You'll
pay this judgment, and I strongly suggest you consult the literature, draw up a firm
policy on the subject, and make sure this isn't repeated."
When the president of Banyan read the amounts of the judgments in other
sexual harassment cases, he decided not to appeal. We've got training workshops
and a strong policy now. The information was there for the reading in the library
before any of this happened.

REPORTS AND In the vignette that opens this chapter, top management needed information
RESEARCH about sexual harassment. The human resource manager could easily have
headed off the problem by obtaining sound information on the subject and re-
porting on it (including its heavy dollar and human costs) either in wniting or as a
presentation to management.

Definition: Business A business report is an organized presentation of information gathered for the
Report purpose of solving a business problem. Reports can be written, oral, or both.
They differ in complexity, length, importance, audience, and many other ways.
You looked at proposals, for instance, in Chapter 4. Many proposals are only a
page or two long, with an audience consisting of one person. However, pro-
posals can be some of the longest reports generated in business. When aero-
space companies prepare the proposals that compete for billion-dollar govern-
ment contracts, the proposal with its supporting paperwork might weigh several
hundred pounds. In Washington, thousands of people make up the multiple
audiences who will examine the proposal.
Because research and reporting demand thoroughness, a great deal of time,
and meticulous attention to detail, business persons must plan carefully for effi-
ciency and effectiveness. Research and reporting must be systematic. .

Truth and In daily life we make many decisions based on inferences we draw from a few
Objectivity facts we perceive as relevant. We make many decisions based on our opinions,
our limited experience, a few opinions asked of co-workers, and sometimes our
Business research "gut feeling." For many decisions, these sources suffice. When a problem needs
requires the ability to be research, however, we do not say, "Go with your feeling on this." Instead, we
completely objective. search for the truth and try our best to perceive it without the overlay of our
opinions or wishes.

130
Chapter 5
Laying aside predispositions is much harder than most people realize. People
have biases because they do not perceive them as biases, but instead as the truth.
We perceive selectively and remember selectively unless we force ourselves to
do otherwise. We exclude whole avenues of inquiry if we think we know ahead
of time what we will find.
Researchers cannot afford to do these things. Research costs a great deal in
time, money, and resources. If we taint a research study with our biases, we not
only lose all those costs, but we also run the additional risk of making a high-cost
business decision based on findings that are wrong.

Researchers perform secondary research when they locate a variety of existing Secondary and Primary
information and integrate it into a report that fills a given business need. They Research Differentiated
perform primary research when they generate the data themselves through ob-
servational, survey, or experimental research.
When we do secondary research,
Sometimes a business problem requires only secondary research to solve it. we obtain and use the published
‘The answer may already exist either in the company's own records or in a pub- findings of other researchers.
lished article or book. That solution is usually least expensive. Most primary re- When we do primary research, we
search takes more time, money, and resources than secondary. generate the data ourselves.
Suppose an organization is interested in the morale and motivation advan-
tages of employee suggestion systems. The literature in most university libraries
offers many articles on this topic. From secondary research information alone, a
business person could design and implement a good system.
Might primary research be needed? Maybe. For stance, if a management
shake-up and layoffs have demoralized a firm's employees, simply providinga
suggestion system might create a backlash along the lines of "I've got a *#!*&#!!
suggestion for you. Hire back my fnends!" It could worsen morale rather than
improve it. An opinion survey would tell top managers where the sensitive areas
are and help them customize and implement the suggestion system to empower
the employees and avoid triggering cynicism.
Secondary research will often suffice when the business problem is a quali-
tative or common one. If others have met and dealt with it, the answer may
already exist in print or in a company's own files. Many business problems,
however, are unique or specific to a given environment or situation. These are
likely to need primary research. Many reports require both secondary and
primary research, and primary research is usually preceded by secondary.
Research Reports:
Business reports originate from a need. Typically, a manager perceives a ques-
tion she cannot answer with existing information and delegates the problem to a
Origin and Process
subordinate. The subordinate, after conferring with the manager, systematically
tackles the problem. Because research and reporting are costly, people in busi- Usually a superior authorizes
ness do not undertake them without authorization from superiors. a subordinate to perform
research and prepare a report.
Whether reports are primary or secondary, writers take the same steps:

Recognizing and defining the research problem or question

Looking at a variety of ways of addressing it
Choosing the best means
Planning the research project
Implementing the plan to gather the data
Analyzing the findings
Presenting the answer to the problem in an oral or written report
131
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
A Business Tom Schultz works as administrative office manager for KVT Inc., a midsize
Research Report construction firm. For most of its thirty-year life, KVT has employed six pro-
Case fessional architects. Four of the present architects are qualified to do contracting
as well as architectural work, but of those four, three will retire in the next two
years. Gordon Kennard, one of the firm's principals, suspects that three full-time
professional architects may be enough if temps can be obtained in a timely and
cost-effective way when the firm's schedule is heavy. The firm's younger archi-
tects are more specialized than the old-timers were. The industry is becoming
more and more specialized, and being able to hire people short-term for their
particular knowledge appeals to Kennard. He asks ‘Tom to "explore the whole
subject of hiring professional temps."
Tom has read a few articles about this growing segment of workers but is
nowhere near being able to furnish the needed information. In fact, "the whole
subject of hiring professional temps" is undoubtedly much more than the boss
really needs. Tom asks for a meeting with Kennard to focus the research ques-
tion. He will restrict the scope of the research by determining what it will and
will not cover, and find out what /imitations apply, such as constraints on time
and resources.
Their conversation establishes these things:

e Kennard needs to know approximately how much of the three

prospective retirees’ work is architecture and how much is contracting,
what kinds of contracting each does, and how much of their work could
be done byaless technically qualified person.
e Kennard does not want to be caught without sufficient expertise on
board. The firm is growing but the market 1s competitive.
e He wants to know pros, cons, and pitfalls of using professional temps. If
benefits do not outweigh costs, temps are not an answer.
e He knows that getting good information will take tme and resources.
Kennard authorizes a six-month timeline and $1000 for supplementary
research assistance, since Schultz has all his regular work to do as well.
e Kennard wants thorough information and conclusions, but not a
recommendation. Schultz's report will contain most of the considera-
tions that will bear on Kennard's decision, but not all of them.

Schultz now has a focus. His narrowed research question is something like

To what extent and for what work might KVT Inc. plan to use
professional temporary workers as of March 1999 (J. Carrera's
retirement date), September 1999 (D. Portola's retirement date), and
February 2000 (P. Geisel's retirement date)?

The introduction to the report Schultz eventually writes will contain this research
question, as well as a scope statement, a limitations statement, and a brief dis-
cussion of research methods. He will need to use more than one research
method. To answer the first of Kennard's concerns he will

e Perform content analysis on the reports of work completed by these

three individuals over the last three years,
132 Chapter 5
 e Schedule in-depth interviews with them to ask them about the way they
divide their time on the projects they do, and
e Conduct (with their permission) at least some observational research to
watch them at work and document time and activity.

For Kennard's other two information needs, secondary research will answer.
Schultz will review periodical literature to find out pros, cons, and pitfalls of
using professional temps. He will concentrate on use of these temps in his own
industry but will also read about other types of firms' experience. He will consult
Department of Labor statistics and industry statistics on projected overall supply
of specialists in the disciplines his company will need and projected availability
of temps versus permanent employees.
He will telephone several professional temp agencies in his metropolitan area
to learn about employment arrangements and costs. He knows that the employ-
ment agencies take care of workers' benefits and insurance while charging firms
a set per-hour rate. He has to find out the specifics of the contracts under which
temps work, how much screening choice a firm has over which individual is em-
ployed, and what recourse a firm has if the individual supplied by the agency
cannot do what the firm needs.
Since Kennard asked just for a report with conclusions drawn from findings, Analytical reports end with
what Schultz will write is called an informational report. If Kennard had asked recommendations,
for a recommendation, Schultz would have asked the research question a little informational reports do not.
differently: "Should KVT Inc. plan to use....." and would have wnitten an
analytical report.
Research and reports cost money, but professional temps might or might not
be appropriate for KVT Inc. If Kennard did not want to spend the money for
the research, he could simply call up a temp agency and say, "Do you have
someone who can do electrical contracting?" and accept whatever happens.
Doing this without the answers to the questions raised in this case, though,
exposes the firm to many very expensive possible mistakes. Kennard probably
hopes his competitors will make those mistakes — but Ae won't. That Kennard
trusts Schultz to perform the research speaks well of Schultz. When Schultz
completes and turns in excellent research, his perceived value to the firm rises
still further.

, they Foreseeing the Shape of the

As researchers plan their projects, especially if they write a formal proposal
Finished Report
are in effect already writing the introduction to the finished report. Before be-
the prob-
ginning to collect data, they must already know the exact statement of
the research,
lem or question, scope and limitations of the research, need for
the most impor-
and methods of gathering the data. These elements compose
tant part of a report's introduc tion. Often the general outline of the report's
ers organize and divide up their data gather-
body is implicit in the way research
ing task.
an infor-
Researchers also know from the outset whether they are to write
them either to just present the
mational or analytical report. Management tells
can be drawn from it, or
information, with a summary and the conclusions that
Thus, writers know from
to make a recommendation for management decision.
elements — a sum-
the beginning whether their report's ending section has two
ns.
mary and conclusions ~ or those two plus a third, the recommendato

133
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
Business Reports These problem-solving or question-answering reports differ from research re-
Contrasted with Other ports you may have written in other classes in several ways. The business re-
Research Reports search report's introduction needs all the elements shown in the case you just
read: a precise statement of problem or question, a statement of the need for the
study, its exact scope, and so on. Business readers work on many projects simul-
taneously, and the introduction must quickly revive their mental set for the
report to come. Writers must resist offering excessive background detail. Rarely
will the readers be as fascinated by the background as the writers are. Readers
have no time to read any more than is necessary for a good decision.
A business report writer who is asked to make a recommendation should
recognize the task as a piece of soft, not hard, persuasion. If you have been
asked to write persuasively in other classes, realize that readers of business re-
ports will react negatively to emotional appeals or the point-scoring, adversarial
tactics of formal debate.
Presenting information for another person's decision calls upon a writer's in-
Even in writing reports leading to tegrity. Even if writers have been asked for a recommendation, they must pre-
a recommendation, credible busi-
sent fairly the information leading up to the recommendation. This is a trust,
ness report writers present find-
ings in a fair and balanced way.
and writers must approach it responsibly. The writer's credibility is important in
all report writing, but especially for the kinds of reports that persuade, such as
justification reports.

SECONDARY Business people with some understanding of a college library have an immediate
RESEARCH FOR edge on those who have avoided it. Individuals can put their hands on an enor-
BUSINESS mous volume of timely information if they can use the library.
Managers routinely underutilize secondary research, often deterred by the
REPORTING sheer volume of what is available. They skim a periodical or two, when and if
they get around to it, but usually they get their business information haphazardly
and passively — from business associates who know little more than they do.
The vast amounts of available information go unused, because managers do not
know the information is there and have no clue how to find it.
Computers have changed the
The late 1990s have seen a great change in the ways information is provided.
ways we search for information.
The many computer-assisted information tools have to some extent created a
‘library without walls." Increasingly, you will be able to gain access to databases
electronically, often from computers that are not even physically inside a library.
The Internet and the World Wide Web' hold many reliable information
sources. Unfortunately they contain much unreliable information as well, which
is why knowing your way around alibrary is still crucial.
Library research is detective work. Rarely do researchers begin a library task
knowing exactly which few references they must find to support the academic
paper or business report they must prepare. The person who says, "Well, I
thought I'd just read around in current periodicals until I find what I need" will
flounder forever.

' For most WorldWide Web addresses in this chapter and for much information about
business reference sources, I am indebted to Sara B. Sluss, Business Reference Librarian at
California State University - Long Beach. The WorldWide Web address of Ms. Sluss's
excellent website on searching business information sites on the Web is
http://www.csulb.edu/~ sbsluss/bizindex.htm
See also http://www.csulb.edu/~ sbsluss/sarasfaves.htm

134
Chapter 5
If you are not already familiar with the library, first familiarize yourself with the Navigating the Library
floor plan. You will

© Locate the library catalog.

e Most libraries now use an online catalog with many computer
terminals for accessing it.
e You might also be able to access the catalog from your home or
office computer.
e Find the reference desk. Reference librarians are there to help you.
e Look for the indexes to business penodicals.
e The most useful indexes are now computerized databases.
e Some may be accessible remotely from home or office.
e A few computerized periodical indexes are full-text databases, from
which you will be able to get not only the bibliographic data and an
abstract, but in some cases also the whole article.
e A few paper or hardbound indexes remain.
e Find out where current issues of periodicals are shelved and where the
older, bound, issues are. Some may be in microform.

Then you will plan your search strategy. You will use the library catalog to find Planning and
out what books are immediately available on your subject. Most computerized Carrying Out Your
library catalogs tell users immediately whether a book is checked out or available Research Strategy
on the shelf. Find those available and check them out at the library's circulation
department.
If a book is checked out to another user, most libraries can "call in" a book.
The person using the book is not permitted to renew the book but must return it
for your use, usually within two or three weeks. Even if a book you need is not
owned by your library, many libraries participate in Interlibrary Loan, a cooper-
ative system by which libraries exchange books upon request of their patrons.
Fill out and turn in a request card, and, usually within 10 days to three weeks,
your book will arrive.
You will find out which periodical indexes will be most productive. (Few
business researchers should spend much time in the indexes to general-reader-
ship periodicals.)
Realize that each library tool is itself systematic, and spend a few minutes
examining the directions for using the tool before you begin turning pages or
pressing keys.
Starting a research project early is essential, for any challenging research is
complex. Some researchers say that if you do not feel overwhelmed at some
point in your research, you either don't understand the situation yet or are not
working on a worthwhile project.
Most research requires your collecting far more information than you can
possibly provide to a reader and then selecting intelligently what is pertinent.
What you omit and your reasons for omitting it are as important as what you in-
clude. Be ready to learn more than you will ultimately need to know.
While you must stay on task in the library, you must also cultivate an open
mind. If you enter the library with your mind made up about what you will
Habe
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
 learn, you do not have a researcher's attitude. Researchers must “watch the
horizons" as well as pursue the narrowed topic.

The Changing Face Computer-assisted research tools have changed the methods of data gathering
of the Business for business and academia. During the last 15 to 20 years, America's university
Library and college libraries have made atransition from the use of paper indexes to
various automated indexes and information-delivery formats. We will look pr-
marily at computer-aided library research and will discuss WorldWide Web
sources to a lesser extent.
You cannot, of course, learn and use dozens of library information-finding
tools all at once. However, knowing the library gives you “information power” to
carry with you out into the competitive workplace. Our best advice is this:

e Make numerous visits to the library, using more than one reference
tool each time, and a new one every time.
e Proceed slowly.
e Avoid information overload.
e Start using the library instead of television as your business news
source, and when you read the library’s copy of The Wall Street
Journal or Business Week, use that library visit to examine one more
reference tool. Look at JnvesText. Look at Value Line. Look at
Standard & Poor’s Industry Surveys. And so on.
e Understand that the library skills you learn this year will need updating
in the future as vendors offer libraries — and you — information in
newer, usually "friendlier" forms.

Library Catalog Each library maintains a catalog of all its holdings. Contents of the catalog will
vary from library to library. Even the types of contents might vary, since differ-
ent libraries may support different special interests. The catalog lists all the docu-
ments (books, periodicals, government publications, videotapes, and works pub-
lished on other media) inalibrary's collection.
Computerized or “online” catalogs have largely replaced manual catalogs. For
each document owned, the library’s computerized database contains author,
title, subject, publication date and place, call number, and location in library. A
user follows on-screen instructions to type in a request using author, title, key-
word, or subject categories. The computer searches for the requested data and
displays the result on the screen. If the user is satisfied, she can press a "down-
load" key and save the search's results to a computer diskette. Or she can hit a
"print" key and a printer makes a hard copy of the results.
Computerized catalogs are faster and more helpful than manual catalogs
when the user's request is carefully made. They are, however, time-consuming
when the user makes an unspecific request. In a manual catalog, a user might
look up the subject "personnel" and see at once that she cannot use three whole
drawers full of references. If she types s=personnel into a computer catalog,
however, the computer will dutifully search out all 14,682 sources with “person-
nel” as one of their subject headings. It will take time. At the end of the com-
puter's task, the screen will say "14,682 items found" and will invite her to inspect

136 Chapter 5
them, one by one. It will also suggest that she narrow her search by adding ano-
ther term to "personnel."

In searching a computer-assisted database, whether it is on a CD-ROM disk or

an online network, you type in one or more terms in a request. How you pro-
ceed, though, depends on whether or not this database uses "Boolean oper-
ators.”

If the system is set up to use Boolean (sometimes called logical) commands, the Boolean Operators
user has considerable power to select exactly what is needed and nothing more.
If you enter two keywords connected by the OR term, you will get more items
than if you enter two keywords connected by AND. The OR command will find
all records containing either one of your terms. The AND command sends the
system to find all sources (and only those sources) in which both terms appear.
In the example above, for instance, if the user keys in s=personnel AND bene-
fits, the computer will find only the records containing both those terms. The
user will probably need to specify the request even further than that.

business AND negotiation

If you wanted books on business

negotiation, for example, you might enter
the search terms "business" and
“negotiation” (the AND link is assumed
unless you specify otherwise). You'd type

business AND negotiation

The search will find only the articles containing BOTH terms.

buzinez: AMD negotiation OR sales

The operator OR allows you to use

multiple synonyms for the same concept.
Depending on the scope of your interest,
you might want to link "sales" as an OR
term. You would type in:

business AND negotiation OR sales

The search will find all articles containing “businexs™ and one or the
other of “negotiation” or “zalez.”

If you're interested mainly in negotiation in purchasing and sales, you may wish
to exclude the area of labor negotiation with NOT. You would key in
Secondary Research for Business Reporting 137
 business AND negotiation OR sales NOT labor
in
Be cautious with NOT, however. The chance appearance of the word "labor"
a title or abstract might exclude some business negotiation articles that aren't
about labor negotiation. If an abstract happened to say something like "Employ-
ees new to purchasing must labor to understand negotiation techniques" and you
have used a "NOT labor” command, this article will be excluded.

To summarize, OR finds for you all sources in which one or the other of your
search terms appears. AND excludes titles not containing both search terms.
The computer, instructed to look for two terms, excludes all entries in which
only one of the terms appears. If you enter three search terms linked by AND,
the computer finds fewer still — only the entries where all three appear. Cautious
use of the NOT operator lets you exclude whole areas of an inclusive topic.

Library of Congress and Most libraries’ manual and computer catalogs use aclassification system called
LC Subject Headings the Library of Congress Subject Headings. It organizes the huge collection in
the Library of Congress, the nation’s premier library. Most libraries have adop-
ted their subject headings.
In the LCSH system, each book bears a unique call number. The call num-
bers of books on a given subject all bear the same beginning; the rest of the num-
ber differentiates the books within the subject's subcategories. For instance, call
numbers for most ofa library's books on business begin with H. A book on
managing and training older workers is numbered HD6279.07.

Using any computer-assisted finding tool, more experienced users look at the
Keywords, subject headings (sometimes called keywords, topic headings, or descriptors)
Topic Headings, used by this system before they set the computer to work. They have to make
Descriptors
sure that what they call their topic is the same thing the computer calls it. If it is
not, the computer will say it has nothing on the topic.

A user familiar with the way the automated systems work gains a degree of
speed, flexibility, and thoroughness unavailable through manual systems. Com-
puterized catalogs let users combine requests, restrict or expand searches after
they have started and generated too broad or too narrow an output, exclude
certain subsets from the search, and examine lists of related topics and sub-
topics. Your reference librarian can help you get started and suggest search
terms and keywords for you.

Besides books, libraries contain files of periodicals: scholarly and professional

Periodicals and
journals, popular magazines, newspapers, trade journals, yearbooks, and other
Other Serials periodicals published serza/ly, that is, on a regular and continuing basis. Exam-
ples include Harvard Business Review, ABA Banking Journal, Business Hon-
zons, MIS Quarterly, Executive, Academy of Management Review, and hun-
dreds of others. Important newspapers such as the New York Times, the Wall
Street Journal, and the Los Angeles Times are indexed as well. Libraries usually
have the most recent year or two available as regular paper issues. Older issues
will be available in bound volumes, in microform, or both.

138 Chapter 5
Indexes to periodical literature are not specific to one library. (Recall that your Indexes to Periodicals
library's catalog lists just its own holdings.) Instead, a penodical index lists, by
subject and sometimes by title and/or author, all the articles published in every
issue of all the periodicals it covers.
Computer-assisted periodical indexes often permit Boolean searching, just as
do computer-assisted catalogs of books.
No college library will have every periodical or even, necessarily, the whole
lifetime run of any one periodical. As in the case of books your library does not
own, often Interlibrary Loan can supply photocopies of periodical articles upon
your request. Allow plenty of lead time.

There are many indexes to business literature. No two indexes to periodical

literature cover exactly the same array of periodicals. It was once possible to
classify reference tools according to hard-copy or computer-assisted format.
Some still exist only in hard copy. Increasingly, however, reference tools are
computerized and searchable via CD-ROM or online, and some are offered in
multiple forms. Coming onto the market are even newer forms of information
delivery, such as set-top boxes for TV sets that will permit user interaction
(database searching, for instance) and fast downloading of high volumes of
information.

Increasingly, too, publishers view themselves as providers of information, not

just of books, or periodicals, or indexes. Some computerized research tools con-
tain other information besides periodical literature indexing - corporate direc-
tory information, for instance. Many allow users to download information onto
their own diskettes. Computers, bringing vast data-storage potential and highly
selective random-access searching, permit information providers to offer com-
binations of sources.

Note that periodicals and periodical indexes often use nonstandard abbrevi- Build Your Bibliography as
ations and elements of bibliographic data. You will need to prepare a biblio- You Search
graphy of your sources for your research report, and you will need fo use con-
sistently one of the three recognized documentation styles, APA, MLA, or Your bibliography must use
University of Chicago. (See the section in this chapter on the three citation sys- one documentation style
tems, and see Appendix Cof this textbook). When you are using the indexes to consistently.
gather your data, think ahead to the information you will need in preparing your
documentation and bibliography. Find and record in full such things as volume
numbers and page numbers. Your reader will be dissatisfied if you give page
numbers as “38-39+” or a date as “Jn93.”

Note also that some computerized databases build a record of a user's search
way
terms and results. Save the record of your search on your diskette, the same
so has two advantage s. First,
you save the bibliographic entries you select. Doing
to
you generally get all the pertinent bibliographic information without having
phic
key it in. This improves accuracy, because errors tend to creep into bibliogra
avoid du-
information every time a human being writes or types it. Second, you
some (not
plicating searches that you already did. You will be glad to know that
are beginnin g to offer users the option to save biblio-
all) information providers
tely formatte d in the user's choice of citation
graphic information appropria
format: APA, MLA, or University of Chicago.

Secondary Research for Business Reporting 139

Indexes to Business ABI/Inform and the Business & Industry Database are two good computer-
Literature assisted indexes to periodical business literature. They are available online
through providers such as FirstSearch but are also purchased by some libraries
in CD-ROM format. ABI/Inform offers abstracts as well as citations and is up-
dated monthly. It does especially well covering academic and scholarly articles,
but also indexes numerous trade, practitioner, and general business periodicals.
Business & Industry Database covers about 700 trade publications and other
business publications. More than half of the citations are accompanied by the
full text of the article.

InfoTrac InfoTrac is a CD/ROM based index. Some school libraries and

community libraries offer InfoTrac. In its most basic form, InfoTrac is a peri-
odical index. Because it comes out very soon after the indexed serials are pub-
lished, it contains typographical errors. Use it, because it is fast, inclusive,
fnendly, and powerful. But double-check bibliographic and other data in the
index entry with the serial article itself.

Numerous other business indexes are offered on CD/ROM, with more to come.
Using them is much like usingalibrary's online catalog. In both cases the re-
searcher types in a request, using the system's descriptors and symbols, waits
while the computer processes the request, views the result onscreen, and, if
desired, prints it out or saves it to diskette.

Reminder: Not all systems use the same instructions and descriptors. For
best results, some learning time is necessary, and the systems change as
new products and new versions come out.

Competition among information providers works to the researcher's benefit.

The 1993 version of most search tools did not have a "graphical user interface."
Computer users now, however, are used to the Macintosh and Windows com-
puter platforms, which are increasingly intuitive to use. To stay competitive, each
new generation of information-finding tools has become friendlier, and they are
developing fast.

Indexes to Government Business researchers are likely to locate useful information in materials pub-
Documents lished by the U. S. government. The GPO, or Government Printing Office,
issues more than 50,000 titles from federal agencies every year. The GPO
Monthly Catalog, the index to government publications, is available in most
libraries, often on CD/ROM or other electronic format. It indexes periodicals,
government documents, and some books on public policy - that is, on laws and
regulations and related topics. Business and public policy affect one another in
countless ways; thus many business topics can be found through this index. The
classification system for most government documents uses “SuDocs” (Super-
intendent of Documents) numbers.
Your library might index its collection of government documents in a separ-
ate catalog or database or in with the library’s regular holdings. You will also
need to find out whether your library sets apart a special section of the library for
documents or shelves them in with the library’s regular collection.
American Statistics Index To locate quickly the many statistical studies
and statistical charts and maps published by the government, use the American

140
Chapter 5
Statistics Index. Besides index listings, it contains abstracts and actual tables and
graphs.
Statistical Abstract of the United States The Statistical Abstract of the
United States gathers, summarizes, and indexes statistical studies of social, poli-
tical, and economic aspects of this nation. You can find year-to-year figures on
average per-capita income, prison population, numbers of credit-card holders
and of self-employed workers, and thousands of other useful data categories.

An important database for business researchers is EDGAR, which indexes the Government
documents, such as 10Ks and 10Qs, that publicly traded companies must file Documents Online
with the Securities and Exchange Commission. EDGAR and a number of other
government databases are available online on the World Wide Web. Here are
Web addresses for EDGAR and some other important government websites:

EDGAR Online. GPO (Government Printing Office)

http://www.edgar-online.com/ http://www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/aces/aaces002.html

U.S. Census Bureau U. S. Department of the Treasury

http://www.census.gov http://www.ustreas.
gov

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics U.S. Census International Database

http://www.bls.gov http://www.census. gov/ftp/pub/ipc/www/idbnew. html

There are many others. Once you begin Web searching, you'll discover links
that help you locate them.
To ignore government documents is unwise. Much excellent information
that exists there is available nowhere else. Government documents are of more
use than most people in business realize.

Sometimes your research will require your locating detailed information on spe- Corporate Directories and
cific organizations. Most college and university libraries have multiple reference Financial Information
tools covering specific corporations. A few are the Million Dollar Directory,
Dun’ Business Rankings, Directory of Corporate Affiliations, Standard and
Poor's Register of Corporations, Directors and Executives, Moody’s Manuals,
and Value Line.

Most of us like the comfortable feel and convenience of a hard-copy book or Hard-Copy and Microform
journal issue. Library storage space is costly, however, and the information ex- Resources
plosion, like the Big Bang, keeps expanding what libraries are expected to store.
Most of us would rather not read an article or chapter on a microfilm or micro-
fiche reader. Realizing that the alternative is not having the information at all, we
adapt to microform use, at least temporarily. Over time, more microform files
will be replaced by digitized files.
Indexes on Line -- Some Full
Some vendors offer libraries limited access to their online databases at a reduced
Text
rate. For instance, students can use Lexis-Nexis or Dow Jones News Retrieval
free in many university libraries (the library pays the subscription fee) because
the vendor knows that many students will want to continue using an information
service after graduation Some graduates will subscribe themselves or induce their
organizations to subscribe.
141
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
 Lexis-Nexis is a very extensive full-text database of periodical articles. The user
interface is not yet very "friendly," and searching takes some time. (User inter-
faces of electronic products will continue to improve, however.) Lexis-Nexis can
be especially valuable if you already know about an article but cannot easily
obtain it in your own library. You might be able to look up the article in Lexis-
Nexis and get the full text.

Dow Jones News Retrieval makes available the information resources of the
large Dow Jones publishing empire. Dow Jones publishes The Wall Street Jour-
naland Barron’, to mention just two of its periodicals. Available online by dial-
in subscription, this index is revised constantly — not just weekly or quarterly.
Users can read today the headlines that will appear in tomorrow's Wall Street
Journal.
DJNR contains multiple databases. From one, a user can get, and download
to disk, the complete financial report on a publicly traded company. Files are
large, some larger than a 1.4 megabyte diskette can hold. (A user can select a
shorter version of the financial report also.) Another DJNR database contains an
index to periodical literature and the full text of articles. The index covers not
only Dow Jones' own periodicals but many other newspapers and magazines as
well.

Researching on the Almost unknown as recently as 1991, the World Wide Web has exploded as an
World Wide Web information resource. For instance, one online vendor, Amazon, offers for sale
literally millions of book titles. You can search Amazon's catalog online and
learn what books on your subject are in print and for sale. You can also access
and search the Library of Congress catalogs on line.
A business researcher cannot rely on the Web as his only source of business
information. You can locate some research sources on the Web, but knowing
how to use a library is still essential. Although many highly reliable vendors offer
access to information online, what they offer is necessarily limited. Gathering in-
formation costs money; not all of it can be free; and the people who put the in-
formation on line must be paid for it in some form.

The Los Angeles Times places its huge database of article titles on line, where
users can search it at http://www.latimes.com. However, to obtain the actual ar-
ticles on line, the user must select and order them and pay a fee. To get the arti-
cle free, a person might look in a library's microfilm file of the Los Angeles
Times or look for the article in Lexis-Nexis.
Business Week places the full text of its current week's issue on line at
http://Awww.businessweek.com. and allows users to search its archives. So does
Forbes, at http://www.forbes.com. They gain goodwill by doing this, but also,
many business persons subscribe to this weekly news magazine after the online
version shows them its value to them.
Many Web pages are "brand-name sources." That is, they come from known,
trusted sources, such as the Library of Congress, Fortune magazine, or the Los
Angeles Times or the Wall Street Journal. With reputations to uphold, these are
unlikely to publish unreliable information.

142
Chapter 5
Anyone can put material on the Web, though. There are no controls or stan- The Downside of the
dards. You will find pages of fun-and-games nonsense, gossip, hoaxes, malicious Web
and even slanderous material, and pure speculation masquerading as fact. Any
nutcase with a keyboard and a modem can have a Web page. Quality ranges
from superb to contemptible, and the page's appearance is not a sound basis on
which to judge. Some pages are low-budget but filled with carefully collected,
reliable information. Some others look gorgeous but offer misleading, incom-
plete, even very harmful matenal.

When we use college libraries for research, we have the advantage of the librari-
ans’ informed acquisition practices. Part of a librarian's job is to screen out unre-
liable material. On the Web, we're on our own. Watch out for one-sided presen-
tations, appeals to bias, flattery of the reader or assumed similarity between
reader and author, inflammatory language, insinuation, evasion of important
aspects of things, oversimplification, and the other ways people sometimes try to
hustle others.

EXHIBIT 5-1 Qualifying a Web Source

Qualifying a Web Source

How do you protect yourself from believing as fact something that is untrustworthy? As you surf the Web, keep a skeptical
Walls,
outlook and consider some of the questions listed below, adapted from "Evaluation of a Web Page," by Francine
presented at the Syllabus 97 Conference on Technology in Education, July 1997.

changed from
Walls notes that "the Web is often used as a personal soapbox and that data and other information may be easily
enough in a form like the
their original source. Even quite bizarre statements can gain false credibility if they are repeated often
Internet.”

The qualifying questions:

4. Is this an organizational or a personal page? [Have you ever heard of it/him/her?]

number, and e-mail address?
2. __|s the individual or organization clearly identified? Is there a name, mailing address, phone
and/or goals of the organizati on clear? Was thereafairly straightfor ward path tothis
3. If an organization, is the mission
page?
What are the qualifications of the author of the page?
ntly?
Are the sources of factual information listed? That is, can they be verified independe
If data are presented, is it clear how they were collected?
currency?
Are data in tables and graphs labeled and easy to read? Is there a date to indicate
informati on?
If there are ads, are they clearly differentiated from non-ad text and
Are there other indications that
DB
ONOA>Are there dates to indicate when the page was last updated? When the page was written?
the information is kept current?
may be used by others? If the material is
40. |s the name of the copyright holder given? Is there information on how the page
out of copyright, has it been updated?
citation so that you can check the original?
11. If the material is from a printed source, do they give you the complete
the claim(s) being made and using the information on
Having answered the above list of questions, do you feel safe in accepting
on from the Web, you stake YOUR reputation on
the page? Do you feel sure you aren't being suckered? When you use informati
its reliability.

143
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
Quoting, Given that you can photocopy a printed page exactly, can print out a biblio-
Paraphrasing, Citing, graphic citation exactly from a database, and can even download a set of finan-
cial information from a compact disk onto your own disk, no errors should ever
and Documenting
enter quoted material. They do, though. The computers and copier do not
make the errors. The humans do. Every time a human researcher transfers a
piece of information, error is possible. When the human researcher is juggling
many other responsibilities and has not left enough to time to do the research
task carefully, errors are virtually certain.

A researcher's responsibility is to check, double-check, and triple-check his or

Accuracy
her material for errors. Indeed, manuscripts for books like this one are checked
many times for accuracy; yet it's a rare book that contains no errors at all.
When you are using other writers’ thoughts and words, your obligations be-
come even more critical. Scholars - researchers and writers - have generated a
set of rules for treating material by other authors. We must adhere to them;
writers who do not do so get a bad reputation. The correct practices are not dif-
ficult, but they require an attention to detail that does not appeal to people who
are in a hurry.

Quoting When you quote anything word for word, enclose the material within quotation
marks. Cite the source. Quotations must be exact, right down to the last com-
ma and capital letter. Bibliographic data must be correct, complete, and correct-
ly formatted.

Paraphrasing Paraphrasing is putting another's idea in your own words. Most of the time,
paraphrasing requires you to cite the source. You need not document the
source under the following conditions:

If the material is common to many different sources. When the New

York Times "breaks" a story, writers at first attribute the facts to that source.
But after a story has developed and been carried by many other
periodicals, the researcher does not have to trace it back to the New York
Times - though it is good practice to offer your readers the source you
used, so that they can learn more about what you are telling them.

If the material is basic information within a given discipline. For

instance, virtually all marketing textbooks refer to the marketing mix
variables of product, promotion, price, and place. The first time a reader
comes across these terms he may think he needs to document them.
Researchers, however, need to read enough to know what is and is not
basic to the discipline in which they are working.

If the material 1s a matter of public record. You need not document,

for instance, the president's birth date, the Dow-Jones Industrial Average
close on any given day, or the conviction record of Ivan Boesky.

When in doubt, DO cite. If you have written well, you will often interest
readers in learning more about the topic, and they will appreciate your con-
siderately offering them your sources. In the cases where citation is required, do
it meticulously. Do not take chances on an issue so important to your integrity.
144 Chapter 5
Plagiarism is an offense against good ethics. Writers plagiarize when they Avoiding Plagiarism
quote word for word or nearly so, and fail to give credit, or when they use
the ideas of others and fail to give credit. They plagiarize when they take
the thoughts, words, or ideas of another and pass them off as their own.
Sometimes they do not understand good practice sufficiently. Sometimes they
understand but are careless. Sometimes they intend fraud and believe their
cheating will go undetected. In an imperfect world, sometimes it does.
When plagiarism is discovered, those who depend on researchers’ honesty
feel betrayed and outraged. Researchers build on the work of other researchers.
They wonder, if they cannot trust scholars and researchers, whether they can
trust anyone at all. When a case of scholarly dishonesty hits the mass media, the
researcher's reputation is tainted for the rest of his or her life. The research it-
self becomes suspect and the public views the researcher's institution in a bad
light as well.
‘The more prominent the cheater, the bigger the mess. A United States Con-
gressman, Joe Biden, borrowed from earlier famous speakers in his speeches
without giving credit. Writer Gregg Easterbrook, in describing his own feelings
at having his work plagiarized, offered a depressing series of comparable inci-
dents. One involved a dean at a prominent eastern university who made a com-
mencement address chunks of which he lifted from an essay by a film cnitic. In
the other, a professor at a western state university published a textbook that
contained an entire chapter copied from another person's book’. A former
colleague of Gilsdorf was appalled to find one of his own published articles re-
published with a stranger’s name on it in another journal.
Plagiarism should not occur at all. The fact that some whose conduct should
be exemplary are guilty does not make it defensible.

Documenting meticulously is not hard. As you search, keep a record of what Following Good
you found and where you found it. As you take notes, mark all word-for-word Scholarly Practice
material with quotation marks. Paraphrase liberally, but write down the source.
On each photocopy, write complete, accurate bibliographic information. As you
gather information from a computer source, note its sources — on the diskette, if
possible. If you forget and find yourself with a quotable paragraph the source of
which you have lost, do not be tempted. Retrace your library steps, relocate it,
and document it — or do not use it.

Let's examine paraphrasing more closely. Suppose you are reading a source and
wish to use some of the content. The material is common knowledge in the
discipline, but it is especially well presented. Just how much must you change a
text before it is "in your own words"? The answer is, quite a bit. Inexperienced or
disaster-prone writers change just a few words -let's say, present tense verbs to
past tense verbs, a couple of synonyms, and the introduction to a sentence. Is
this "their own words"? Jt is not. The more interesting the wording is, the more
tempted a writer might be to claim it. But clever wording tends to be memorable
wording, and the plagiarizer is just that much more likely to be found out.

*Gregg Easterbrook, “The Sincerest Flattery,” Newsweek, July 29, 1991, p. 45.

145
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
Paraphrasing — The Let's say you want to paraphrase, but not quote, and you want to give credit.
Right Way How do you give credit when you use another source's paraphrased ideas within
a discussion of your own? Where do you put the citation? How do you keep it
from becoming awkward? The example below shows original text and a portion
of a discussion referring to and paraphrasing, but not quoting, the original text.
The material at right is
exactly like its source Original text:
except for the third last
line. The dots (called “Employees and lower-level managers must not only see a reasonable
ellipses) signify that relationship between pay and position; they must also see a relationship
words have been omitted. between effort and results. If the old adage ‘It doesn't matter how hard you
work, everyone gets paid the same’ is true, then naturally the workers
wonder, why work hard? Incentives to encourage people to work more
helps hold down wages, benefits, and compensation costs. In Japan workers
(Denton, 1991, p. 46) is an in-text receive about 25 percent of their total pay in the form of flexible bonuses.
parenthetical reference. It refers In America, the average is still only 1 percent....If nearly half our workers
the reader to a bibliographic entry believe there is no relationship between pay and efforts, we have a serious
at the end of the report. credibility problem” (Denton, 1991, p. 46).

Paraphrased text in a discussion of motivation:

The material at right makes Among those who disagree with Herzberg's insistence that money is not a
references to D. K. Denton’s
positive motivator is D. K. Denton (1991), who criticizes sharply American
work but integrates it with
other material being industry's neglect of flexible pay as an influence on productivity. He notes
discussed. You can recognize that Japanese workers realize about 25 percent of their total pay in
the ideas, but they are not performance-dependent bonuses, whereas in America the percent of wages
even close to word-for-word. dependent upon performance averages only 1 percent. Denton argues that
Denton still “owns” the ideas, when workers see no link between performance and pay, management loses
though, so he is referenced. credibility. (p. 46)

Herzberg's work on motivators and dissatisfiers is basic to management theory,

though good practice still usually attaches his name to these influential ideas.
Denton's ideas are attributed carefully. At first mention of his name, the in-text
date citation references his work, full bibliographic details of which are given in a
reference list at the end of the user's paper on motivation. Wording ("He notes,"
"Denton argues") clarifies the continued dependence on Denton's work, and the
page reference at the paragraph's end completes the reference. The wniter cites
Denton according to good practice but does not let the referencing task become
distracting.

The parenthetical notes seen in both the indented paragraphs refer to the full
bibliographic entry that would be given in the alphabetized list of sources after
the conclusion of the paper. Using APA style, the item would say,

Denton, D. K. (1991, September-October) What's wrong with these

employees? Business Horizons, 34(5), 45-49.

Three Citation We document each source in a note (footnote, endnote, or in-text note) and
aystems again in a bibliographic reference at the end of the report.

146 Chapter 5
 Researchers use one of three common citation systems. Scholars in the hu-
manities use MLA (Modern Language Association) style or University of Chi-
cago style, sometimes called Turabian after the scholar who codified this style.
Business and the social sciences more often use APA (American Psychological
Association) style. See Appendix C for more information.

In research papers for other classes, teachers may have asked you to use in-text Parenthetical In-Text
reference notes, or footnotes, orendnotes. An in-text reference appears in pa- Referencing
rentheses within your discussion. A footnote goes at the bottom of the page
where you reference a source. An endnote goes on a list with all other end-
notes on a separate page or pages at the report's end, immediately preceding the
bibliography. Your instructor for this class will specify which form of source-
noting to use.
Because most business report readers find formal footnotes distracting, we
recommend in-text parenthetical referencing, which all three style manuals now
endorse as an alternative to formal footnotes or endnotes.
This time- and trouble-saving method frees you of the more burdensome
aspects of source-noting and causes little distraction to business readers. The
source-note itself is shortened, and you do not have to allow it room at the
bottom of a page or at the end of the report.
Instead, as you quote or paraphrase a secondary source in your text, you
open a parenthesis and give very brief data that refers the reader to your alpha-
betized bibliographic list at the end. Close the parenthesis and go right on with
are
your discussion. In the parenthesis, depending on which style manual you
some combinati on of author's last name, the date of
following, you will give
publication, and the page or pages where the referenced material can be found.
You are of course free to mention the author’s name in your discussion text.
useful.
You can give any information in your discussion that the reader will find
name, for example - does not
Any element mentioned in your text - the author’s
note (APA style here) could say
need to appear in the parenthetical note. Your
and year in the text,
(Mulholland, 1998, p. 302) or, if you have named author
the in-text reference note need say only (p. 302).
separate page The Bibliography
The bibliography isalist of all the sources you used. It occupies a
name of author
or pages at the end of the paper. Alphabetize the list by last
listed are alpha-
(first author, if there are two or more). /tems with no author
betized by the first important word of the ttle.
list. “Works
Three different names might be chosen for the bibliography
s only the works you quoted or paraphrased
Cited” indicates that the list contain
is more inclusiv e, contain ing all cited works,
in the paper. “Works Consulted”
from but did not cite. For instance, if
but also any sources you read and learned
ry backgr ound for underst anding
one or more sources provided you with necessa
ed.” Your teacher may prefer
your topic, you would list them in “Works Consult
replace either of these titles.
that you name the list “Bibliography, ” which can
ve page numbers
In a bibliography citation for a periodical article, give inclusi
zn your discussion,
for the whole article. Where you cite and note the article
reference just the page or pages you are citing.
es of bibliographic
Appendix C of this textbook discusses and gives exampl
Your instructor will tell
and reference-note entries for all three of these styles.
you which to use.
147
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
Consistency in If your teacher has no preference and you do the choosing, remember that you
Documentation Style must be consistent. Consistency is not as automatic as it might seem. Works
that you cite may follow different styles and thus be inconsistent with one anoth-
er and with whatever style you have chosen. Your library indexes or your source
works might follow none of the three best-known styles. Abbreviations, for
instance, might be non-standard. Or titles that your style manual says must be
sentence-style (only the first word of the title and the first word after an internal
colon are capitalized) might be head/ine-style (all important words in the title
are capitalized) in the index or published text.
Do not bring their style inconsistencies into your paper. You must
make the necessary changes so that all your references and bibliographic entries
follow the style that governs your paper.

Defining Your In this or a similar class, your instructor is likely to ask you to research a problem
Research Problem and report on your findings. Some instructors assign a problem; some permit
students to select their own.
Suppose you are asked to choose your own topic. Here are some factors to
guide you toward a researchable topic. The criteria may operate differently de-
pending on whether your assignment involves secondary or primary research.
Using Selection Your topic must be
Criteria
¢ of appropriate size and e one for which you have sufficient
complexity _ time, money, mobility, and skill
e useful to business e one which you can
e onginal approach objectively
¢ narrow but not trivial e one for which an answer
e treatable by objective means can be found
rather than by value judgments

A newcomer to any field will

need to do preliminary reading
in the field’s hterature before
choosing a topic. A typical re-
search problem shows only a
small portion of itself at first,
with the main bulk of the prob-
lem, like 80 percent of an ice-
berg, hidden. Most topics at first
look smaller and more manage-
able than they are.

Answers to some questions are

beyond the reach of students
and, indeed, of all but the most
resource-laden researchers.

EXHIBIT 5-2 New Topics Are Mostly

Hidden, Like Icebergs
148 Chapter 5
Nonbusiness questions are often fascinating but not worth enough to business or
business researchers to justify investing resources in them. For instance, topics
like competitive diving, rockhounding, or figurine collecting may have business
aspects, but those aspects are few and probably not well covered in business
periodicals.

Objectivity characterizes good business research. Often, a student researcher

argues strenuously to be allowed to pursue a topic about which he or she cannot
be objective. A student who volunteers his weekends to work among the home-
less probably should not investigate the attitudes of store owners on streets
where the homeless congregate.

Your first choice of topic will almost certainly be too broad, as was this first draft Narrowing the Focus
of a student’s research problem.

I propose to discuss entrepreneurship and all of its ramifications in the

United States economy.

From further reading and discussion, this student learned how many sub-
problems this main problem would encompass.
Definition is the first difficulty. What is entrepreneurship? What kinds of
activities does it include and exclude? Can entrepreneurship exist within a large
corporation? A not-for-profit organization? Will the paper include the forms of
entrepreneurship practiced in cultures very unlike that of mainstream America?
Can barter systems support entrepreneurship? Do independent entrepreneurs
face problems different from those of franchise-holders? “All of its ramifications
in the United States economy” contains a bewildering array of possibilities.
Entrepreneurship has affected geographic population shifts, upward social
mobility, prosperity cycles, federal monetary policy, bankruptcy practices, and
the national debt, just to name a few.
A business researcher must explicitly say in her scope statement what she
must
will and will not cover. Whatever the title implies that 1s not excluded
not meeting those
be covered in depth. The reader will expect it, and a report
expectations is likely to appear shallow.
cer-
“Small business” is easier to define than “entrepreneurship.” It implies
both by
tain limits on size. Much research has been published on small business
business es ac-
private and by government researchers. Notably, because small
ge of the Gross National Product, the governm ent ac-
count for a large percenta
the narrower (but
cumulates figures on small-business failures. Zeroing in on
er might draft this
still broad) topic of small-business failures, a student research
research problem:

Which ones can

When small businesses fail, what are the main reasons?
which factors,
the business person control? This paper will attempt to learn
by the small-b usiness
in the opinion of experts, can be influenced most
person's own planning and information gathering.

may concentrate the

This topic is probably still too broad. Further reading
ation or just the prob-
researcher’s interest on just the problem of undercapitaliz
’s topic becomes:
lem of selecting a location for the business. The student
149
Secondary Research for Business Reporting
 In what ways have the sources of capital for small-business start-ups changed
between 1988 and 1998?

di-
The researcher’s extra reading on broader aspects of her topic, though not
rectly applicable to the paper she will write, will make her more confident and
credible in writing about her narrowed topic.

This chapter discussed conducting secondary research leading to a formal report

REVIEW
intended to solve a business problem. Persons doing secondary research system-
atically gather information collected and published by others. Primary research-
ers generate through their own efforts data that did not exist before. An impartial
attitude must govern every phase of data gathering and report preparation.
This chapter explored a typical business research case and differentiated
between business reports and those done in other disciplines.
Most secondary research is performed in libraries, where a wide variety of in-
formation is offered in both familiar and new forms. Increasingly, information
and indexing are becoming available online. Research skills developed now will
be useful throughout a business career. To best use libraries’ considerable re-
sources, researchers must learn what their libraries hold, tap into the informa-
tion finding tools, and plan and follow a thorough research strategy. Though not
all college and university libraries have all the same reference tools, Chapter 5
covered resources typical of many.
Researchers must handle secondary information with integrity, quoting, cit-
ing, and documenting meticulously and using consistently a recognized docu-
mentation style. Guidelines for paraphrasing were given.
Means of defining and narrowing a suitable secondary research topic were
discussed.

150 Chapter 5
 APPLICATION EXERCISES
What is the definition of a business report? published for nonacademic business readers,
Why is objectivity important in business research, typically take a practical approach in their articles.
and why is it so difficult to achieve? They often “translate” the latest in the highly
Explain the distinction between primary and specialized academic journals to make it accessible
secondary business research. to less specialized readers.
Explain this statement: “Library research conducted Revise your list, dividing the periodicals you
to solve a business problem must be systematic.” examined into “scholarly” and “‘practitioner/trade.’ ’
What resources fall into the category of Bring the list to class for discussion or for handing
“periodicals”? in, as your instructor directs.
Under what circumstances are you permitted to use In the library, as you read current issues of the
information without citing the source from which periodicals in your chosen major, make alist of
you obtained it? “hot topics” in your business discipline. Which
Carefully define paraphrase and plagiarize. topics are new? Which are being explored most
In the library, look in the catalog or serials list to vigorously? Which are controversial? In which
find out what periodicals your library carries in your areas have genuinely new discoveries been made?
chosen major. Make alist. Bring the list to class for discussion or for handing
Examine current issues of each periodical you in, as your instructor directs.
listed. Notice the difference between scholarly and . Select a business topic that you are curious about
practitioner, or trade, periodicals. Scholarly and would like to research in the library. Try to
journals publish very narrowly focused and narrow down your topic. Briefly write out your idea
exhaustive academic research. Articles in these for your instructor. Based on his or her feedback,
journals have dozens or even hundreds of write a proposal to perform research.
bibliographic references each. Other periodicals,

CASES
Explore a Report Topic: Health Care. Even opinions on the probable costs and benefits to
with the government’s intention to require health- businesses of implementing a family leave policy.
care coverage for all Americans, most workers will Explore a Report Topic: Business Ethics
still have to make some decisions of their own Training. What are businesses doing to promote
about the type of health coverage to get. The broad ethical conduct among their managers and
choice is between a health maintenance employees? Do they offer awareness training Do
organization (HMO) and an indemnity, or fee-for- they institute explicit policies with penalties’? Do
service, plan. What kinds of workers (income, they rely on people’s own decency? Have they found
socioeconomic level, age, and so on) choose which innovative ways to promote ethics? Do they do
kind of plan? What criteria govern their choice? nothing at all? Examine the literature on this
Explore a Report Topic: Virtual Reality subject.
in Business. Which applications of virtual Explore a Report Topic: Employing
reality are businesses most likely to use in the next Persons with Disabilities. Full employment
decade? Investigate the meaning of this term, is a goal of a productive nation, and great strides
explore what this technology offers, and read the have been made in employing persons with
opinions of various experts on the feasibility of its disabilities. Examine the literature on the
various business applications. Americans with Disabilities Act. What additional
Explore a Report Topic: Family Leave information published recently by the government
Policies. Family-leave policies are much in the and in business periodicals can you locate about
news. Employees often have dependents, either employing persons with disabilities?
children or elderly parents, who at times require Explore a Report Topic: Operating a Pro
employees to miss work to care for them. Many are Sports Team. What has been written about the
calling on businesses to make provisions for family business of operating professional sports teams?
leave in these situations. However, many Owners and managers must consider salary structure,
businesses believe such a policy will be all cost and sources of profit and loss, costs of
no benefit. Is this a valid point? Explore experts’

Secondary Research for Business Reporting 151

 litigation, and other financial matters that create about the dimensions of this problem and what
risks and benefits in the pro sports industry. Locate solutions are being proposed.
and read articles and books that have explored this Explore a Report Topic: Labor-
subject. Management Cooperation in the Big
Explore a Report Topic: Controlling Three. What changes have occurred in the last 20
Employee Theft. One of the greatest threats to years in the way the Big Three U.S. automakers have
businesses is employee theft. Businesses must pass dealt with unions? Faced with the threat of
on to legitimate customers the cost of “shrinkage,” competition from abroad, in what ways have
the amount of product that disappears and is never management and unions cooperated? In the literature
accounted for—and the amount is staggering. What you read about this subject, trace the evolution of
means do businesses have to fight employee theft? the relationship between automaker unions and
Which are most effective? Gather and read periodical management.
articles on this subject. 10. Explore a Report Topic: Business
Explore a Report Topic: Markets for Support for Schools. Businesses in the United
Recycled Material. Most people approve of States voluntarily help out educational institutions.
recycling in principle, and most enthusiastically They donate money or goods such as computers or
join in recycling efforts. Some studies, however, are furniture, and they institute cooperative training
now showing that a heavy proportion of recycled programs such as internships. Examine articles on
material has a limited market. Some recycled this subject. In what other ways do businesses help
material costs more to gather, sort, and transport educational institutions? What benefits do they gain
than it will sell for. Read periodical articles to learn by their efforts and contributions?

152 Chapter Five

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(Chapter Sti

F*imary Reseach for

Business Reporting
This chapter describes two important means of gathering primary data:
observational research and survey research. You will acquire a working knowledge
of how to perform research using these two methods. Also, knowing the uses of
these methods will make you a more knowledgeable.
This chapter describes two
important means of gathering primary data: observational research and user of
research data generated by others.

155
PRIMARY DATA The problem solver in the opening profile is considering a simple observa-
tional research project. He will gather primary data. Researchers perform pri-
GATHERING mary research when they generate data that did not exist in any published
form before. Observational, survey, and experimental research, the three main
forms of primary research, can all generate projects ranging from simple to
very complex. Some research problems require a combination of these pri-
mary research methods.
Observational research obtains Observational research consists.of recording the data that researchers
and analyzes data that can be can perceive through their five senses or through a machine or device enhanc-
perceived by the human senses
or by devices that enhance ing what those five senses can do. Researchers generally construct an instru-
perception. ment—a checklist or counting device—that permits them to conserve their
available time, that is, to spend maximum time perceiving and minimum time
recording. Researchers do not interact with those being observed. In fact, the
more unobtrusive they are, the more likely they are to obtain undistorted data.
They simply record what they are able to perceive from outside.
In survey research, sometimes called normative research, researchers
Survey research obtains interact with the persons about whom they are collecting data. Researchers
information using construct a questionnaire or opinionnaire and administer it to their target au-
questionnaires or opinionnaires
administered by mail, by phone, dience. They take care not to influence or predispose the responses in any way.
or in person. In experimental research, researchers set up carefully controlled condi-
While observational and survey tions in which they create one change and measure the effect of that change
research do not change on someone or something else. (Experimental research is beyond this book’s
anything in what they measure,
experimental research changes scope.)
something and then measures On average, observational research is cheaper than survey research, and
the effect of the change. survey research is cheaper than experimental research. Common sense coun-
sels researchers to use the least expensive means to gain the information
needed. For instance, do not send out a questionnaire if you can get what you
need from an observation or from secondary sources.

156 Chapter Six

 All primary research methods require systematic and meticulous planning.
The most challenging part of the planning is figuring out what can go wrong
and preventing it. “If anything can go wrong, it will go wrong, and at the worst
possible time,” says Murphy’s Law. Successful primary researchers are on con-
stant alert for Murphy’s evil influence.
Designing any of the three types of research projects requires many steps.
Each phase of the plan requires the researcher to consider what will happen in
every other phase. For instance, a researcher must plan in detail how data will
be treated even while designing a questionnaire. If the researcher does not
plan, the data obtained may be wonderfully interesting but impossible to an-
alyze statistically. In many cases of business research, statistical analysis is
required to turn data into useful information.
All three research types use terms like variable, valid, and reliable. A
variable is anything whose changes are of interest and can be measured and A variable is anything a
researcher can measure and
recorded. The volume of a chemical compound, the number of people who record.
pass a given corner on a given day, and the speed of a racehorse could all be
variables.

The words valid and reliable carry particular meanings when researchers use VALIDITY AND
them. We say data are valid when the researchers actually measure what they RELIABILITY
intend to measure. We say data are reliable when the results are accurate and
would be reproducible if the data gathering were repeated using the same Valid research measures what it
sets out to measure.
means.
Reliable research measures
In some research projects, validity might not present a problem. To take a accurately and reproducibly.
simple example, suppose you want to know how much rain falls between
midnight November 3 and midnight November 4. You would place a narrow,
straight-sided container out in the open, away from trees, buildings, or other
shelter. You would bar pranksters and thirsty creatures. If the rain gauge was
empty at midnight November 3, it rained overnight, and you found an inch of
rain at midnight November 4, you can validly say an inch of rain has fallen.
Sometimes researchers have to measure a variable that they can measure
and use it as a fairly good reading on a similar variable that they cannot
measure. Children’s intelligence tests make a good example. Experts have
worked for decades to perfect intelligence tests, but even the test makers
acknowledge that these devices have had shortcomings. Intelligence is invis-
ible, an internal, mental construct measurable only through what can be seen
on the outside. To add to the problem, over a hundred different types of
human ability compose what we call “intelligence,” and the most familiar
pencil-and-paper intelligence tests measure only a handful of those. How, for
example, do we measure the component of intelligence called intuition? For
is.
the most part, we don’t measure it. We don’t even know exactly what it
To ensure or improve validity, researchers have to recognize where the
problems may lie. For many years, intelligence tests were constructed using
the background knowledge and vocabulary of the average middle-class Cau-
casian child. For all those years, the intelligence of children who did not fitthis
category was mismeasured. Their brains could perform the tasks just as well,
of the
on average, as those of the “average” children, but they lacked some
the test
verbal symbols needed to understand the question, problem, or task on
response. The tests “showed” that they were less intel-
and to formulate their
was unintenti onally built into the tests. The tests were
ligent because bias
measured
thought to measure the ability to use verbal symbols, but they
something else instead: the knowledg e of a certain set of verbal symbols.
157
Primary Research for Business Reporting
 BENT OFFERINGS By Don Addis

W THE SURFACE OF

I STRIKINGLY SIMILAR
To THAT OF OUR
PLANET...

BENT OFFERINGS by Don Addis. By permission of Don Addis and Creators

Syndicate,

This astronomer’s conclusions are not valid. He is not

measuring what he thinks he is measuring. Still, since
his instrument is faulty, he will obtain the same results
each time he tries.

Test developers gradually came to understand this error and have worked
to improve the tests’ validity, that is, their ability to measure in actuality what
they set out to measure. Today’s tests are much freer of bias, but we still have
the problem of measuring an intangible using only what can be seen from the
outside. The results of the tests are useful, but teachers and administrators use
them with caution, remaining alert for signs of intellect and talent that the tests
might fail to measure.
Now consider intelligence tests in the context of reliability. The tests are
reliable in that the same test given to the same group of children will generate
the same results. Insofar as they are able to measure, they measure accurately
and reproducibly. Reliability is not enough, however, without validity.
Data become unreliable when the means of measurement are inconsistent
from subject to subject. To use a simple example, suppose you had a 36-inch
cloth measuring tape that became half an inch longer when the weather was
humid and the fibers relaxed. Your results on a dry day would differ from those
on a damp day. Imagine the difference two dozen of these faulty tapes would
make to a small-business garment manufacturer. Garment pieces cut on
one
day could not be sewn to garment pieces cut on a different day, and thousands
of dollars in material and labor would be lost.
As another example, suppose you hire survey personnel to interview people
in a mall to measure preferences for and satisfaction with the kinds of
fast food
158 Chapter Six
offered in the mall’s food plaza. The majority of your interviewers are mothers
of young school-age children interested in a few hours of part-time work
during school hours.
Now think about what different groups of people spend money on in mall
food plazas. What if, despite the training they received, the interviewers are
hesitant to approach certain groups of shoppers? The junior-high kids who eat
there during the school lunch break will be wearing whatever bizarre clothing
and hairstyle is current, may talk too loudly on subjects the moms hope their
children don’t think about yet, and may in fact represent the moms’ worst
nightmares about what their kids will be like in four years.
Suppose the interviewers avoid approaching these youngsters or approach
them timidly or in an authoritarian way (“I know what you’re supposed to
eat!”).If one or more of your interviewers avoid these young people, they will
be underrepresented in your study. If the interviewers do not make it easy for
the young people to talk to them, the youngsters’ responses, and any resulting
data on their preferences, may be distorted or lacking. The findings from your
carefully structured questions may not be reliable, that is, not accurate or
reproducible.
Questions about validity and reliability enter all kinds of research, but es-
pecially that done by primary research means. Let’s look at those methods
separately.

Imagine for a moment that you are a marketer. What kinds of data about target ()BSERV ATIONAL
markets might you want to observe? You would like to know which people buy RESEARCH
what products in what quantities. You couid, of course, send out a survey and
ask them, but that would be costly and slow. Also, people tend to claim that
they buy classier products than they actually do buy.
You could stand near the cash register with a long checklist and mark it
each time a customer buys a product in which you are interested, but that is
hopelessly inefficient. Consider, though, that many grocery chains now use
optical scanners at the cash registers. Though we may not have thought about
them in this way, creative thinkers have set those computer-linked scanners up
to perform a systematic observation. The computer records the quantity of
each product in inventory and, via scanner, records each item sold. As it counts
items, it provides observational data in which marketers are keenly interested.
They can compare data on products ordered and sold at stores in different
s
neighborhoods, each of a known socioeconomic level, and draw inference
about which stock items are profitable in which neighborhoods.
The scanner is an enhancement of human beings’ five senses. Some much
re-
simpler observations use only human eyes and ears. An observational
count the
searcher might stand near a new-product display in a video store,
passersby who look at the display, and perhaps time the length of their gaze.
ating a
Results could be compared with data from an observation incorpor
to docu-
different type of display. Another project might require an observer
nt, to
ment walking patterns of shoppers ina large store’s cosmetics departme
shoppers
create a basis for rearranging counters in that department to slow the
down and cause them to look directly at more products.
Observation can include seeing,
Not all observational research involves watching people. Much can be
learned just by looking at places where people have been. For instance, the SE eee
of while something is happening
placement of chairs in a room after a meeting might suggest one kind
left _ or after it has occurred.
meeting if chairs were left in a rough circle and another kind if chairs were
tell us what
in rows facing the front. Empty food containers people threw away
Primary Research for Business Reporting 159
 they consumed. Direct-mail pieces discarded unopened tell us what the people
did not read.

Planning Researchers don’t just walk to a site and say, “I think I'll collect some data
here.” As in all other useful research, observational researchers decide on their
objective and plan the observation to reach it. They find out what they are
likely to see, what it means when they see it, how they will know for certain
when they see it, and what counts and what does not.
They create an instrument—a checklist, for example—for recording what
they observe. They test it extensively, because if the instrument is flawed, the
data are unlikely to be useful.

Pilot Testing Researchers try out their instruments in a situation as similar as possible to the
You pilot-test an instrument by one in which they will actually gather their data. This process is called pilot
trying it out in an environment testing the instrument. Most problems with the instrument will show up in
or with subjects like those you this way. If problems are few and minor, the researchers revise the instrument
want to measure.
and proceed with data gathering. If many and/or serious problems appear, the
researchers revise extensively, repeat the pilot-testing step, and perhaps revise
again before using the instrument in the actual research situation.

A Simple Observational Sales are sharply down in one district of a medium-size software company. The
Research Case six district sales reps have been complaining that their strategy meetings are a
waste of time. Turnover has been high; four of the six reps have spent fewer
than seven months in this job. Farley, their manager, who sits in on most
meetings but does not run them, has given them positive pep talks and nega-
tive chewing-outs, but sales have improved only minimally. Each week Farley
and one rep (reps chair the meetings on a revolving basis)make and distribute
an agenda, but the meetings generate little in the way of either ideas or
motivation.
Farley wishes the reps had all turned over. He believes the two longer-term
reps, Ferraro and Teague, are troublemakers and hotshots. Farley’s boss, Kup-
man, is not so sure. He thinks Farley is overvaluing the newcomers. With sales
so poor, he feels they have yet to prove themselves, whereas the other two
were contributing when sales were strong. He also thinks the dynamics of their
meetings should be examined. Kupman and Farley finally agree that more
information is needed and an impartial third party should gather it. The reps
agree that the meetings need attention; everybody wants to see sales where
they should be.
Kupman and Farley ask Morrisey, the human resources manager, to meet
with the two of them. Morrisey does so, bringing along a number of articles on
meetings. After discussing topics from the articles, they decide the research
question is “What behaviors in these meetings are robbing the meetings of
their productivity?”
Morrisey attends the sales reps’ Monday strategy meeting as an observer,
simply to see what there is to see. After being told that Morrisey is there to
observe and “give us some tips,” the reps welcome him. They feel a little
self-conscious at first but then get down to business. Morrisey takes some
semistructured notes and audiotapes the meeting. He studies the notes and
tape and reviews the literature on meeting behavior. Then Kupman, Farley, and
Morrisey meet to draft a grid-style checksheet with a variety of meeting be-

160 ; Chapter Six

|Q@xuir 6—1 Sample Observation Instrument |
Observation Instrument— Meeting Behaviors

Sales Strategy Meeting Date

Pennell Schwartz Ferraro Lorimer Teague Chavez

Positive

Initiate new idea

Support previous
Expand previous
Critique previous
Ask factual question
Request clarification
Inject positive humor
Ask consensus

Facilitate flow

Unclassifiable positive
Negative
Move off subject
Obstruct

Inject negative humor

Attack

haviors down the left margin and the six reps’ names at the heads of the
columns across the top.
At the next Monday meeting, Morrisey sits in and makes atrial observation
using the checksheet. By now the reps are used to having him there. After this
meeting, Morrisey adds two categories to the checksheet and enlarges the
boxes on the grid for the behaviors that might be expected to occur more
frequently.
Having sat in on two meetings, Morrisey has decided how he will classify
such things as one-syllable comments (““Yeah?” “Yeah!” or “We-e-e-ell”). Now
he can begin the actual observation. The reps do not change their behavior;
they thought he was doing the observation all along. Morrisey formally ob-
he .
serves two of the strategy meetings. After doing so, he feels confident that
has good information. He examines his category counts for each of the six reps
and draws some inferences.
them
When he meets with Kupman and Farley, he makes an oral report to
clearly
with several recommendations. The counts of his checkmarks show

Primary Research for Business Reporting 161

 that Farley is right about Teague but wrong about Ferraro. Teague’s contribu-
tions to the meeting, though made ina kind, sincere tone, are negative four out
of five times. His comments do not fit in the “attack” or “ridicule” categories,
nor does he critique constructively. Instead, he obstructs. In one meeting,
Morrisey documented eight ideas whose promise was never explored because
Teague’s “It won’t work; trust me; I’ve been here longer” attitude discouraged
the idea’s author. Amid the other reps’ comments, Teague’s defeatist com-
ments were not recognized for what they were. Neither Teague nor the other
reps realized he was such a “wet blanket.”
Morrisey makes some other suggestions. Three newcomers need encour-
agement; in contrast, Schwartz should be counseled to rein in her high spirits.
A little positive humor goes a long way, but Schwartz should hone her comedy
club skills on her own time. Finally, Morrisey recommends the use of a training
video on facilitating meetings. The agendas are good, he says, and so is the
practice of rotating the chair. He offers to repeat the observation in three
months.
He might not need to do so. In general, organization members want to
support the group’s objectives. In this case, having an impartial outsider
present the results of observational research might solve the problem.

SURVEY RESEARCH Survey research moves beyond what the senses can perceive through obser-
vation. A survey is the process of systematically asking a limited group of
persons to respond to the same set of questions or opinion items. The instru-
ment used is called a questionnaire or opinionnaire. Typically researchers
draft the instrument after careful study of their own topic and other survey
instruments, revise it, subject it to one or more pilot tests, and revise it further
before administering it to their target audience.
Sometimes researchers want to gather facts about a large group, called a
A population is an entire large population. When they obtain those facts from every member of that group,
group in which a researcher is the work is called a census. Most often, however, their time and resources
interested.
permit gathering the facts from only a percentage of a large group. When they
proceed in this way, we say they use a sample.
Like survey research, observational research and experimental research can
employ random samples. Since survey research uses sampling most of the time,
we'll focus on sampling here.

Sampling Sampling is the process of selecting a few units from a large group, measuring
or learning something about those units, and reasoning that what is true of
those units may be true of the large group.
Samples may be random (probability)or nonrandom (nonprobability). Ran-
dom samples permit researchers to generalize their findings with greater con-
fidence to the whole of the large group sampled. Random samples also let
researchers apply a much broader range of statistical measures to their data
and draw many more inferences. We will discuss random sampling in detail
shortly. First, let’s look at some means of nonrandom sampling.

Nonrandom Samples Two common means of nonrandom sampling are the convenience sample
and the judgment sample.

162 Chapter Six

Convenience sampic. A convenience sample is a smaller, accessible group
of persons who resemble in important ways the larger population targeted.
The researchers collect data from the smaller group and cautiously draw such
inferences as they can. They can suggest that the findings probably apply to the
larger population in some useful ways, but they cannot demonstrate that they
do. When they report their findings, they do so with this disclaimer.
For instance, suppose a researcher wants to know how high school students
who can input 50 words per minute on one word processor will respond to
having to acquire the same level of word processing skill on a different com-
puter with a different operating system and program. The researcher could
argue that if he controlled for such demographics as socioeconomic level,
results of research using students in one high school could represent suffi-
ciently the results likely to be obtained if the research were repeated in other
schools with the same demographics.
Judgment sample. In using a judgment sample, researchers develop alist of
test units using their best judgment that measurements made on those units
will generate useful information about a subject they represent.
For instance, suppose a researcher wants to know CPAs’ (certified public
accountants’) opinions about a federal tax regulation limiting deductions of
business entertainment expenses. She might not need to make sure all cities
and states are represented proportionally among her interviewees. She can put
together a judgment sample of CPAs in several known locations that seem
representative to her. Even allowing for some differences in CPAs’ client en-
tertaining from state to state or city to city, the law is likely to affect them all
in much the same way. From interviewing a judgment sample of CPAs, the
researcher can obtain meaningful information about the effect of the tax reg-
ulation on CPAs. The information will not, however, be statistically represen-
they
tative. When researchers using a judgment sample report their results,
specify the nature of the sample and draw their inferences cautiously.

The principle of random sampling is this: Random Sampling

When a sample is drawn at random from alarge number of test units,

each test unit in the whole has an equal chance of being selected.
er is true of the selected test units A ee Slee a random
When the sample is truly random, whatev
: ; ; randomly, What mabon iatceree
Gerversliofgeda populati
sample and
is true of the entire number of potential test units. To sample
:
units that are the sample is likely to be true of
researchers must be able to reach every unit of a group. Any
selected. the oor group from which the
unreachable will not have the necessary equal chance of being sample came.
Population. Much business research is performed using people as test units.
blood samples
However, many other things can also be sampled. Medics draw
buyers scoop out
to test for antibodies, cholesterol, or drug residues. Grain
for moisture . Samples of swimming
samples of wheat from a carload to test
Samples of garden soil are tested
pool water are tested for acid and chlorine.
cases, we infer that
for nitrogen and other nutrients. In these random-sample
treats the whole
what is true of the test units is true of the whole. The medic
the carload, and so on.
person, the grain buyer prices and purchases
It can be the population of
A population can be a large number of people.
can also speak of the total
a city, a nation, or a special-interest group. We
tion of stray dogs.
number of stray dogs in Cuming County as a popula

163
Primary Research for Business Reporting
 If the number of test units is small, researchers can choose to test them all,
performing a census rather than taking a sample.
Typically, business researchers need to find out something about too many
people to ask them all. In those cases, they opt for a random sample.
Sampling frame. To sample a population randomly, researchers must know
the identity of and be able to reach every member of the population. In
practice, this is rarely possible. Researchers often use an existing list, available ©
from an organization or a list broker, that approximates the desired population.
This list is called a sampling frame, and a random sample is drawn from it.
For instance, researchers in business communication often wish to survey
business communication teachers. No list contains all such teachers. The mem-
bership list of the Association for Business Communication, however, contains
a substantial number of them. Let’s say the researcher is interested in the
teachers’ attitudes toward tax-supported funding for education. The researcher
must consider whether the pertinent attitudes of business communication
teachers who are members of ABC are likely to differ from those of nonmem-
bers. For the study on tax support for education, the groups are not likely to
differ much. The ABC list is probably a good sampling frame.
Homogeneous or heterogeneous population. If the population is homoge-
neous, that is, much the same in most important respects, a smaller sample
can represent it well. If the population is heterogeneous, that is, full of
variations, a larger sample is needed to assure representativeness. In the ex-
amples that follow, we’ll assume a fairly homogeneous population.

Types of Random Samples Researchers have developed many complex and highly effective types of ran-
dom sampling. Let’s look at some simple forms.
Simple random sample. In a simple random sample, the name or identity
of each member of the population is recorded on aslip of paper. All the slips
are combined and scrambled thoroughly. If the researcher wants a 10 percent
sample and there are 1,000 names, he draws 100 names. Statistically, whatever
is discovered to be true of the 100 is very likely to be true of the 1,000.
Systematic random sample. Most researchers do not use scrambled slips of
papers in selecting their samples. Rather, they simply use an alphabetized list
of the population from which they select a systematic random sample. Let’s
say the researcher has the same population as in the simple random example,
1,000. To obtain a 10 percent sample and ensure randomness, the researcher
chooses at random a number between 1 and 10. (He could do this easily with
a shuffled deck of cards or a pair of dice.) If he pulls or rolls a 4, 4 becomes his
starting point. Starting with the fourth name on the list, he takes every 10th
name: the 14th, the 24th, the 34th, and so on. Whatever is true of the sample
drawn by this means is just as likely to be true of the 1,000 as was the sample
drawn from the scrambled name slips.
Stratified random sample. Sometimes researchers need to divide a popula-
tion, and the sample they draw, into unequal-size portions. In such a case, they
may use a stratified random sample. The work force of a medium-size
business, for example, contains multiple internal classifications. For conve-
nience, let’s use a work force of 1,000 and suppose researchers need to divide
it by length of time worked at this firm, by sex, and by salary level.

164
Chapter Six
 Personnel figures show the following breakdowns:

10% 25 years and over 53% Male 8% $90,000 and above

11% 20-24 years 47% Female 10% $75,000-$89,999
12% 16-19 years ; 12% $60,000-$74,999
12% 10-15 years 30% $45,000-$59,999
30% 6-9 years 26% $30,000-$44,999
25% Under 5 years 12% $15,000-$29,999
| 2% $14,999 and below |

The researchers will draw a random 10 percent sample, making sure that the
100 names they draw represent the categories just listed. The resulting sample
will contain 53 males and 47 females. Of the 100 people, 10 will have been
with the company at least 25 years, 26 will earn between $30,000 and
$44,999, and so on.
Researchers concern themselves with accurate sampling procedures to Because of its costs and the
costs of the decisions it
make sure their research results will enable good business decisions. Primary supports, business research
research has many steps, and an error at any step not only carries the error must be carried out
through the whole effort but also contaminates subsequent steps and thus meticulously.
multiplies the error. The correct business decision is supposed to recoup the
costs of research. The incorrect business decision based on bad research,
however, turns the investment in research into sunk costs, and the bad deci-
sion itself generally costs much more besides.

Most of us have responded to one or more questionnaires. Businesses use

Questionnaire Construction
questionnaires extensively, from the brief, informal pick-up forms found in
hotels (“How was our service? Please answer these few questions”) to ambi-
tious, multipage survey efforts. Thorough planning and development lead up to
the printed questionnaire the respondent sees.
Survey instruments are either questionnaires or, opinionnaires. A question-
naire contains mostly question-format items. An opinionnaire consists
mainly of statements to which the respondent is invited to react. For example,
opinionnaire items might say,

My supervisor offers me constructive criticism. SAL aAMr NuiD.-ie PSD

or

Others in my work group would say | am a SAiy Aw@uaN so pDe*25S80

cooperative person.
SA
The respondent is instructed to mark agreement or disagreement on the
(strongly agree) to SD (strongly disagree) scale.
Whether developing a questionnaire or an opinionnaire, researchers con-
and
struct the survey instrument in steps. They decide what they want to know
s or
from whom they can probably find it out. Then they draft a set of question
easier
opinion items to elicit the desired information. This task might sound
tests before
than it is. In fact, most questionnaires require numerous drafts and
the re-
the researcher can be sure that the responses received will answer
search question validly and reliably.

165
Primary Research for Business Reporting
 Human differences make Recall the communication model discussed in Chapter One. No two people
questionnaire construction a have identical attitudes, reactions to words, or knowledge of a subject. Yet
challenge.
researchers have to ask all their research subjects the same questions in the
same ways. Those questions have to mean the same things to all the people
who will answer them.
The value of surveys lies in the researcher’s ability to treat a large number
of responses together. From doing so, the researcher infers something about a
still larger number of respondents from whom she or he drew the sample
actually surveyed. If the questions do not mean the same thing to all respon-
dents, their answers will not be comparable. The researcher’s efforts to tally
and categorize these answers will therefore be meaningless.

Open-Ended and Questions can be open ended or closed ended. Open-ended questions per-
Closed-Ended Questionnaire mit the respondent to answer as he or she likes. Closed-ended questions
restrict the respondent’s choice to a set of answers to be treated in a specified
Items
way. An example of an open-ended question is
What general-studies courses do you think you will enjoy most during college?
An example of a closed-ended question is this rank-ordering item:
Rank the following general-studies courses in the order of your preference of them.
Place a 10 next to the course you believe you would enjoy most, a 9 next to the one
you would enjoy second best, an 8 next to the one you would enjoy third best, and so
on, ending with a 1 for the one you would enjoy least.
___— American history Music appreciation
English literature _____ Art and architecture survey
_—__— Survey of philosophy American literature
___— World history Introduction to geology
___— Astronomy Fundamentals of psychology
The rank-ordering question is only one of numerous kinds of closed-ended
questions, more of which we will discuss shortly. Whether you choose closed-
ended or open-ended questions depends on your research goals and on what
information you can reasonably expect your respondent to provide.
In the example just given, one influence on the choice of question format
was the actual array of possible answers in which the researcher was inter-
ested. A researcher interested in the whole spectrum of general-studies
courses could not ask the respondent to name and rank the 300 or more
general-studies offerings. A respondent cannot easily rank order more than
about 10 items.
Data from open-ended The open-ended question given earlier will obtain many different course
questions are often harder to names. Some courses will be incorrectly named and will be hard or impossible
categorize and treat than data
from closed-ended items. to assign to categories. Some courses will be listed that are not general-studies
courses. Some respondents will forget altogether one or more courses or
subject matter areas in which they might actually be quite interested. They will
tend to list courses they have heard others mention. Since even anonymous
survey respondents like to idealize their own behavior, they may name courses
that sound more learned or more prestigious than those they would really like
to take.
Many other inaccuracies, both intentional and unintentional, will influence
the validity and reliability of cumulated responses to this open-ended item. Yet
if the researcher is at an exploratory stage of research, hard numbers may be
less important than other considerations. For instance, from the tallied re-
166 Chapter Six
sponses to this item, the researcher could certainly pick out the 10 courses
that were named most frequently.
A closed-ended, rank-ordering question permits the researcher to weight
responses. In asking this kind of question, the researcher has already narrowed
down the array to 10 courses and is probably at a later stage of inquiry.
Processing the responses to the question in the preceding example will tell the
researcher with certainty how the response audience as a whole views these
(and only these) 10 courses.
Open-ended questions are easy to write, but they allow a broad range of
potential answers, some of which may not be easily categorized. Because
open-ended questions usually take more of a respondent’s time than closed-
ended questions do, respondents are more likely to leave some or all of them
unanswered.
Closed-ended questions must be written with great care. Whereas open-
ended questions leave the field open for replies the researcher might not have
foreseen, closed-ended questions prevent the respondent from giving any an-
swer the researcher has not anticipated and built into the question.

In all types of questions, but particularly closed-ended questions, wording is Writing the Questions
crucial. Here are some principles to keep in mind when writing questionnaires:
e Word choice must be simple and familiar, not pretentious or stuffy.
e The language chosen must not convey any bias or contain any
ambiguity.
e Where the researcher has a choice between a word with high
connotation and a synonym with neutral connotation, the more neutral
word should be used.
e The question should not threaten the respondent’s ego.
e Each question should be easy to answer.
e Questions must not be complex. Each should ask only one thing.
e Every question must be worth asking. Respondents’ time is hard to
obtain and must not be wasted.
e Questions should be formulated with a view to the kind of data they
will generate. The researcher must be able to code, classify, and
cumulate them and, in many cases, subject them to statistical testing.
Typically, respondents are not at first interested in cooperating with a re- Anything in a questionnaire that
bothers the respondent might
searcher. There is “nothing in it for them.” Even after the researcher has make that respondent decide
persuaded them to respond, it takes very little to turn them off again. For not to cooperate.
instance, if the survey seems too long, they will throw it away. If a question
seems hard or troublesome to answer, they will leave it blank or stop respond-
ing altogether. If the survey questions irritate them, they may quit responding.
If they cannot figure out what they are supposed to do, they often decline to
do anything. .
With this in mind, the researcher tries to view the survey instrument as the
reader will view it. The hardest part of this task is adjusting the mind so as to
approach the questionnaire “cold,” that is, without much interest, prior knowl-
edge, or motivation to complete it.

Closed-ended questions, of which the rank-ordering question is one kind, take Types of Closed-Ended
many other forms. Questions
Primary Research for Business Reporting 167
 Multiple choice. In the multiple-choice format, the respondent marks only
one choice. A multiple-choice item must exhaust all possible alternatives, and
those alternatives must be mutually exclusive.
Multiple-choice items are easy to draft when the categories are familiar,
clear, and well defined. For instance, questions like the following have two, and
only two, answers:

Are you a U.S. citizen?

yes
no
Are you male or female?
male
female

For a question like

Have you been vaccinated for smallpox?

the respondent can answer yes, no, or don’t know. There are no other possible
responses.
With respect to marital status, one person might consider that an individual
is either married, never married, separated, divorced, or widowed. But not
everyone would agree. Some modern living arrangements confound traditional
classifications. Individuals might respond that they are in a “common-law mar-
riage,” a “same-sex marriage,” or a “long-term committed relationship” and
insist that they are in none of the other categories.
Alternatives for a multiple-choice item must be exhaustive and mutually
exclusive. If you believe they are but think occasional respondents may find
your alternatives insufficient, list your standard categories and then offer a
response category that says,

other. (Please specify.)

In this way, you will obtain accurate counts in your standard categories and be
able to account for respondents who did not mark one of those.

Checklist. A researcher uses a checklist when multiple responses are de-

sired. The instruction to the respondent is usually “Mark all that apply.” Here
is an example:

Please mark all the kinds of luncheon food items you have purchased at Lunch
Unlimited during the last 30 days.
Pasta Quiche ____ Pastries
Hamburger ——_— Submarine sandwich Fried chicken
Pizza Oriental food —__— Philly steak
Mexican food Soup or chili ____ Salad bar

Rating scale. Researchers use several other types of questions when they
foresee a range of opinion. One is the rating scale. The respondent is in-
structed to indicate an opinion by marking aletter, number, or other sequen-
tial symbol on a specified continuum. The following item uses a rating scale:

168 | Chapter Six

 Please rate the service you have received during the last 30 days from Lunch
Unlimited. Use a scale of 1 to 10, with 1 being the least favorable and 10 being the
most favorable rating.
My rating of Lunch Unlimited's service during the last 30 days is ____.
Semantic differential. A semantic-differential item offers a pair of opposed
descriptive words that can be applied to the topic under discussion. The
researcher asks the respondent to mark his or her opinion on a continuum
connecting the opposites. Here is an example:
Below are several pairs of opposed words that could describe the food at a restaurant.
Between the pairs of words is a range in which respondents can mark their opinion.
Consider that the middle of the scale, 4, is “neutral” or “no opinion.” Please circle the
number that represents your opinion about the food at Lunch Unlimited.
imaginative ------1----------Q----------Guen----2-2-4nnnnnnene-GennnnnnnnsGennnenenee7 secnenececeeee=-ull
Stale --------------1 -----n2---Qannnnnnnn-GonnnnnnnnnGnnnnnnnnnnBannnnnnnenGonennnnene] ceneecneeeeneffesh
appetizing ------- Neate Porernen Qonnonrnmmm Acer Demenrnnes 6-----—---- 7 -----unappetizing
AMPIe ------------1 -n-n2n-n--Qenznnnrnn-GonnnnnnneGonennnnnenBannnnnnnenGronenennne] snnneeecne=-SKIMPY
JUNK------------22= --n-nn2n2-QennnnnnnnnQuonennnnnndnnnnnnnnnn5ennenneneeGonenensees7 --2=---=-nutritious
MOSSY --------222- |-n-nnnnn2-QrnnnnnnnnnQunnnnnnnendpnnnnnnnnnnGeonononnnnGiennneneee 7sonnrrennneee=-N@at
Likert scale. A typical Likert scale item offers a statement and a series of
response options indicating degree of agreement or disagreement. The follow-
ing example is a Likert-type item, which would be one ofa series of statements.
The respondent would be directed to mark the box most nearly approximating
his or her opinion about the statement.

College business juniors, in general, have a well-developed sense of ethical conduct.

Strongly Neutral, Strongly
Agree Agree No opinion Disagree Disagree

Petsebersnne tsrlekitreemeaorevwichvr]commit es
After writing and revising all the items for clarity, absence of bias, and all other ()rdering Items on
possible flaws, the researcher puts the questions on the questionnaire in the Questionnaires
most logical order. It is important that the order of the items make sense. If one
question will not be understood until after another question has been asked
and answered, be sure the two questions are in the correct sequence.
Also, try to move from easy to more difficult. If the more time-consuming or
troublesome questions are asked first, the respondent might not bother con-
tinuing. If the respondent quits late in the questionnaire but mails it back
having marked all but a couple of items, the questionnaire is probably usable
for at least part of the researcher’s purpose. If the respondent has marked only
two items, the researcher will not have a usable response.
Although demographic items are easy to answer, they are generally placed
idea
last on an instrument because in most studies they are less crucial than the
them no matter where
subject matter of the survey. Most respondents answer
they are placed.

test Pilot Testing Questionnaires

As in any other kind of primary research, researchers using questionnaires
a question -
their instruments and procedures. Even after several iterations of

Primary Research for Business Reporting 169

 naire, problems may persist unknown to the researchers. In a pilot test, they
try out the questionnaire and administration procedure on a test audience,
ideally one similar to the audience actually targeted but not the same one.
Sometimes the questionnaire and procedure will work perfectly. Other
times minimal problems can be discovered and corrected easily. Still other
times a major problem emerges, one that would destroy the project if unde-
tected.
A student of one of the authors set out to test senior citizens’ satisfaction
with the services offered at a community senior center. The student carefully
drafted a short questionnaire and tried it out successfully on her classmates.
She wanted more evidence, however, that the questionnaire would work on
the intended audience. She asked the director of the senior center in a different
community to allow her to test the questionnaire with its members. Permis-
sion granted, she went there, introduced herself and her purpose briefly, found
the members receptive, and handed out the forms.
The respondents marked the forms and handed them back—rather soon,
she thought. Then she noticed that most of them were not turning to the
second page. She began pointing out the second page to the rest of the re-
spondents. With this reminder, some filled out the second page (though not
enthusiastically),but several said something like “No, dear, I’m finished,” or “I
have to play bridge now.”
Enough people filled out the second page that she was able to spot the
couple of remaining problems with the instrument’s wording. The problem of
the disregarded second page, however, would never have emerged had she
ceased pilot testing after the in-class trial of the questionnaire. Fully half of her
questions, answered by relatively few members of her ultimate target audi-
ence, might have generated unreliable data.
Her solution was to reformat the questionnaire to fit all the items on one
side of one 8.5" X 14” page. From that point on, her project was problem free.

Administering the Survey Researchers’ ideal goal, to get 100 percent of the target respondents to answer,
is virtually never met. Realistically, they shoot for the highest possible re-
sponse rate and do everything they can to prevent nonresponse.
A number of techniques appear to increase response rate. For instance,
more people will respond if they can do so anonymously. Also, more people
will respond if the questionnaire package looks attractive and professional.
Whether a given response rate What percentage response rate is high enough? Putting down asingle per-
is sufficient depends on how
homogeneous a population is.
centage would be meaningless. If the population and the sample are fairly
homogeneous, you need a lower percentage response to be confident that the
respondents represent the sample, just as a smaller sample can represent a
homogeneous population well. If the population is full of variations, a larger
sample is needed to represent it, and a larger percentage of the sample must
respond before you can assume representativeness.
Researchers survey their target respondents by mail, by telephone, or in
person. Each method has advantages and disadvantages. For instance, in-person
and telephone interviewers find it harder than mail survey researchers do to
ensure that all respondents are asked the same questions in the same ways. A
question on paper is the same question on every questionnaire mailed. A
question read or spoken aloud might carry differences in tone of voice, degree

170 Chapter Six

of hesitancy, and other vocal signals. In-person interviewers have even broader
scope for unintentional change. Nonverbal signals can distort or confuse mean-
ing even more than auditory signals, which also exist in in-person situations.
Open-ended responses, whether obtained in writing by mail or orally by
phone or in person, are subject to interpretation by the person who takes them
down, codes them, or categorizes them. Not all respondents will have good
communication skills, and even good communicators can miscommunicate if
they are in a hurry or under stress. Both sender error and receiver error create
more problems in open-ended than in closed-ended items.

Mail surveys work well if you have several weeks. The mailing must be pre- Mail Surveys
pared meticulously. Because you won't be there in person to explain anything
ambiguous, lack of clarity can be fatal. You must foresee any possible problems
and solve them in advance.
You must prepare a list of recipients and extra labels for all of them so that
you can send a reminder. Send the reminder about 10 days after the initial
mailing. Some researchers use multiple reminders; each one adds about 10
days.
Whereas a phone or in-person questionnaire can consist of just the ques-
tionnaire and a brief script, the mailed questionnaire is more of a package. You
will have, at minimum, the questionnaire, a cover letter, and a return envelope.
Other enclosures might be needed. The package cannot become too large, or
respondents will be discouraged from completing it.
The persuasive cover letter should explain the subject without prejudicing
the response. Because you cannot stand over your recipients and make them
respond, your letter must also motivate them to complete and return the form.
Usually you do this by showing how the study will benefit the reader or a cause
the reader will find important.
Once the mailing has been sent, most of the administering work is done.
Mailed questionnaires are relatively inexpensive when you consider the cost of
the many hours spent in telephone and in-person interviews. Another cost
advantage is that you can often use bulk-mail postage rates for the outward
mailings.
Mailed questionnaires have another advantage in that every respondent
receives the same thing in the same form. Consistency of administration is built
in. When administering telephone and in-person questionnaires, in contrast,
researchers have to be on their guard against inconsistency of administration.

Because a person’s tone of voice, pauses, and other signals can convey ap- Telephone Surveys
proval, disapproval, and many other attitudes, researchers giving a question-
naire orally must be extra careful not to lead the interviewee in any way. They
must not convey, or even hint at, their own opinions. They must encourage the
respondent to complete the interview without prejudicing his or her response.
The respondent’s hanging up too soon is a continual danger. Telephone
respondents, weary of phone solicitations, sales, and other “junk messages,”
are often unwilling even to begin the interview. Researchers must combat the
automatic assumption that they are “selling something.” Some researchers
notify respondents by letter several days before the interview and reassure

Primary Research for Business Reporting 171

 them that the call is legitimate research and not a sales pitch. Those who call
“cold,” that is, with no advance notice, must usually convince an unwilling
person to allow the interruption and expend some time.
Researchers must take down respondents’ answers without bias. This is easy
for yes-no questions or multiple-choice items. Many phone interview ques-
tions, however, are open ended. The ability to obtain rich data is an advantage
of phone and in-person interviewing, but, as you read in previous chapters,
people sometimes choose and understand words quite differently. Bypassing,
in which neither sender nor receiver realizes that misunderstanding has oc-
curred, can lead to bias. Bias can also intrude when respondents are long-
winded and the researcher must condense an answer, or when respondents’
language skills are weak and the researcher must determine what they actually
mean.
Researchers can probe (“Could you explain what you mean by that?” “Can
you comment about why you feel as you do?”), but they must word the probe
carefully. For instance, “What do you mean by that?” or “Why?” could be
understood as disapproval.
Not everyone can be reached by telephone. Some people lack phones. Some
have unlisted numbers. Some are gone a great deal. When researchers have to
try many times to reach a given respondent, the cost of the research rises.
Both telephone and in-person interviewers must present the questions in
exactly the same way to each respondent. If the questions are worded differ-
ently, or if the meaning is obscured by gestures or tone of voice, the answers
will not be comparable and cannot be treated in the same category.

In-Person Surveys Surveying respondents in person brings its own problems. If reaching people
by phone is difficult, reaching them in person is harder. Factors such as geo-
graphic distances and work schedules make it hard for interviewer and inter-
viewee to meet. Some desirable respondents have little discretionary time and
resist using it to talk with a researcher. The researcher should say how long the
questionnaire will take and keep rigidly within that time.
As with phone questionnaires, interviewers must take care not to lead, must
not approve, disapprove, or hint at their own opinion, and must take down
information without bias. In person, interviewers can read a wider range of
nonverbal signals than are available to mail or phone interviewers. They can
see when respondents need encouragement. They can deal more effectively
with respondents who do not express themselves well. Finally, it is harder for
respondents to get away once the in-person interview has begun; they cannot
just hang up the phone or throw away the written questionnaire.

TREATING DATA What have you counted or measured, what can you do with it, and what does
it mean? Once you have gathered your primary research data, your next step
is to select, process, and organize it so that it is meaningful to the business
reader.
For each question, you add up numbers of responses in different categories.
This yields a frequency distribution. Different research objectives call for
different kinds of treatment. Among the simpler calculations you might need to
run are percentages, cross-tabulations, mean, median, mode, and stan-
dard deviation.

172 Chapter Six

Suppose you had 492 respondents to a survey. One item on the survey was the Percentages
following statement, on which respondents marked a five-point agreement-
disagreement scale:
The organization where | work is supportive of the needs of employees’ families.
You tabulated responses and obtained these figures:
SA: 15 A: 46 alice D: 255 SD: 64
Dividing each figure by the total, 492, yields these percentages:
3.1 percent 9.3 percent 22.7 percent 51.8 percent 13.1 percent
A likely conclusion is that most employees do not find the organization sup-
portive of families.

In the preceding example, do the female employees feel the same way, on Cross-tabulation
average, as the male employees? Using cross-tabulation, you can show the
relationship between sex and degree of agreement and disagreement. You
have 198 female (40.3 percent) and 294 (59.7 percent) male respondents. Lay
out a chart and insert your counts to see how the categories form:

N
Male 66
Female 46
Total 112

You can easily calculate percentages using these figures. Divide the number in
each category for males by the total number of males. Then do the same for
females:

SA A N D SD Total
Male 41 10.9 22.4 56.1 6.5 100
Female 1.5 7.1 23.2 45.5 22.7 100

is
These percentages seem to indicate that females believe the organization
less supportive of families than males do, although the differenc es are not
pronounced except at the extremes.

Mean, Median, and Mode

When we talk about measures of central tendency and measures of dispersion,
we are making statements about the way all our numbers, considered together,
tend to group toward a middle point or to spread away from the middle point.
The mean, the median, and the mode are called measures of central
tendency. This means that all three of these figures are different ways of
thinking about the middle of a distribution of data.
To illustrate, think about the following set of test scores. In a mythical
university, 100 first-year business students take an objective-format final exam
in principles of management.

173
Primary Research for Business Reporting
 Distribution of 100 Exam Scores
Number of Students
Earning This Score
X (1x 98= 98)
X (1 x 97 = 97)
X (1x 94= 94)
XXX (3 x 92 = 276)
XX (2 x 91 = 182)
XXXXX (5 x 88 = 440)
XXX (3 x 87 = 261)
XXXXX (5 x 85 = 425)
XXXXXX (6 x 84 = 504)
XXXX (4 x 83 = 332)
XXXXXXX (7 x 82 = 574)
XXXXXXXX (8 x 81 = 648)
XXXXXXXXXXXXX (13 x 76 = 988)
XXXXXXXXX (9 x 75 = 675)
XXXXXXXXXXXXX (13 x 74 = 962)
XXXXX (5 x 70 = 350)
XXXX (4 x 69 = 276)
XX (2 x 66 = 132)
XX (2 x 65-= 130)
X (1 x 61 = 61)
XX (2 x 59 = 118)
X (1x 49 = 49)
X (1x 45 = 45)
X (1 x 35= 35)

The mean is the familiar To find the mean (arithmetic average), total the scores received by all
arithmetic average. students (7,752). Then divide by the number of students (7,752 /100). The
mean is 77.52.
In an array arranged from To find the median (or midpoint), count from either end of the distribu-
lowest to highest, the median is tion to the middle (50th) score. The median is 76.
the middle value.
The mode is the most frequently occurring score. This distribution has two
scores with the same and highest number of occurrences. This distribution is
bimodal; the modes in our example are 76 and 74.
In a normal distribution, values In this example, the distribution is close to what statisticians call a normal
tend to cluster around the distribution: Scores tend to group around the middle and tail off at the ends.
middle of the distribution and
taper off toward the ends. The normal distribution is sometimes called a bell-shaped curve. If you turn
the diagram on its side, you will note that the rise and fall of the curve roughly
resembles a short, wide bell. In a graphic, however, as you'll learn in Chapter
7, you would leave spaces for scores that no student earned.
In a normal distribution, all three measures of central tendency are close
together. Where the distribution has very high or very low values, the mean
and the median can be quite different. For instance, if the hypothetical class
diagrammed had half a dozen students who received a score of zero, the mean
would be pulled lower and the median would stay approximately where it is.

Standard Deviation The standard deviation is the most frequently used of the measures of
dispersion, that is, of the figures used to describe the tendency of an array of
data in a distribution to move away from the center of the distribution.
174 Chapter Six
 If a population is very homogeneous, the measurements will tend to cluster
around the middle, and the standard deviation will be small and might even
approach zero. If the population is heterogeneous, the measurements will
spread away from the middle, and the standard deviation will be large.
The formula for standard deviation is the square root of the quantity

2x?
N

Don’t be alarmed; this notation simply represents a six-step calculation. Most

people use a calculator or, better still, a computer program such as SPSS to run
the calculations, because the numbers tend to become large. The six steps are
as follows:
1. Compute the mean.
2. Subtract the mean from each value in the distribution.
3. Square (multiply by itself) each of the differences.
4. Add the squared differences. (The symbol 2 means “sum.” The x?
stands for the squared differences.)
5. Divide that total by the number (N) of values in the distribution.
6. Take the square root of what you get from step 5.
: Shores Data considered one by one can
That number is the standard deviation be interesting, but the real
Like the measures of central tendency, the standard deviation is a summary _ interest lies in the data
statistic. It tells something about the way the distribution looksSoeas a whole. Saige _ a ee These
ar help us
simple statistics
.
Like the mean, the standard deviation can be affected heavily if there are nderstand and describe sets of
extreme values. data.

From numerical research data, you will carefully draw the inferences your [NTERPRETING DATA
numbers and statistics permit. If you have been able to use random sampling AND DRAWING
and to ensure that your returns represent fairly the population from which
your sample was drawn, you can use much more complex and powerful data CONCLUSIONS
treatments than fall within the scope of this book. The more rigorous your
statistical treatment, the greater the certainty with which you can draw your
conclusions.
From qualitative data—that is, from answers to non-numeric or to open-
ended questions—you will be able to do simple kinds of categorizing and
counting. While the data tend to be highly interesting, no impressive statistical
operations can be done, and conclusions should be drawn with caution.

[PEFINING YOUR
Ashe’s case in Chapter Five and Morrisey’s case earlier in this chapter exem-
plify the way business researchers refine research questions and plan the re-
PRIMARY RESEARCH
search. If you are to do primary research within a business, you will discuss it
PROBLEM
thoroughly with the person who has authorized it. You will define the problem
together with great care: The way you ask the question determines the kind of
answer you will get. If you get a good answer to the wrong question, your own
and your business’s time, resources, and effort will have been wasted.
If you design your own primary research project, you will narrow and focus
end
the research question yourself. The problem selection criteria given at the
of Chapter Five apply here as well. In primary research, however, you must be
even more careful to keep the project within the limits of your time, money,
mobility, and access to information.
Primary Research for Business Reporting 175
 For instance, you might be deeply interested in learning the extent of
embezzlement in the largest corporations in your state. Do not imagine, how-
ever, that you will be able to distribute a questionnaire and elicit this infor-
mation. You will not be able to find out things that people are motivated to
hide.
Allow plenty of time. Start everything early, because Murphy’s Law governs
the universe. Primary research is linear: Each stage sets up the next stage and
those after it. A problem you have not foreseen can derail your project. You
have only this school term for the project, so think through every step of your
project in advance to head off problems.
Take on a small project, and do it thoroughly. If you perform an observation,
be meticulous. If you do a questionnaire, keep its focus tight. You will probably
care a great deal about your subject and be curious about it. But remember
that your respondents do not want to spenda lot of time, so do not let your
curiosity lead you into asking more than is absolutely necessary.

REVIEW In contrast to secondary researchers, who gather information published by

others, primary researchers generate new data. Primary research must be sys-
tematically planned and carried out, and impartiality is essential. Valid re-
search measures what it sets out to measure. Reliable research is accurate and
reproducible.
Observational research gathers data perceivable by the senses or through
mechanical means of enhancing sensory ability. Researchers develop and pilot
test a checksheet or other means of recording observations in a system-
atic way.
Survey research consists of administering a questionnaire or an opinion-
naire to selected respondents. The means of selecting respondents determines
how generalizable the findings are. A random sample permits generalizing
statistical findings to the entire larger group from which it was selected. A
nonrandom sample, such as a convenience or judgment sample, may be very
useful but cannot safely be said to represent an entire population.
Questionnaires may contain open-ended or closed-ended questions. Data
from open-ended questions can be interesting and useful but are less easy to
interpret and categorize. Closed-ended questions include rank-ordering items,
checklists, multiple-choice items, rating scales, semantic-differential items, and
Likert scale items. Wording and ordering questionnaire items are critical, and
this chapter offered guidelines. Pilot testing the survey instrument is essential.
Means of administering surveys include mail, phone, and in-person interview.
Researchers analyze their data to give it meaning. This chapter described
basic and familiar statistics, including frequency counts, mean, median, and
mode, percentages, cross-tabulations, and standard deviation. Examining these
and other aspects of the research findings permit the drawing of careful con-
clusions.

176 Chapter Six

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
1. What kinds of data might a supervisor collect How important would it be to pilot test the
using observational research in the administrative instrument?
office of a business? What kinds of observational . Grades on objective (multiple-choice and true-
data might an inspector collect while monitoring false) exams are widely used to measure actual
safety at a construction site? learning. Such tests are used to assign course
. What distinguishes observational research from grades. Also, results of standardized tests such as
survey research? the SAT and the GMAT determine which students
. Discuss the shortcomings of each of the following may enter which programs and (arguably) how
as possible questionnaire items. they will spend the rest of their lives. To what
a. How old are you? extent are these practices valid? What factors
b. Have you ever cheated on your income tax? might diminish their validity? Discuss.
c. In your career thus far, what do you most wish . With the public library system’s permission, you
_ you had done differently? are collecting interview data in branch libraries
. Was math the subject you hated most in on whether parents of young children would buy
school? their youngsters controversial books such as those
yes no narrating folktales from diverse cultures or those
. How often did your parents leave you at home in which the main-character child’s caregivers are
alone before you were 10 years old? two unmarried males. You are one interviewer;
Where do the funds come from that are used you have trained others and stationed them in
to operate your school? Please answer in three other branch libraries. One is a young
percentages. Caucasian male with a bushy red beard and an
. Which of the following factors will most earring. Another is a young man who looks a lot
ameliorate the recessionary conditions in this like Bob Keeshan (Captain Kangaroo on children’s
county? Please rank order them, assigning a 5 TV). The third is a 55-year-old African-American
to the most influential factor, a 4 to the next woman. Discuss whether you think the differences
most influential factor, and so on down to 1 for in appearance among the interviewers will affect
. the least influential factor. the reliability of the interview data.
passing Senate Bill 101b . You work a 40+-hour week and are enrolled in a
levying a 1.5 percent Value-Added Tax night business communication class. Your school
seeking a federal grant under the LTMP collects student activity fees from all its enrollees,
program whether or not they participate in activities. You
creating county liaisons with businesses disagree with some of the ways this money is
to encourage training programs used, and you believe at least 75 percent of the
electing Bill Tubbs to the legislature other students in the school feel the same way.
. Do you understand and approve of the You survey the other members of your evening
initiative requiring law enforcement officials to business communication class to discover their
furlough juvenile criminals after they serve opinions on the subject. What kind of sample do
three months of their sentence? you have? How much can you generalize your
What is your political party registration? findings? Defend your answer.
Democrat . In your city of about 2 million people, an active
Republican local chapter of the American Marketing
Television is responsible for today’s low moral Association (AMA) has been supportive of the
climate. student Marketing Club at your school. You
wonder what the local chapter could tell you
Strongly Neutral, Strongly about job satisfaction in marketing careers. You
agree Agree no opinion Disagree disagree request and receive the membership list for the

aye pene local 314-member AMA chapter. To get a 20

percent sample, you start with the third name on
the alphabetically arranged list and select every
. Use your creativity and think of types of fifth name after that. You mail a short, well-tested
observational data you might usefully collect. questionnaire to the 62 people whose names were
What purposes might they serve? What kind of selected. Forty-five answer your survey. Can you
instrument (checksheet or other means of generalize your findings fairly safely to the whole
recording data) would you need to construct? 314-member group? Discuss.
177
Primary Research for Business Reporting
 9. By what means can survey researchers increase resources has tabulated several statistics on these
the willingness of mail questionnaire respondents long-term employees. The number for sick days
to respond? Telephone survey respondents? In- represents a five-year total. Salary is for the
person interview respondents? current year.
10. Alpha-Betics has 26 employees who have been
with the company at least five years. Human

Abel 8 32,600 6 16 30
Beatrice i 19,500 8 13 a2
Carrie 3 35,400 10 16 35
Dietrich 11 31,800 8 14 40
Evan 15 17,500 5 10 32
Fern 8 18,800 11 12 47
Gordon 0 95,000 25 18 sor
Hoang 2 28,500 13 16 40
Inez 11 19,400 8 Te 35
Joan 0 18,300 5 12 25
Kamal 9 22,800 5 13 ZF
Leon 4 32,900 7 16 27
Mort 32 30,100 14 15 36
Nathan 21 18,500 5 12 26
Oliver 3 19,400 14 12 35
Patty 15 28,800 6 14 27
Quintano 12 29,400 9 14 Sy)
Rose 2 85,900 22 16 49
Saburo = 25,700 6 12 27
Tim # 38,800 15 16 35
Urbano 10 22,400 5 12 29
Velia 0 28,900 11 14 33
Wanda 2 39,400 10 14 28
Xica 16 24,800 9 12 32
Yolanda 6 45,900 8 18 30
Zebulon i 48,200 12 16 46

a. Why is the average (mean) salary for these d. Which column contains the closest
employees higher than the median salary? approximation to a “normal distribution?”
b. For number of sick days, what is the median? e Among these employees, what is the average
The mode? Do you think the mode in the sick- number of years worked for this firm?
day distribution is very useful as a measure of f. What percentage of these employees earn
central tendency? Why or why not? more than $40,000? What percentage earn less
c. What is the median age of these personnel? than $30,000?
What is the average educational level of these
personnel?

178 Chapter Six

 CASES
The following questions could be investigated using pri- 3. Gathering Data for Your Employer. Where
mary research methods. As your instructor directs, plan you work, is your company considering any
and carry out a small-scale primary research project on one equipment purchase or upgrade? Computers? A
of these or on a question of your own or your instructor’s copier? A truck or van? Interview the appropriate
choice. These investigations require a completely impartial person to learn what the firm’s needs are. Offer to
attitude at every stage of the research. Many of them re- gather systematic information for them on what is
quire further narrowing and refining. Also, remember that available for what price and whether to buy or
with limited time and resources, most findings would be lease.
preliminary and not widely generalizable. 4 . Anti-Male Bias in Advertising? What is the
1. Women’s Opportunities in Previously Male- incidence of “male bashing” in print advertising?
Dominated Professions. Women have moved Set up and conduct an observation. Select one or
into professions formerly dominated by men. In two mass-audience magazines that carry heavy
consumer advertising. Devise a checksheet with
their own views, do they have comparable
appropriate categories. For people portrayed in ads,
opportunities for pay and advancement? Some
make categories for type of ad, number of persons
examples of such professions are engineering,
chemistry, law, and accountancy. (You will be able (one? two? a group?) and sex (male[s] only?
female[s] only? male[s] and female[s]?). Then set up
to think of others.) Within a profession, identify 20
a systematic means of deciding how the persons
women and develop a questionnaire which you
are being presented—for instance, as intelligent
administer by phone or mail to gather preliminary
and competent or as unintelligent and foolish.
findings on the question. One avenue for
(These are not necessarily ideal categories; you
identifying respondents: Through the student
will develop your categories as you plan the
affiliate of the professional organization in your
research. )You may or may not wish to add other
major, get in touch with the leaders of the local
categories (age, race, and so on). Scan several
chapter of the professional organization and
issues before you try to design your checksheet.
request their cooperation.
Then select the two most recent years for which
2. Means of Decreasing Commuter Traffic. your library has current issues. If the magazine is a
Possibility A: What businesses in your locality weekly, analyze one issue every other month; if
foster means of cutting down on commuter traffic? monthly, analyze every other month. Tally your
If you can find 10 such businesses, ask them what results and draw inferences.
means they support and what the costs and
. Gathering Data for an “Adopted” Small
benefits are. Do they reward people who live close
Business. Many small businesses operate in your
to one another if those people car-pool? Do they
area. Because most maintain only enough
subsidize vans? Do they support telecommuting? personnel to deliver their main product or service,
Possibility B: At a busy intersection in your city many lack information that would help them either
during rush hour, observe one lane of traffic. Count increase sales or cut costs. For instance, suppose a
the number of cars with only one person inside. restaurant advertises in the Yellow Pages, in the
Do this for half an hour on five different days. weekly free shopper newspaper, and via flyers
Analyze what you see. What in-depth study could placed on auto windshields in parking lots, but
you design to follow up and build on your does not know which medium actually brings in
observation? most of its new customers. Gathering and analyzing
Possibility C: If most people in your vicinity drive this information systematically would help them a
alone to work, survey a convenience sample of 30 great deal. Look for a small business you can
people to determine (1) how feasible car-pooling “adopt” for six weeks or so. Ask them what
would be and (2) what the minimum incentive information they need. Offer to solve a modest
would be that would get them to car-pool. You primary information-gathering task for them in
will need a number of different questions to obtain return for their letting you use the research for
useful, reliable, valid information. your project for this class.

179
Primary Research for Business Reporting
Today's business readers are receiving more and more of their information in visual
form. Although visuals accompany long reports more often than short ones, short
reports can often use one or more exhibits to excellent effect. This chapter presents
manual and computer-assisted means of creating a variety of exhibit types,
including tables, pie charts, bar charts, line charts, and maps.
Visuals for oral presentations differ in important ways from those for written
presentations. For talks, visuals must be even simpler and clearer than those for
written documents. Examples of title slides, outline slides, and others will be
shown and discussed.
Much business information, particularly instructional information, travels by
computer screen. The design of that screen affects the receiver's ability to make use
of the information. This chapter examines numerous computer screen design
principles.

1381
 An effective graphic device can be the “picture worth a thousand words.” Until
Sami saw Alicia’s exhibit, she was not perceiving the problem. This chapter
discusses and illustrates many kinds of graphics for use in written and oral
presentations.

Thus far, we have discussed communication using primarily the written word.
ANOTHER WAY TO
Within written messages, especially longer ones such as formal reports, one or
LOOK AT AND THINK more effective graphic devices will often clarify the written content. Some-
ABOUT INFORMATION times graphics let the writer write less and still inform the reader fully.
As in all other essentials of business communication, preparing good graph-
ics requires analysis of the receiver and the situation. Many factors affect the
kinds of graphics a writer prepares. For instance, high-level and specialized
Audience and situation analysis business readers can deal with more complexity in visuals than those with less
affects graphics as well as background. Engineers, on the average, expect more use of tables in place of
written communication.
graphs and greater complexity in graphs than most mainstream business read-
ers do. Receivers listening to a presentation require simpler, higher-impact
graphics than do receivers reading a report.
Data to be presented graphically can come from secondary sources or from
primary research. We use graphics to clarify points that would be harder to
comprehend in writing alone. One graphic, for instance, can show readers the
pattern, idea, or trend in a large set of numeric data. Readers would have to
study much longer to derive the same information from the data presented in
paragraph, or even table, form. Graphics supplement written material, how-
ever. They help improve communication within the text but do not substitute
for clear discussion.
A person who has always spoken a European language tends to read a
graphic representation the way English reads: horizontally, left to right, top to
182 Chapter Seven
 @xureir 7—1 How Language Conventions Influence the Way
We “See” a Visual

English-speaking people's eye Other possible vision tracking by

movement across or down a page people not influenced by Western
orvisual writing conventions

<h

<<_———

bottom. Arabic is read horizontally from right to left. Chinese is read vertically
from top to bottom and right to left. A Chinese book printed in classical style
is read from back to front. American businesspeople sometimes make presen-
tations to business groups from non-Western nations. Even if the presenters
arrange for a translator, visuals prepared without regard for this simple but
important difference might baffle the audience. (See Exhibit 7—1.)
For example, a presentation promoting a children’s cough syrup might
show three pictures in a row across a Slide: first, the child miserable and
coughing; next, the child accepting a spoonful of cough syrup from an adult’s
hand; last, a smiling or sleeping child. To an audience not used to processing
information from left to right, the cough medicine appears to make a healthy
child sick.

Exhibits conveying business information must display simplicity, clarity, im- DESIGNING VISUALS
pact, and truthfulness. Written messages put different constraints on the com-
FOR WRITTEN
municator than do oral messages. Take simplicity. A visual used in a talk cannot
be as complex as one used in a report. A listener must process speech at the AND ORAL
same time he or she studies the visual, whereas a reader can study a visual with COMMUNICATIONS
undivided attention. Similarly, visuals prepared for a speech need greater im- Presentation visuals must be
pact than those prepared for a report. Many attention-getting devices—a pic- simple. The audience must be
ture of a pointing hand, a stop sign, or a shooting star containing an important able to listen and see at the
same time.
word—might please listeners but annoy readers.

The brain processes images differently than it does text. The purpose of many Simplicity
visuals is to show readers a pattern, a whole, or a set of relationships. Because A visual “‘tells a story.”
the brain takes in the image as a unit, the graphic should be no more complex
than is necessary. If one line on a line graph will tell the writer’s story, two
lines are too many. If you find yourself tempted to graph more than three or
four lines on one line graph, you should consider creating multiple graphs with
fewer lines or ask yourself whether the reader really needs that much detail.
If you are a specialist, you will often prepare reports for receivers outside
your specialty. Keep in mind that what you view as simple might not be so
simple for nonspecialist receivers.
Graphics 183
Clarity A visual is clear when the reader can understand its main message quickly and
with very little effort. If the reader has to spend time deciphering a puzzling
visual or correcting an initial misunderstanding, the writer has not achieved
clarity.

Impact Impact goes hand in hand with simplicity and clarity; yet a visual can be simple
and clear without having much impact. A visual has impact when it quickly
attracts favorable attention. It does this through appropriate, bold, clean, sharp,
pleasing design and balance of its components. A visual intended for oral
presentation must be bolder than one to be used in a written report.

Truthfulness It is possible—and unethical—to label everything carefully in a graphic but

still, by distorting the impression made by the visual element, imply something

eal
untrue. For example, suppose a marketer responsible for weak sales of a given
ea
product wants to evade blame. In making a line graph of a very small rise in
sales, he might stretch the vertical axis to give the impression that the small
rise was Steep.
The visual message must be Remember: In visuals, the image is the idea. The initial meaning a receiver
true to fact and to the derives from a glance at a visual must be the same as the meaning she or he
surrounding text.
would obtain from a longer, more penetrating study of the visual and accom-
panying text. If the quick picture is half true or not true, the visual must be
revised.
Critics of television news and of some newspapers say that these media
often sacrifice truthfulness for impact. For instance, the pie chart in Exhibit
7—2 shows what seems a wasteful division of an animal charity’s budget. Along

|@DxHIBIT 7-2 A Potentially Misleading Visual |

Figure 1
Expenses of Critter Conservation

Yee Salaries; Administrative Costs

Hl Overhead
ame Business Entertainment

Dae visual could mislead. It tells a different “story” than the text surrounding it
ells.
184 Chapter Seven
with other information, the accompanying news story says that this 100-pec-
cent pie chart shows the division of one 25-percent segment of a budget, the
rest of which (the other 75 percent) is paid out in direct support of the cause
served by the charity. A potential contributor who is merely skimming the
newspaper, however, receives an untrue visual message that angers him or her.

To meet the expectations of business readers, the report writer must label the USING VISUALS IN
visual, title it, size it appropriately, introduce it, place it, frame it with white
space, document it, and interpret it.
WRITTEN REPORTS

The label identifies the kind of graphic and a number. Many report writers Labeling the Visual
divide their visuals into tables (information presented in rows and columns)
and figures (other kinds of visuals, including graphs, charts, maps, scatter-
grams, pictograms, and the like). If you have one figure, label it “Figure 1.” If
you have one figure and one table, the figure is “Figure 1” and the table is
“Table 1.” Some report writers with only one or two of each type combine
them into one series and label them “Exhibit 1,” “Exhibit 2,” and “Exhibit 3.”
In your report’s table of contents, the visuals and their page numbers should
appear in a separate list below the text headings and their page numbers.

Title your exhibit specifically and concretely. Remember the who-what-when- Titling the Visual,
where-why-how, and decide which of these elements are most informative.
The title should tell your reader exactly what to look for in your visual. Here
are two examples:
Rising Cost of Overtime
Third-Quarter Profits by Region

Two factors influence size: importance and complexity. A relatively minor and Sizing the Visual
simple visual should not take up an entire page when you have only 12 pages
of space. If an exhibit is important and complex, however, it may require a
page. In general, exhibits smaller than a quarter of a page are hard to read.
A full-page exhibit might be vertical (“tall” or “portrait” format) or hori-
zontal (“wide” or “landscape” format). If it is horizontal and must be turned 90
degrees for placement, be sure to place it so that its top is at the paper’s left
margin and the bottom is at the right.
If you have photocopied your exhibit, or if the computer program in which
you create your graph gives no sizing options, you may still need to change its
size. You can do so if you use a photocopier with enlarging and reducing
capability.
If you have access to a scanner, you can digitize any image. In fact, the
newest and most expensive scanners will digitize three-dimensional items in
full color. New-generation cameras record snapshots digitally and store them
on floppy disks instead of film. A frame of videotape or television can be
“grabbed” as an image. Any exhibit you can obtain as a digitized image you can
probably enlarge or reduce by using a painting, drawing, graphics, or desktop
publishing program.

Mention the graphic in the text before you show it. The wording can vary, as Introducing the Visual
these three examples show:
QualiCare Inc. has paid out 37 percent more in overtime this year than in 1992 and 44
percent more than in 1991, as shown in Figure 1.
Graphics 185
 QualiCare Inc. has paid 37 percent more in overtime than in 1992 and 44 percent
more than in 1991. (See Figure 1 on page 12.)
Figure 1 (see page 12) shows the increasing amounts of overtime QualiCare Inc. has
paid in 1991, 1992, and 1993.

Placing the Visual Business readers expect a visual to appear soon after it is mentioned in the
text. If you have room on the same page where you introduce it, place it right
after you mention it. If you are too near the bottom of a page to do that, reword
your introducing statement to say “as shown in Figure 1 on page 4” or “See
Figure 1 on page 4.” .
Do not put visuals at the end of the report unless you are sure your reader
or your organizatio n prefers them there. Appendixe s are intended for material
that is useful but not integral to your discussion. (Examples might be back-
ground correspon dence or tables of raw data.) In general, readers like to see
visuals integrated within the report body.

Framing the Visual Allow enough white space (text-free space) not only for the visual but also for
any labels that are to go outside the square or oblong shape of the visual. For
example, the labels for vertical and horizontal axes of graphs require space.
Allow room for your visual’s label and title if they do not fall within the graphic
itself. Allow space for a source note, if needed. Finally, allow a little more
empty space between visual and report text to achieve clear separation and an
uncrowded, pleasing appearance.

Documenting the Visual Did you generate the data yourself or obtain the material from another source?
If your data are primary, you do not need a source note. If you believe your
reader might not understand that you generated the data yourself, use wording
like this just underneath your exhibit:
Source: Primary.
If you created the exhibit from data you found in a secondary source, you must
document the source. If, for example, you drew a line graph using data you
obtained from public records or from tables or discussion in a published arti-
cle, you would state your source briefly or more fully, as appropriate:
Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1993.
Source: Marbury, J. M. (1991, Nov. 16). Undercount of census data in four Colorado
counties. Denver Herald, A3, A22.
Sometimes you will locate a visual so precisely suited to your needs that you
reproduce it word for word. You might even cut and paste a clean photocopy
of an exhibit from a secondary source and make it part of your report. (See
Exhibit 7— 26 on page 205 for instructions.) Give full bibliographic data so the
reader will understand your use of the exhibit:
Source: Beltran, E. (1990, Aug. 3). Ridership of commuter rail picking up speed after
slow start. Los Angeles Times, B1.

Interpreting the Visual Sometimes you will discuss the visual as you introduce it. For a relatively
simple graphic, this may suffice. Other visuals will require more commentary.
Exhibit 7—3 shows a graphic that has been labeled, titled, sized, introduced,
placed, framed, documented, and interpreted.
186 Chapter Seven
|Q@xueir 7-3 Report Page Showing Correctly Treated Graphic |

While early proponents of job-sharing viewed it as a solution to

workers' problems such as continuing their education, providing for
child- and elder-care, and filling other scheduling needs, not all
high-tech firms have reported the expected rise in usage. (See
Table 3.) In fact, two of the four firms represented in the table saw
initial enthusiasm wane after two promising years.

Table 3

Incidence of Job-Sharing in Workforce

of Four Aerospace Firms, 1989 - 1998

Corporation 1989 1990 1991 1992

Specific Dynamics 0.5% 0.7% 1.1% 4.1%

Tallis Industries 0.2% 0.9% 2.8% 2.0%

Jetways Inc. b.146 3.5% 3.1% 2.9%

Stratospherics ; 4.1% 5.0% 2.6%

Source: Porter, M.L. (1992, Oct. 16) Innovative work-sharing —— ccammentation

programs show mixed trends. Financial Journal, Bl, Bla.
While space

The decrease in job-sharing may result more from the recession's

disastrous effect on the aerospace industry than from
disenchantment with job-sharing. In recessionary times, two-
earner families in an unstable job market may not wish to trade
away half a job when a fully employed spouse may face layoff.

Graphics 187
TYPES OF REPORT What do you want to say with your graphic? What main point must it carry?
What are you-comparing with what? Answers to these questions will guide
GRAPHICS your selection among the types of graphics to use in reports.
Reports may contain tables, bar graphs, line graphs, pie charts, maps, pic-
tographs, photographs, diagrams, line drawings, and specialized types of bar
graphs and line graphs. (The words graph and chart are often used inter-
changeably.)We will cover those you are most likely to need in preparing your
business reports and discuss which ones are appropriate for which kind of
information.

Tables Tables present numbers and sometimes words in columns and rows. Readers
grasp series of numbers in table form more easily than ‘they do the same
numbers represented in paragraph form.
Tables have more impact than The visual impact of tables is lower than that of figures. Graphs, for instance,
text but less impact than show proportions and relative sizes, which tables cannot do. However, readers
figures.
can handle more numbers in table form than in graph form. Readers have no
problem understanding a table containing ten rows and seven columns. A line
graph containing ten lines, each with seven plot points, might look so busy and
complicated that readers would skip it. If your reader needs all those numbers
to understand your point, a table is the way to go.

Formal Tables Formal tables are usually boxed, ruled, or both. (See Exhibit 7— 4.) A formally
treated table says to the reader, “This is important. Study it.” The content
should be important enough to warrant this level of attention. Theoretically,
writers can show many more rows, columns, and numbers than Exhibit 7—4
contains. Tables, however, like all other elements in reports, must be concise,
showing only as much as the reader needs and no more.

Informal Tables Informal tables, sometimes called spot tables, need not receive the full
treatment accorded formal ones. Most informal tables are, in essence, lists with
items in columns. They are not boxed, labeled. or titled, but merely indented.

|@xmerr 7-4 Formal Table |

Table 2

Second Quarter, Rolled Metal Division, In-State

TERRITORY GROSS ($

Bailey Northeast 36,837 18,362

In tables, the columns and rows
require labels. Kuraoka Central $1,371 18,482

Kahn West 27,260 16,159

Boudin Southwest 29,772 14,651

Essinger Southeast 19,816 10,118

145,086 77,772 :

188 Chapter Seven

|Qxuit 7-5 Informal or Spot Table in a Report |

For the .25 oz. Sextant cologne brand, advertising expenses over
the last four years divided as follows:

MEDIUM 1989 1990 1991 1998 White space is important

around informal tables.
fashion magazine - 95,000 100,000 98,500 108,000

television, network 150,000 135,000 140,000 125,000

television, cable 100,000 116,000 250,000 280,000

point-of-purchase 35,000 58,000 42,000 60,000

TOTAL 380,000 389,000 530,500 573,000

Advertising less on network and more on cable television and

increasing promotions using the much less expensive point-of-
purchase medium have generated increased sales, which section
8.2 on Revenue will cover.

This textbook contains a number of informal tables. Exhibit 7—5 is an example

of an informal table as it occurs within a report text.
Informal tables appear more often in short reports but are not restricted to
them. Sometimes long, formal reports use formally treated tables and several
spot tables.

Visuals that are more picture than words are generally classified as figures. Figures
Depending on what story your graphic must tell, you can choose from among
pie charts, several kinds of bar graphs, several types of line graphs, diagrams,
maps, and still other options. Figures may be offered as “spot” or informal
exhibits, but their use in this way is less frequent than that of informal tables.
Figures, which are usually presented formally, require the same careful The legend identifies elements
within a figure.
labeling and treatment that formal tables do. Figures may need a legend as
well. Many kinds of figures— maps and component bar graphs, for example—
use several colors or cross-hatch patterns to distinguish their parts. The legend,
or key, is a minichart within the figure telling what each color or pattern
means. Sometimes the legend’s labels are all together. Sometimes the labels are
separated and placed near the components they identify.
Let’s look at the most frequently used types of figures.

Choose a pie chart when you need to zero in on the parts of a whole. As you Pie Charts
draw a pie chart, A pie chart graphs the divisions
of a whole.
e Arrange the slices in the order of largest to smallest.
e Start the largest slice at 12 noon on the pie and proceed clockwise.
e Do not try to graph more than about eight segments.
Exhibit 7—6 shows a pie chart. Though most exhibits in this textbook use
color, this one shows differentiation among parts using only black and white.
You—and most computer graphics packages—can differentiate using direc-
Graphics 189
 |@xureir 7-6 Pie Chart with One “Exploded” Slice |
Figure 3
Landfill Contents, by Volume, Compacted, 1972-1992

EG Expanded poly foam E= Disp. diapers

2% 1%
[-] Organic, other
10%

fm
ie
1a en oe Sy HM Inorganic
33%
‘0

EES] Plastics, other

14%

BES Paper, other

27%

tional stripes, thick or thin stripes, solid black, solid white, a pattern of tiny
dots, cross-hatching, and many other patterns. Be sure the legend matches the
patterns.
Pie charts can be used in pairs. For example, competitors selling a similar
product or service compete for market share, that is, for the largest share of a
finite number of customers. Using one pie for the whole market share for each
year, we can graph each vendor’s success in marketing. In Exhibit 7—7, a
reader can quickly grasp the division of this camping goods market. Note that
the two pies for the two years do not depict any change in overall market size
over those years. This is appropriate if increase in market size is irrelevant to
the main point, which is market share.
A reader can quickly comprehend comparisons between two pies. Three or
more pies, however, are less easy to understand than a segmented 100 percent
bar graph (see page 193). Bar charts come in many forms, as we will see next.

Bar Charts Bar charts permit comparison of two or more items by showing amount or
distance alonga scale.
Bar charts show amount or Simple bar chart. Bar graphs have a horizontal axis and a vertical axis; each
distance alongascale. must be labeled clearly. (Vertical bar charts are sometimes called column
charts.) At least one axis on a bar graph will be numerical; the other may be
numerical or it may be a series of labeled items. Numerical scales must start at
zero, and intervals marked along the scale must be equal.
Whether in vertical or horizontal format, the bars should be of equal width.
Each bar should be identified. Shadings, cross-hatchings, or colors can be used
to distinguish among the bars.
190 Chapter Seven
|QXHIBIT 7-7 Paired Pie Charts |
Figure 6
Bandolier's Growth
Camping Goods Market Share, 1991-1992

{_E}\ Wind Ridge Corp.

=| Tierra
1991 [<<] Bamstaple Lid. 1992
Canoga Bros.
| []]Other |

The simple horizontal bar chart in Exhibit 7—8 lists 10 oil and utility stocks
and shows them all within a safe and respectable range for the early 1990s. The
bars are labeled, and the numerical axis, labeled as representing percentages,
starts at zero, which is standard for all bar charts.

Suppose you want to graph quantities for a series of

years but also show some important subdivisions of the quantities. You might
choose a grouped bar graph to do so.
Exhibit 7—9 shows sales volume for six successive years on a bar chart and
also shows how the subdivision s of a sales region compared with one another.
Note the labels on the axes and the use of a legend to identify the area
subdivisions. Exhibit 7—9 also shows numerical value labels with the bars;
these are optional.
Exhibit 7— 10 shows avertical bar graph comparing math and verbal scores
es the
among a group of students. The information you want to show determin
can order them by school grade as in
arrangement of the labeled bars. You
7-9, geographi cally, from lowest
Exhibit 7— 10, chronologically as in Exhibit
The “story”
to highest scores, or in any other way your reader will find logical.
verbal scores until grade 9, after
this graph tells is that math scores outpace
and remain consisten tly high while
which verbal scores rise past math scores
math scores trail off.
Although numerical scales must start at zero, sometimes the
“story” is relevant to only a segment of the scale between zero and the scale’s
top mark. Under these circumstances you introduce a scale break, as shown
in Exhibit 7-11.
When using a scale break, take care that the visual element still tells the
story fairly and truthfully. What readers see must reflect faithfully any worded
message on which the visual is based.
Graphics 191
 |QXHIBIT 7-8 Simple Bar Chart |
Figure 3
Recommended List of Ten Successful Oil and Gas Stocks

TEN SAFE INVESTMENTS

WATCHBIRD GAS

BRONX G&E §

CUYAHOGA zz

JOHNSON TEXAS

UNIFIED ELECTRIC
STATE FUEL OIL (gee

FIRTH G&E

BELTANE ESR
eee een
QUINTANA

BASILISK
DD 3 4 S 6
RECENT DIVIDEND YIELDS (%)

|@xuBir 7-9 Vertical and Horizontal Grouped Bar Charts |

Figure 1 Figure 1
ANNUAL AREA SALES DATA ANNUAL AREA SALES DATA
100
#& BAY AREA :
mB INLAND AREA 1992
80 = VALLEY AREA g@
O 4 1991

a is s i 1990
g i e i ‘3 F es

2 : ae ee
o> Fogg /
i ee oe j ia

B i ie ee 1988F
0 ee i ae a: oo bs
1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 19879
YEAR P
Source: Brekton Annual Sales Report
Los Angeles Area 0 20 40 60 80 100
SALES BY DISTRICT

MB INLAND AREA
#2 VALLEY AREA

Source: Brekton Annual Sales Report

Los Angeles Area

192 Chapter Seven

|@XHIBIT 7-10 Grouped Bar Chart |
Figure 5
Comparison of Math and Verbal Scores
by Grade Level
1000

an oe
oF
ee
Hee

_e
i ee
=
2
Oo
600 ee
= a5 ie
7
g He
Bee
:
o sepa oe Ee ee ee # Verbal scores
400; sa
ae
ee
Ee ee
eee @ Math scores
oe
an E ee :
i He es

o|__
8 10 11
| Grade level |

|@xuisit 7-11 Bar Graph with Scale Break, Vertical Format |

(Left) and Horizontal Format (Right)
Figure 7 Figure 7
Change in Electricians’ Change in Electricians'
Compensation 1980-1990 Compensation 1980-1990

Dn
cS
S
oDY
6
SG Se

— EE
3
"s
Ww

e Salary in thousands
1980 1990
Source: National Survey of Senior Source: National Survey of Senior
Electricians Wages and Benefits |
| Electricians Wages and Benefits

Segmented 100 percent bar graph. When differences both within and among
several wholes are important, the segmented 100 percent bar chart rather
than the pie chart is the correct format to use. (See Exhibit 7—1 2). Readers can
compare two pies, but they perceive differences among three or more pies less
readily. All the bars are the same height because the “story” emphasizes the
Graphics 193
 |QXHIBIT 7-12 Segmented 100 Percent Bar Chart |
Figure 7
Change in One Portfolio over 10-year Period

# Muni Bonds
== CDs

ee yyy li Real Estate

y # Stocks

LE
Soo oe eesoon A
300000
eRRaR . es ep a Lo
Oi

percentage makeup of each bar relative to that of the other bars. In the ex-
ample shown, although the portfolio grows between 1983 and 1993, this
graphic treatment emphasizes the division of its total value as investment
conditions change.

Component bar graphs. The component bar graph (see Exhibit 7— 13) can
compare multiple different-size wholes and at the same time show the com-
ponents of those wholes. This graph’s basic “story” is a rapid rise in the number
of installed fax machines, but the use of components shows that the increase
in use in government and business is more dramatic than that in homes. Glance
back at Exhibit 7—12 to see a different story: There the emphasis is on the
division of the whole rather than on the overall rise in portfolio value.

Positive-negative bar graphs. As Exhibit 7-14 shows, a bar graph can show
positive and negative values by placing the zero point in the middle of the scale
instead of at the bottom.

Line Charts Line charts show change over time (time series) and frequency distribution.
The vertical axis is usually used for amount and the horizontal axis for time.
Bar graphs and line graphs Line charts cover some of the same territory as bar charts in that both can
serve some, but not all, of the be used to display change over time and both can show frequency distribution.
same purposes.
Bar charts, however, emphasize amounts at specific sequential times or for
specific entities, while line charts emphasize changes in amount through time
or distribution— that is, trends.

Simple line charts. Exhibit 7—15 presents a simple line chart showing num-
ber of deliveries per month made by a small transportation company. The story
shows considerable seasonal fluctuation but a gradual rise in traffic.
194 Chapter Seven
|QXHIBIT 7-13 Component Bar Graph |
Figure 2
Increased FAX Machine Installations in Chicago
by Sector as Reported in Recent Buyer's Survey
20000

#8! GOVERNMENT
= HOME
NHHZC itis BUSINESS
10000

eat :a
GE
a Bs

on fe

ey) eee
QnrrrHawge
0 Re 2500 Le
Le
1989 1990 1991
| YEAR OF INSTALLATION |

|Q@xuisit 7-14 Positive-Negative Bar Graph |

Figure 9
Barchester Inc. Earnings
1990-1992
300000
GM Earnings $$
200000

100000

$$
Earnings
100000

—200000

-300000

400000
1qtr2qtr3qtr4qtr1qtr2gtr3qtr4qtr 1qtr2qtr3qtr4qtr
1990 LOO t 1992

Multiple-line charts. Multiple-line charts show comparisons among series

of items. These graphs should show no more than three or four lines. More
than that would make the graph confusing. Exhibit 7— 16 shows a multiple-line
graph.
You need to distinguish among the multiple lines so that the reader can
easily link them with a legend or key. You can use color to differentiate the
Graphics 195
 THE WIZARD OF ID

By permission of Johnny Hart and Creators Syndicate, Inc.

Whether the line means stock price or heart rate, the news looks bad.

|QxHIBIT 7-15 Line Chart |

Figure 5
Deliveries by Month, 1991-1992
400

wn
# 300
2

a
5 200

F
va
100

0
J FMAMJ JASONDJ FMAMJ JASOND
| 1991 1992 |

lines. You can also use different kinds of lines, such as dotted, dashed, unbro-
ken, and thick. You can even use use different small shapes to mark the graph
points connected by the lines, as in Exhibit 7— 16, One line might have square
bullets, another round bullets, another diamonds, and so on.
Cumulative line charts. Sometimes called area charts or surface charts,
cumulative line charts stack quantities of the same kind on top of one
another so that the reader can see both the totals and the components. Exhibit
7—17 shows a simple cumulative line chart. The visual point of this graph is
that while revenues rise rapidly, expenses also rise, so that the business’s net
shows only a modest rise.
Exhibits 7-18 and 7—19 show the same data, a frequency distribution,
presented as a component bar chart and a cumulative line chart, respectively.
Both charts show each department’s expenditures for out-of-house services for
a six-month period.
196 Chapter Seven
|QXHIBIT 7-16 Multiple-Line Chart |
Figure 12
Per Capita Consumption of Meat Reflecting
Dietary Changes in U.S. Eating Habits
Pounds
of Meat
90

80

70

60

50

40 aege= BEEF
= @— PORK
30 —@=—= CHICKEN

0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Ye

| Source: U.S. Department of Agriculture |

$$ thousands

@ expenses

oA
4

E e 2 Zo
Lo =a ts
Le Le

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994

year

Graphics 197
 |@xuiBir 7-18 Component Bar Chart Showing Same Data as |
Cumulative Line Chart in Exhibit 7—19
Figure 7
Externally Purchased Services by Department
$100,0: 00

#8 Marketing
== Finance
@ Administration
#2 Operations

|Q@XHIBIT 7-19 Cumulative Line Chart |

Figure 7
Externally Purchased Services by Department
0

@ Administration
#% Operations

Positive-negative line charts. Line graphs can show negative as well as posi-
tive values. The zero point is in the middle of the numeric axis. A horizontal
line at the zero point, as in Exhibit 7— 20, helps the reader quickly see which
points show positive and which show negative values.

Drawings, Diagrams, and You may have found yourself describing a mental image to another person and
Photographs thinking, “If only I had a picture of this!” In a report, do not devote paragraph
: after paragraph to description when you can obtain or produce an image. To
198 Chapter Seven
 C\ Bey h
I's WW NeW Hi ‘a A i I f }
PAINT
WAR
Mia Che Hy y)
DESIGN
Yh NB fy
oy * \ A
oh ZB
\
SNH
Hi
= CONP To WWE
iMfi TE CET
Vil Vern waneron er wenere cae 2k ONG LAC oFTHE NOLICANG

Q@xuir 7-20 Positive-Negative Line Chart

Figure 6
Rehling & Sons Fund
January 1991—December 1992

gain
%
loss
or

—e— % gain or loss

J FMAMJ J ASOND J FMAMJ J ASOND

1991 1992

see the benefit of using a drawing or a diagram, examine the cutaway drawing
in Exhibit 7—21.
The drawing shows the familiar washing machine, but with a difference:
Two sensors read information and send it to a microprocessor able to deal with
imprecise categories. The microprocessor treats the information using “fuzzy
rules,” that is, rules with ranges and combinations, which output signals reg-
ulating the washer settings to yield optimal cleaning results. With the diagram,
a nonspecialist reader understands clearly. Without the diagram, most of us
would probably still be wondering what it means.
A photograph may provide more detail than a drawing. This richness of The choice between a diagram
and a photo depends on how
detail may or may not be desirable. For example, a photo of a person’s face is much visual detail is relevant.
useful if subtlety of expression is important to the story. A photo instead of the
exploded, cut-away, x-ray drawing of the washing machine in Exhibit 7—21,
the
however, would have less detail. The reader would be less able to spot
sensors and the microprocessor among the familiar washing machine parts.
Graphics 199
|@xniBit 7-21 Diagram of Microprocessor-Equipped Washer |

How
Water : Fuzzy
Logic
Intake
Valve -

Works
Fuzzy logic is an attempt to make
machines reason more like
humans—taking into account a
Water number of factors that are not
| Intake precise to make a common-sense
Hoses judgment. When fuzzy theory is
applied to control systems in
Inner Tub — machines, a number of variables are
represented in mathematical terms
Transmission - that are analyzed simultaneously to
make operational decisions. The
following illustrates how fuzzy logic
is used in a washing machine
manufactured by Matsushita
Electric Industrial Co.:

3 The microprocessor
receives this information in
imprecise categories. For
example: The optical sensor says the
water is clean, somewhat dirty or very
dirty and the agitator says the load is
small, medium or very large. The
microprocessor contains "fuzzy rules"
that help it to interpret this general
information and choose one of about
600 combinations. Each choice contains
1 The optical sensor in the y) The agitator turns the clothes a set of orders telling the machine how
waste water pipe sends a beam in the washing machine to much water to let in and how much time
of light through the water. remove the dirt. The agitator to allow for the wash, rinse, and spin
The way in which this beam is distorted motor measures the resistance it feels as cycles (or whether to repeat any, or all,
determines how much dirt or oil there is it turns back and forth to help determine of the cycles). One result after the fuzzy
in the water as well as whether powder or the size of the load and roughly what rules are applied might be an order for
liquid detergent is being used. This type of material is in the clothing. The the machine to use lots of water,
information is sent to the microprocessor. larger the load and more absorbent the multiple rinse cycles and to extend the
cloth, the greater the resistance is likely spin time if the load is large and the
to be. The motor sends the information clothing very dirty.
to the microprocessor.

Source; Los Angeles Times, February 17, 1992, pp. D1, D4.

Pictograms Pictograms are an eye-catching variant of bar charts. Like bar charts, they can
be vertical or horizontal. Magazines and newspapers use them because they
seize attention at the same time they inform.
In a pictogram, a small image or symbol represents a given quantity, such as
a sum of money or a number of units. If one dollar sign ($) image represents
$1,000, a stack or row of six of them represents $6,000. The image used should
200 Chapter Seven
|QXaIBIT 7-22 Pictogram |
Figure 8
Imported Vehicles Triple 1989-1993

1989 eae Ge 177,420 ; ES = 100,000 vehicles

The right way

1992

— Ban
GR Qr2® 6
Figure 8
Imported Vehicles Triple 1989-1993 The wrong way

536,124

258,649
jm
177,420 @&

( 1993

Top example gives correct visual impression; bottom example is visually

misleading.

suggest the idea content of the graphic. For instance, flour production could be
graphed using small images of bags of flour. On the pictogram bars, an increase
in quantity is shown by an increase in the number of whatever symbol is
chosen. You could show 6 million tons of flour with a row of six bags and show
part of a bag to represent afraction of a seventh million.
The essential point in pictogram construction is to keep the image the same
size as you replicate it to increase the quantity represented. Sometimes you
will see inappropriate examples that compare quantities by showing one little
symbol and one or more progressively larger versions of the same symbol. The
visual image is misleading (see Exhibit 7-22). Images should show growth in
a quantity by expanding along one dimension. If, as in the second example in
Graphics 201
 |QXuIBIT 7-23 Map Exhibit |
Figure 10
Top Sales Areas
1993-1994
Where are we doing the most business?

Source: Regal Insurance Annual Report to Stockholders

In a pictogram, show increase Exhibit 7— 22, the image grows along two dimensions, the human eye “reads”
along one dimension, not two. —_g much greater quantity from the much larger bulk of the image. This visual
impression is false.

Maps Choose a map when you need to present a geographic distribution visually. For
instance, you can show average income, life span, or education level by dis-
trict, city, county, state, area of a country, or country.
Among low-tech options, atlases and road maps are readily available for you
to trace. (Use an enlarging and reducing photocopier as needed.) You can add
data and other identification with neat hand lettering or typewriting. If you
have a computer graphics package, maps are almost certainly one of your
options. Follow the easy directions to produce a professional-looking map
exhibit.
Exhibit 7—23 is a simple map illustrating rank order in sales by region.

COMPUTER OPTIONS Computer graphics packages such as Harvard Graphics, along with drawing
and painting programs and image scanners, offer a business writer many op-
tions. The newest versions of widely used spreadsheet programs such as Lotus
1-2-3 and Excel also offer flexible graphing capability. Presentation programs,
oe such as Microsoft Powerpoint and Aldus Persuasion, offer ease and flexibility in
creating graphics for use in talks.
Avoid “chart junk” in The same principles of simplicity, clarity, impact, and truthfulness should
computer-drawn graphics. guide your use of computer packages. Beginning users sometimes put too
much information and format variation into visuals simply because such op-
202 Chapter Seven
tions are available. They should not do so: High-tech junk is just as bad as
low-tech junk.

Not all visuals depend on expensive equipment and know-how to achieve high ATTRACTIVE LOW:
quality. Following are some low-tech alternatives that can produce equally
effective results. TECH OPTIONS

A meticulous person can produce an attractive graphic using only drawing and Cutting and Pasting
cutting tools, a copy machine, whiting-out fluid, and a typewriter or word
processor.

Sometimes a source will provide you with an excellent set of figures in para- Drawing Your Own Exhibit
graph or table form from which you can draw your own graph. Use grid-ruled
graph paper or plain paper that you have carefully ruled lightly in pencil.
Exhibit 7—24 shows a hand-drawn graphic.
Alternatively, if you rule your paper using the same intervals that separate
lines on a typewriter or printer (usually six single-spaced lines per vertical
inch), you can typewrite or computer print all the identifying material, includ-
ing exhibit number and title, labels for vertical and horizontal axes as needed,
and source note. Exhibit 7-25 combines typing and drawing.
Whether you type or hand print, remember that all the labels must fit within:
normal margins. Do not let them bulge out into margins, and use plenty of
white space to separate them from the text of your report.

|Q@xuisir 7-24 Hand-Drawn Graph on Graph Paper |

FUQURE¢
Pantown Kesidente Use ofCommunity Keereation Center

Response Category Percent responding

De Pears]
—Athert meewmode —| |19
Prlyal tatarnthtediaaise
olGis
Aboat once a month pee ae] %
Doh coinfounosthe |i \&%
Af tiesoper [__ 10%
Once ayen [Jo

Lats thee moveger [108

Dee acyslagsasst oe oa)
Suche: ley,LM. (1993, June 6), Community SOFUICES
iwestipated as waste oftax dollars, Pantoun Press, p. A,

Graphics 203
 |QXHIBIT 7-25 Typed and Hand-Drawn Graphic |
FIGURE 4
Pantown Residents Use of Community Recreation Center

Response Catego Percent responding

Daily fe es a a Le
At least once a week Ce ee eee
Several times amonth [16%
About once a month [ete 41 955,
Once every few months [| 5%
A few times a year (Sere 09
Once a year L 13%
Less than once a year [——C—~d‘CL‘ 3%
Never been there ae OC is 2 a

Source: Ivy, L.M. (1993, June 6). Community services

| investigated as waste of tax dollars. Pantown Press, p. Al. |

Using a Photocopied Visual Sometimes one of your reference sources will contain a visual, such as a graph,
table, or drawing, perfectly suited to your purpose. To use it, make a clean
photocopy. For best results, use a copier that can enlarge or diminish an image
so that you can size the visual attractively and legibly for your report. Draft a
source note to include below the visual.

Putting It Together Type or print the page on which you intend to use the visual, leaving space not
only for the square or oblong graphic you drew or photocopied but also for
elements you are adding, such as your exhibit number, exhibit title, identifi-
cation of components, and source note. Leave enough additional white space
to separate all these elements from the report text in an attractive way. With
a ruler, make light pencil guide lines to ensure exact vertical and horizontal
alignment. (Erase the lines later.) Make sure the left and right margins are
exactly those you will use in the report itself. Then paste up your elements and
photocopy the result. Use opaque whiting-out fluid to remove any traces of
lines. Then photocopy the page again to obtain your finished product.
Exhibit 7—26 shows the steps in preparing a report page with a cut-and-
pasted graphic. Plan all these steps carefully. You do not want to do any of
them a second time.

Clip Art Clip art refers to collections of pictures, usually line drawings or engravings.
Many such items are in the public domain, which means you can copy and use
them without obtaining permission. Check for a copyright before you copy a
visual. If the image is under copyright, use it only as permitted.
Software vendors have accumulated some of the pictures, created many
others, and offered “clip art libraries” on disk. Some are available as “share-
ware”; that is, you examine them and send a small fee to the maker if you
intend to use them. Books of clip art have been available for a long time.
Printshops often have clip art, as might your college library.

204. Chapter Seven

|Qxuit 7-26 Steps in Cut-and-Paste Insertion of Graphic in |
Report

Many of the pictures exist for fun or for nonbusiness uses. Some of the most
beautiful clip art is suitable for illustrating fantasy, science fiction, or adventure
fiction.
Clip art you might find useful includes small images of business-related
objects. For instance, in a vertical bar graph comparing amounts of cheese
produced by different states, you could use a small drawing of a wedge of Swiss
cheese. You could make many copies of the wedge, let each wedge stand for
1,000 tons of product, and stack them neatly one on top of another in a bar to
show the total amount produced byastate. If the amounts do not round out
to neat thousands of tons, you can cut the topmost wedge to show a fraction
of 1,000 tons. (See Exhibit 7—27.)
,
You can also find small pictures of arrows, faces, computers, buildings
checkmar ks, animals,
human figures, stars, flags, sunbursts, foods, vehicles,

Graphics 205
 |@xuHBIT 7-27 Vertical Bar Graph Using Clip Art Image, |
Repeated and Stacked
Figure 8
Cheese Production, 1992
North Central States
Tons in 000s
7,000

6,000

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

geometric shapes, borders, and so on. If an image is useful as a symbol, you will
find it in clip art libraries.
You can use the low-tech copy, cut, and paste method, or you can import
computerized clip art into one of the many computer drawing, graphing, or
word processing programs available.
With a computer drawing or painting program, you can copy an image
hundreds of times if you choose, expand it or reduce it, rotate it in space,
invert it vertically or horizontally, and stretch it vertically or horizontally,
among many other things.
Be aware that not all images are equally acceptable to all cultures. For
example, certain animals (serpent, rat, cricket) carry different symbolism in
different countries. An icon (a small, simplified image) of a woman might work
well in the United States but offend sensibilities in some other nations. A plain
white cross, sometimes used in the United States to symbolize mortality fig-
ures, would make little sense in an area where Christianity is not a major
influence and crosses are not used as grave markers.

According to Zelazny,
A chart used in a visual presentation must be at least twice as simple
and four times as bold as one used in a report. It’s the same as the
Presentation visuals should be
“twice as simple and four times
distinction between a billboard that must be read and understood in
as bold” as visuals used in the time you drive past it and a magazine advertisement that you can
written reports. study in detail.'
Why use graphics in an oral presentation at all? Isn’t standing up there and
giving a good presentation enough? Aren’t graphics just frills and extra work?
Not really. To appreciate the importance of using visuals to accompany oral
messages, imagine someone explaining how to use a computer software pro-

‘Gene Zelazny, Say It with Charts: The Executive's Guide to Successful Presentations, 2nd
ed. (Homewood, III.; Business One Irwin, 1991), p. 5.

206 Chapter Seven

gram to you over the telephone. Even if the speaker is skilled and knowledge-
able, words are not enough. Seeing what the speaker is describing makes a
significant difference.
In business communicators’ ialks, presentation graphics
e Introduce the speaker and topic.
e Present an overview of organization.
e Emphasize important points.
e Clarify difficult concepts.
e Reemphasize the purpose of the presentation.
Visuals are valuable in written reports because they put complex information
into a more understandable form. Similarly, in oral presentations, graphs and
illustrations aid understanding. Diagrams can reduce complex ideas into their
essential components. An appropriate picture or drawing helps people see
what they are hearing.
A second value of presentation visuals is that they solve a problem inherent Presentation visuals should help
the audience understand
in listening to talks. Your receivers listen at your pace, not theirs. They can’t purpose, structure, and
pause to think about something or turn back to earlier information. Because of emphasis.
this essential difference between written and oral communication, good speak-
ers learn to keep their listeners with them. The basic structure of oral reports
(discussed in Chapter Nine) helps, but worded structure alone is not enough.
Visuals help listeners stay with the speaker.
Chapter Nine covers many more types of visuals than we will discuss here.
In this section we will focus on overhead transparencies or 35mm slides (we
will refer to both types simply as slides). However, the same content and much
the same format could be offered in other forms, such as a prepared flipchart
exhibit, a deskchart exhibit, part of a computer show, or various other media.

Examine Exhibit 7—28 to see the various purposes different slides serve. The Introducing the Speaker and
opening slide (Slide 1) is simple but important. It answers the audience's first the Topic
questions: who you are and what you are going to speak about. Using such a
slide shows your listeners that you are professional and organized. Conveying
this image enhances your personal confidence: You know you are getting off to
a good start.
Project this opening slide behind you as you begin to speak. This will
reinforce and strengthen your opening remarks. Use this introductory slide
only once, briefly, at the start of the talk.

Slide 2 is an example of an organizer. It tells the audience three things in Presenting an Overview of
advance: the Talk’s Organization
e The extent or coverage of the presentation.
e The basic components of the topic.
e The order in which they will be discussed.
This slide is a simplified version of the outline for your presentation. When you
share it with the audience beforehand, they can follow you easily as you
contiriue. In other words, everyone is “on the same page.”
The other forms of graphics discussed in this section are normally used only
once during a presentation, but you can use your organizational slide several
times. You can use it once at the beginning of your talk and then put it away
or refer to it several times during the presentation to refresh listeners’ mem-
Graphics 207
|@xuiit 7-28 Examples from a Set of Presentation Graphics |

—-
— | ee Anniversary Imports Corporation | Entering Asian Markets:
|ba Hard-Learned Le$$ons for U.S. Sellers.

Entering Asian Markets: e Different Nations, Different Ways

Hard-Learned Lessons | e The Value of Patience
for U.S. Sellers | e The Payoff in Profit
e The Payoff in International
Understanding
Speaker: Annette January
Senior Foreign Financial Analyst

_ |Different Approaches , |"L€ silence is golden, ty

[ |toBusiness Negotiations = —_———
|| patience is platinum"

e@ Japan In Negotiating,
© Korea Allow Time
® Taiwan
e@ For Developing Relationships
© Indonesia
e For Equaling Their Patience =
@ Mainland China
e@ For Taking the Long View

[| Projected Sales Forecast

— -—
[—|What
welearn from this ...
Annual Sales
in Million $
“Western assumptions and
Western 'efficiency'
win few friends
in Asia.”

1989 1990 1991

208 Chapter Seven

ories. If appropriate, you can use it again at the conclusion to reinforce what
you have covered.

Slides 3 and 4 are expansions of main topics shown in Slide 2. Showing the Emphasizing Important
listeners more about these items underscores the ideas’ importance. Present- Points
ers do not have to haveaslide to illustrate every item they discuss, but using
these graphics adds visual emphasis to important points.

Concepts, whether theoretical ideas or conclusions drawn from numerical Clarifying Concepts
data, can confuse or even elude listeners if they are presented without suffi-
cient explanation and graphic support. Slide 5 is a simple picture of the “pay-
off” for understanding different cultural values. In this form, “the numbers”
can become a motivating device.
This example illustrates a valuable tip in working with graphics: Ask yourself
whether you, sitting in the audience, would follow a given point more easily
if it were accompanied by a visual. Don’t overload your presentations with
slides, but don’t hesitate to include one when it will make something easier to
understand or remember.

The introductory slide is memorable because of its place in the presentation. Reemphasizing the Purpose
What the audience sees first has a strong psychological impact. Likewise, the of the Presentation
graphic they see last makes a strong impression because it is last. They will also
expect you to tell them what is most important at the end of your presentation.
Don’t let them down. For example, you might say as you show avisual like
Slide 6, “If there’s one thing I want you to remember from our meeting today,
it’s this:. . .” Ifyou bring back your organizational slide (Slide 2) to summarize
at the end of your presentation, make it precede your final-message slide.

You may be asked to instruct others using computer screens instead of either COMPUTER SCREEN
paper documents or oral presentations. For instance, the procedure report, a DESIGN
common type of short report, may slowly be giving way to onscreen instruc-
tion (computer-aided instruction, or CAI). Other kinds of communication via
computer screens exist as well.
Computer screen design shares some features with printed-page design but
offers some very different features you can use to add value. Conciseness,
clarity, consistency, familiar language, short sentences and paragraphs, item-
ized lists, headings, and white space are as desirable in screen design as they
are in all business communication. Some elements that differ include color use,
scrolling and other movement, sound, and automatic pacing. This section a
presents a quick overview of some principles to keep in mind. The screens
shown in Exhibit 7— 29 are modest, showing only a few of a virtually unlimited
array of possibilities.
Control time. Onscreen information can appear slowly or quickly. The diffi-
culty of the information and your users’ reading speed and experience should
govern how rapidly information appears.
Use space inventively and effectively. A screen can start anywhere, not just at
top left. An image can start in the middle and spread outward to fill the screen.
For images, these unusual origin points can be memorable and effective. For
text, however, users should be able to look in the same place every time for
such things as menu prompts, screen numbers, response areas, and information
areas. Consistency is essential.
Graphics 209
 |@xuBir 7-29 Four Sample Screens for Computer-Aided |
Instruction

amet Sabet re eee ee Q=Quit N=Next P=Prior Screen H=Help

: At step 6,
thepackageweight a

‘Press N to see next question.

Q=Quit N=Next P=Prior Screen H=Help

ape the letteratyour answer fares(tl Press N to see next question.

C. Question D. Feedback Screen Provides Right Answer

Use plenty of white space. This term still applies to space with nothing in it,
even though you may see every color except white on a screen.
Sequence words from left to right, not from top to
bottom. Stay with familiar words and abbreviations (omit periods in abbrevi-
ations). Use short sentences and short lines. Be predictable. Use familiar em-
phasis principles.
Emphasis principles are A designer has a wealth of options, including bold-
important in every face, color, moving graphics, underlining, sound, reverse video, and flashing.
communication medium.
Using too many of these devices too frequently, however, violates principles of
good design and interferes with their ability to emphasize. (Remember that if
everything is emphasized, nothing is.) To help users get the most out of your
screens, make some basic design choices and use them consistently.
Because flipping back
and forth among different screens is awkward, each screen should be self-
contained. Everything needed for one task should appear on a single screen.
Using too many colors will
distract users from your messages. Strong colors—red, green, yellow, blue,
white—are best. Use intelligently the colors associated with symbolic mean-
ings, such as green for go and red for stop. Color well used adds interest to
screens, but black-and-white screens are preferable to screens that overuse
color.
210 Chapter Seven
 Reinforce color use with narrative. Make sure the message is complete
irrespective of the color. Use blue or green for text and hotter colors (which
tend to “pulse” too much for text) for graphics. Because paper reflects colors
and screens produce light, colors on paper look different than the same colors
do on a screen. Also, color combinations that work well on paper do not
necessarily work onscreen.
Hold down the amount of text. Text lines should not exceed about eight to
ten words. Shorter lines permit the use of accompanying small graphics. Some-
times text lines can be superimposed on a photographic visual.

As you prepare and revise graphics for assignments or business use, refer to
Checklist 7-1.

Graphics—tables, charts, maps, and other kinds of visuals— supplement and REVIEW
clarify written text. Visuals require simplicity, clarity, impact, and truthfulness.
Visuals that accompany oral presentations should be simpler than those used
in written communications.
Visuals in written reports must be labeled with a number, titled descrip-
tively, sized appropriately, introduced and interpreted in the text, placed as
close as possible to the introduction, and documented correctly.
Types of visuals include tables and figures. Tables may be informal (“spot”)
or formal. Figures include pie charts, simple bar charts, segmented 100 percent
bar graphs, grouped bar graphs, component bar graphs, positive-negative bar
graphs, simple line charts, multiple line charts, cumulative line charts, positive-
negative line charts, drawings and diagrams, and maps. Although many visuals
are created using a computer, graphics programs, and clip art, manually pre-
pared cut-and-paste graphics sometimes serve the purpose.
Graphics 211
 Presentation visuals should be simple and bold. They serve to introduce
speaker and topic, present an overview of the speaker’s organization, empha-
size important points, clarify difficult concepts, and reemphasize the purpose
of the presentation.
When developing a communication consisting of a series of computer
screens, follow good screen design principles.

212 Chapter Seven

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
. Why should graphics designed for oral ds Distinguish between a table and afigure.
presentations be simpler and bolder than those 8. In a graphic, what is a legend?
intended for written reports?
9. What are the guidelines for drawing pie charts?
. Writers who need to display the components of
10. What are the various kinds of bar charts? For what
one or more wholes can choose between two purpose is each type used?
kinds of figures. What kinds of figures are these,
11. Although bar charts and line charts serve some of
and what factors govern the choice?
the same purposes, under what circumstances
Consider this statement: “If a graphic is good would a line chart be the only correct choice?
enough, a report writer need not cover its
122 When is a diagram of an object more informative
material in the report text at all.” Is this statement
than a photograph of the object?
true or untrue? Discuss.
13. Have you used a computerized graphics package?
. If you had to graph monthly fuel usage over a
What are its advantages? Does it have any
period of 48 months, would you use a bar chart
disadvantages?
or a line chart? Why?
14. In what ways do presentation visuals differ from
What are some ways a visual can lie or distort the
those prepared for written reports? In what ways
facts?
are they similar?
What is the proper treatment of visuals in written
15: What are some guidelines for designing computer
reports, according to the expectations of most
screens to be used in computer-aided instruction?
business readers?

CASES
Interpreting a Map Graphic. The 2. Comparing Two Newspapers’ Use of
accompanying map shows percentages of problem Graphics. From the daily newspaper that serves
real estate loans, by state, for the second quarter your area, find one or more business-related news
of 1992. What “story” does this map tell? stories containing graphs or charts that you

Percentage of problem realestateloans by state

SOO eye
GUBBA Between 4% and 8%
EEE 8% or higher

Source: Los Angeles Times, September 10, 1992, p. D-1.

Graphics 213
 consider clear and effective. Obtain a recent copy 1985 and 1991. In 1985 a CEO’s base salary
of USA Today. Bring to class the business section accounted for 52 percent, annual bonus for 22
of USA Today and either hard copies or percent, long-term award for 8 percent, benefits
photocopies of the news stories you located in for 16 percent, and perks (perquisites) for 2
your area daily newspaper. Be ready to discuss percent. In 1991 CEO base salary accounted for
how the two newspapers approach the use of 35 percent of total compensation, annual bonus
business graphics. Are they similar or dissimilar? for 22 percent, long-term award for 31 percent,
How? Which has more impact? Which is clearer? benefits for 11 percent, and perks for 1 percent.
Which is simpler? Are both truthful? Defend your Prepare a graphic showing this “story.” Be sure to
opinions. include all the necessary components.
. A Table: Organizing Your Budget. What are . A Positive-Negative Bar Chart: Showing
your personal expenses for a typical month? Average Returns. Following are the percentage
Create a table showing expenses in each of five to returns on the average general stock mutual fund,
seven budget categories. Label everything clearly. 1975—1992. Make a positive-negative bar chart
. A Bar Graph: Comparing Profits. You have showing these data graphically. After labeling
been asked to track the profits of seven of the everything appropriately, write a statement
largest U.S. public companies. For the third interpreting the graph.
quarter of 1992, profits for the companies were as
follows: Bank America, $476,000,000; Coca-Cola,
$541,000,000; Merck, $644,000,000; AT&T,
$963,000,000; General Electric, $1,110,000,000;
Exxon, $1,135,000,000; and Philip Morris,
$1,291,000,000. Prepare a bar graph showing
these profits. Be sure all necessary components
are present. Consider using the wording “in
millions” or “$ millions” to avoid long rows of
zeros.
. Line Charts: Tracking Advertising and
Volume. Budweiser’s advertising expenditures
and volume of beer sold from 1982-1992 were
as follows: . Converting a Table to a Graph. From your
daily newspaper’s business section, find a table
containing figures about any element of business
that interests you. Photocopy the table, being sure
to collect the information you would need to
1982 $ 48m 41.0 m barrels document it. Then decide how some or all of the
1983 $ 70m 43.4 m barrels information could be presented graphically.
1984 $ 72m 44.3 m barrels Create your graph. Make it complete.
1985 $ 76m 46.2 m barrels . A Bar Chart: Graphing Sales Totals. Use your
1986 $113 m 48.2 m barrels library skills to find the answer to this question:
1987 $113 m 49.7 m barrels For the most recent year for which statistics are
1988 $137 m 50.3 m barrels complete, what are the top 10 selling cars and
1989 $116 m 50.0 m barrels trucks in the United States? Make a bar graph
1990 $ 77m 49.0 m barrels showing total units sold for these models.
1991 $ 88m 46.2 m barrels
10. A Pair of Pies: Showing Where the Money
1992 $123 m 46.3 m barrels
Isn’t. As you examine operating costs for your
department in March, the end of the first quarter
Create two line charts that give this information. of your budget year, you learn that telephone
Write a short paragraph explaining the main idea charges have risen dramatically while your
a reader should derive from looking at the two operating budget has not risen at all. You are
charts as a pair. planning a memo asking your people to control
. Pies or Segmented Bars? Showing Division of their phone use closely. Here are the figures: For
CEO Pay. The Hay Group’s Executive both last year and this year, $54,000 was
Compensation Database contains figures on the budgeted for total operating costs, which
components of a chief executive officer’s comprise office supplies, photocopying, insurance
compensation package as they changed between and machine repair, mail costs, and telephone.
214 Chapter Seven
 Last year, supplies cost $21,600 (40 percent), budget for the year. Phone charges, if employees
photocopying $12,960 (24 percent), insurance continue as they have begun, will rise to $9,720.
and machine repair $5,400 (10 percent), mail You need a pair of pie charts to clarify the
expenses $8,640 (16 percent), and phone charges problem for them. Graph last year’s expenses.
$5,400 (10 percent). Then show in the second pie that phone charges
As of March of this year, you have already paid are soaking up an unplanned 18 percent of your
for unforeseen and uninsured repairs that will total overhead. The supplies budget is virtually
elevate this category of expense to $7,560, or 14 the only one you can tap. This pie chart’s message
percent, for the year if nothing more goes wrong. is that your company’s supplies budget will be
Mail expenses, supplies, and photocopying look out of funds by October unless phone use is
likely to stay within— but just barely within— sharply curbed.

WORDS ON THE WALL

eading 7.1 Audrey Thompson

Here you are, again. Seated in a darkened conference room comprehension. Streamline, rearrange, and split up
in an office or hotel, straining an ear to the drone of a content, so that each visual covers only one
presenter, distracted too often by a cough, the creak of a concept.
chair, and the fact that your buns are going slowly numb. The conciseness edit. If an audience can’t grasp the
Your eyes glaze at flash after flash of illegible, dull, and main message in 5 to 10 seconds, the slide’s not
ineffectual slides. Your comprehension is now as dim as the working. Watch the length of phrasing. Break
hall, and you yearn for the final slide that will be titled, sentences into bulleted lists, giving only their main
inevitably, “Conclusion.” points. Pare out any extraneous or redundant
We've all had to endure this slide-induced torpor. Why, words, numbers, and labels.
then, do we so quickly forget the ordeal when it’s time to e The copyedit. Make bulleted lists parallel in
project our own words on the wall? construction (e.g., all noun phrases or all verb
Slides and overheads are as pervasive in business as cam- phrases). Establish and follow a consistent style of
paign promises in an election year—and, alas, often as capitalization and labeling. Fix grammar. Vary your
empty. Yet presentation visuals, like their printed cousins use of language.
letters and reports, must have a clear purpose and message
e The proofread. Verify all spelling, especially of
if they are to be worthwhile. people’s names. Double-check numbers and data.
I’m not talking about how pretty a slide looks here. ’'m
talking about content. About the communication part of For every visual, ask yourself: If this were a handout, would
business communication. a reader be able to recall the gist of what I said by reading
Persuasion’s outliner is a great tool for getting your it a week from now?
thoughts organized enough to present them. But don’t fall
into the trap of stopping there. Visuals belong to your au- Make the Most of Your Medium
dience. They exist to synthesize your main points and to Like any communication medium, slide shows have advan-
give your listeners a road map of where you're going. In tages and limitations that dictate their best content and
many ways, they do for the spoken word what headlines usage.
and subheads do for a printed piece. Anything else is a Have an agenda slide. The old presenter’s adage is “Tell
waste of your audience’s time. ‘em what you're going to tell ’em, tell ’em, then tell ’em
what you told ’em.” You’re up there to communicate, so
tell your audience up front what to expect from you. Leave
Ten Percent Is All You Get the mystery to Agatha Christie.
Statistics have long shown that audiences recall only 10 Never read your slides verbatim. It insults your audience,
percent of most oral presentations. Your job is to put that and it makes you superfluous. The visuals are there to con-
10 percent on the slides. A good way to accomplish this is vey the 10 percent you want your group to recall; you're
to subject each visual to a four-pass edit, revising it with there to convey the 90 percent that supports and explains
your reader in mind. The four steps are: those points.
e The content edit. Verify that each slide adds
something the audience needs to know. Delete Source: Audrey Thompson, “Words on the Wall,” Aldus
anything that isn’t unique, specific, and relevant to Magazine, September/October 1992, pp. 39-42.

Graphics 215
 Allow only one minute per slide, so the audience stays it’s just acting as a speaker prompt. Honor your
attentive. Slide builds can be a valuable pacing tool, but audience’s time and intelligence: if you have
don’t overdo it—you don’t want the audience fidgeting something to say, expand the copy to summarize it;
over how many more bullets they have yet to sit thtough. if not, delete the slide.
Vary the kinds of slides in your show. A parade of pie . Long or meaningless titles. In the real world, it’s
charts is just as wearying as slide after slide of text. inevitable that some slide titles will be uninspiring,
Know when not to use a slide. If you simply can’t com- but they should never be vague, cryptic, pointless,
press a concept enough to fit it legibly on one or more or so heavy that they outweigh the 10 percent you
visuals, you’re using the wrong medium for that particu- want the audience to grasp.
lar message. By all means, stop the show to hold a discus- Make titles say something, whether to
sion, direct attention to a handout, provide an ancillary encapsulate your point or titillate interest. Vary the
report, or give a demonstration. style with topic titles (“Bonus Plan”), thematic
When you go the extra step of assessing what you want titles (“Bonus Plan Increasing Productivity”), and
your listeners to understand from each visual, you'll never assertive titles (“We Must Implement Bonus Plan
hear it said, “Gee, the slides were beautiful. Too bad they Now”). Put in verbs. Edit down to the important
didn’t say anything.” words. Use subheads to carry text that’s repeated
from slide to slide. And don’t be afraid to get a
Nine Common Faults and Their Cures little creative— standbys like “Conclusion,”
“Summary,” and “Agenda” work in a pinch but get
1. Too many words. Having over 35 words onaslide. old quickly. (On the other hand, don’t sacrifice
undermines your delivery, forcing your audience tc comprehension for cleverness.)
choose between attending to you and reading the . Cryptic phrases, abbreviations, and jargon. Buzz
visual. At worst, it reduces you to reading the slide words, acronyms, and abbreviations can belittle or
verbatim, damaging your credibility as a speaker. baffle an audience. Don’t use them unless you’re
Cut to the chase, but don’t be concise at the absolutely sure that a// your listeners are familiar
expense of comprehension. Reduce the text down with the terms. A slide that talks about “Mfg reqs,”
to your essentials. Use brief phrases, broken into “JITs,” and “BOMs” might make sense to members
bulleted points where appropriate. Then your of the manufacturing department, but not to their
audience can quickly grasp your direction, leaving colleagues in marketing.
them free to listen to your more engaging speech. 7. Nonparallel construction of text. Bullet points that
2. Too many bulleted points. Too many points are don’t sound similar grate on the sensibilities and
impossible to absorb at once. They also force a mar quick comprehension. Here’s a typical
slide to be on screen too long, draining energy example:
from your presentation and your listeners.
Keep to a maximum of five bullets or eight lines The Cinder-Cone Volcano
per slide, and confine each slide to one concept.
e Composed of congealed lava
Expand a lengthy subject to two slides, or
reorganize the bullets by topic, each with its own e Lava cinders form round cone
slide. Avoid subbullets unless your audience needs e Usually leave a bowl-shaped crater
them; often, they represent a level of detail better e Can find them throughout western North
left to speaker notes. America
3. Too much information. Information overload is
particularly easy with data. When you let yourself Strive instead for the rhythm and logic of
get caught up in statistics and labels, viewers will like-sounding phrases—start all bullets with a verb,
lose sight of the main point—or may miss it for example, or with an adjective or noun phrase.
entirely... . The example above would be much easier to take
Choose the one point you want the audience to in if the last three bulleted points followed the
get,. . . and delete all other material as form of the first, like this:
irrelevant. Juggle information into smaller
pieces. . . . You can fill in supporting statistics e Composed of congealed laval
orally. (And round the figures when you speak: e Has round cone of lava cinders
“over a third” is much easier to grasp than “37 e Characterized by bowl-shaped crater
percent.”) e Found throughout western North America
4. Slides that say nothing to the audience. If a slide
about the hotel industry has bulleted points (Note that the verbs “is” and “are” can often be
reading “Food,” “Rooms,” “Services,” and “Rates,” treated as understood.)
216 Chapter Seven
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YAeport Organization
and Format
During your career, you may be called on to write, or participate in the writing of, a
longer, formal report. Such a project can be a major step forward for you,
especially if you are the person who is primarily responsible for the report.
This chapter covers the writing of a formal report. You will see how to outline
your report, considering its audience, purpose, and schedule. Many long reports
are written by groups of people; such a group needs coordination. You will also
read about report organization and style and how that style can vary depending on
the purpose and type of report.
Next, you will go through all of the parts of a report, seeing how they fit
together and why. Finally, you will study an example of a long report.

219
 From the desk of. ..
Report Writing Opportunity

Two months ago I was the analyst who had just finished the market study of
the new ice cream flavors. The focus group seemed to like the ones with cookie
dough in them. Sarah, my boss, asked me to take the results and write a report
Ken Dixon proposing a new line based on that study. She said it needed to cover plans for
Assistant Product Manager
manufacturing and marketing, costs, prices, labeling — in short, everything.
It was a major research and coordination project, because I had to get input
from others. I had to learn more about costs and profit margins. The lawyers
had to cover the labeling issues. Jim in the plant wrote the section on what we
would need for manufacturing. I had to edit it so that everyone could under-
stand both the legalese and the technical language, and that led me to learn a lot
about labeling rules and manufacturing. But it was worth it. Sarah liked my re-
port; she sent it upstairs. They must have liked it there, too. They decided to
start the new line, and I’m the assistant product manager.

A long report is a significant investment for a business. When you are given the
chance to write one, you have an opportunity to reveal your talents to key
people in the company. If you do a good job on the report, that exposure can
lead to advancement. This chapter will help you learn to write the kind of long
report that will impress key people favorably.

PLANNING THE LONG When working on a report that may be 15 to 150 or more pages long, sound
REPORT PROJECT work on organization and structure will keep it from being choppy and dis-
connected. The longer the report, the more likely it is that numerous people
will give input. Many reports are composed of material supplied by, or even
written by, several different authors. The lead report wnter must make the
overall plan, gather the material, and then edit it so that style is consistent and
organization is logical throughout. Whether the report wnter has sole respon-
sibility or is the coordinator of a group effort, he or she should

I. Identfy the audience, purpose, and due date. \s the purpose of the
report to get the board of directors to select a health plan at the next
board meeting? To recommend a new advertising campaign to the
director of marketing at a meeting next week? To outline the capital
budget for the coming year?

2. Decide what the report will cover. If the report is to propose an action
based on research yet to be done, you must determine what the possible
decisions are. If you have already made a decision based on facts you
now have, you need to decide how to present that recommendation most
effectively.

220 Chapter Eight

 Often a long formal report
will be the work of a task group.
The research and reporting
process takes open discussion and
a strong sense of cooperation. It
also needs a coordinator of the
task group who can get the best
from everyone and produce
a unified report — one that meets
the organization’s needs, meets
its deadline, and represents
the writers favorably.

Superstock, Inc.

3. W hte a draft outline of the report. ‘This outline is tentative and can be Preliminary outlines break
brief, but it should include all the essential parts of the report in enough the probable content into its
detail to give both a guide to use while writing the report and a sense of parts and help prevent
how much work will be involved in each part of the report. duplication.

4, Determine how long each part of the report will take to prepare and in
what order you must complete the parts. For example, in writing a
business plan, completed market research is essential for generating an
estimate of the total market for the product. The total market size, in
turn, is needed before you can estimate product sales. And you have to
know the sales estimates before you can prepare financial statements.
At this stage, look at the time allocations to see whether they are Scheduling is essential
consistent with the deadlines you face. If you need three weeks to for individually written
complete a report for the board meeting a week from Wednesday, your reports, but even more
plan needs adjustment. critical when reports are

Remember too that once the long report is written, it may need to PS
go through production if many people are to read it. It takes tme — more
time than many people realize — to turn a word-processed manuscript
into a finished product and get it reproduced and bound. You may find,
for example, that it will take two or three days to physically produce 15
copies of a 20-page report.

5. Decide who will write each part of the report. Usually you will also want
to have others on the wniting team craque each report part.

6. Decide on the report style. How many levels of headings will you have?
How will you identify each level? How will you identify exhibits and
tables, and where will they appear? How will you cite sources? If all
members of the writing team use the same style, the report will look like a
unified whole. If not, it will look like a patchwork of individual reports
that do not fit together well.

After you have decided on these preliminaries, you will all be writing with a
common purpose and style. Later, after each section is completed, you will need

Report Organization and Format 221

 to edit for consistency of style and add transitional language to bndge from one
section to the next.

Organizing a multipage report is easier if you divide the work into sections. Use
the organizing principles you learned in Chapter One to see what kind of organ-
ization your topic and audience seem to call for (analysis, cause-effect, chrono-
logical, spatial, decision criteria).

Another decision you will need to make is whether to use direct or indirect
structure. Will your report message generally meet with reader approval, or dis-
appointment, or resistance? You can present parts of the report inductively,
building up an argument before you reveal your conclusion. You can use pas-
sive voice for ideas the reader would find negative and show reader benefit for
ideas the reader may resist.

People in other cultures have strong ideas about how reports should be organ-
Will Important
ized. Therefore, if you are writing a report for non-U.S. readers, or reading a
Readers Be From
report from another country, you will need to keep their preferences in mind.
Other Nations?

Here are some examples from Vamer', who has studied international communi-
cation in great detail:

¢ Japanese reports tend to present information in chronological order.

¢ Germans include a detailed discussion of background material whether or

not the reader needs it; they think that all reports need a thorough
introductory section on the topic.

¢ French reports move from abstract to concrete, first discussing the theory
behind the problem and then the history of the problem.

¢ Reports in Latin countries sometimes omit bad news altogether because

employees don't want to mention negative findings, or present bad news
in a misleading way rather than as a problem area to be discussed.

Chapter Sixteen will offer much more information about writing for readers in
other cultures.

Time spent Planning your report writing even before you begin your research can save you
planning shortens tume, because you will already have focused on why and how you will prepare
time spent revising. the report. Checklist 8-1 outlines the steps to take when preparing your long re-
port. As with all messages, first consider your audience to avoid problems later.

‘Iris I. Vamer, Contemporary Business Report Writing. (Hinsdale, Ill.: Dryden Press, 1987), p. 398.

222 Chapter Eight

 Checklist 8--1 The Report Process
Identify the audience, purpose, and due date. Perform your research and collect your source list
Decide what the report will cover (Decision? for the final report.
Recommendations’). Organize your findings and write your report
Determine how long each part of the report introduction.
will take to prepare and in what order the . Write up your findings as the body of the report.
parts must be completed. Form conclusions (and recommendations, if
Decide who will write each part of the report, appropriate).
if it 1s a team effort. Enhance your report with graphics.
Decide on the report style (layout and writing Write the preliminary pages of your report
style). You will choose a writing style based on (title page, transmittal, table of contents,
your audience, the level of formality of the summary).
report, and the report’s purpose, among other Revise for most effective layout design.
things. Revise for writing style.

Report style includes two facets: How the report looks and how it sounds to the REPORT STYLE
reader. The look is determined by the use of type fonts, white space, graphics,
levels of headings, and other visual elements. The sound is the result of the way
you write the report. You will use different styles for different kinds of reports
and for different audiences.

A long business report should look professional:

Binding, type, headings,
¢ The binding should be attractive in a businesslike way and the
and exhibits influence a
information on the cover should tell a reader what is inside. reader's willingness to read
a business report.
¢ The type face should be easy to read. A serif face is easier to read than a
sans serif face because most people learned to read in books with this
kind of type. Select a readable type size and face for your report.
Especially when writing for an audience that is over 40, remember that
many people may have difficulty reading small print.

¢ The headings should be consistent throughout the report. For example,

main headings within chapters might be in all capital letters, bold, and 14-
point size. Secondary headings would then be upper- and lower-case,
bold, and 12-point size, underlined. When areader looks at any heading
in the report, he should be able to tell from its style how important it is —
whether it starts a completely new topic or continues by developing an
existing one.

¢ Figures, sidebars, and tables should be presented in a consistent way. As

with headings, readers should be able to tell by format what each one 1s.

Writing style for a long report is more formal than for short reports or memos
(though it should not sound stiff). Refer to Chapter Three for characteristics of
good business style, and be sure your grammar, sentence structure, usage, and
spelling are perfect. As you edit, refer to Checklist 8 - 2 (p. 225).
Report Organization and Format 223
 Conciseness is especially important in long reports. It would be a rare busi-
ness reader indeed who wanted to read a /onger long report. You will do several
editing passes as you revise. In one of the passes, cut every unnecessary word,
and watch for chances to make vague phrases into precise single words.
In another editing pass, watch for and change any language that sounds un-
objective. Keep your personal opinions out of the writing, and do not let them
influence the evidence you gather or the conclusions you draw. If anything
sounds exaggerated or overly enthusiastic, or if evidence sounds unbalanced or
prejudicial, the reader will begin to doubt the report writer’s credibility. Organ-
izations do not pay the cost of research and reporting and then accept informa-
tion that sounds biased!

Make the writing vivid, Just as you would in a letter or memo, help the reader visualize by using exam-
vigorous, and concrete. ples, specific details, and graphics. Using these methods of adding concreteness
to your writing will make it both clearer and more interesting, and also more
likely to produce the results you want.
The examples that follow illustrate the difference between merely telling -
giving just a bare recitation of facts - and showing- giving details that create an
image in the reader’s mind:

Don’t Just Tell Show, Too

Some other film processors have ex- Tuskeegee Photo doubled film sales
perienced significant film sales in- with this display.
creases by using this display.

A shakeout in the industry is occur- Small companies have suffered in

ring as smaller firms are either be- this market. Exotek went bank-
ing bought out or run out of busi- rupt; Wayco Systems merged into
ness by larger firms. Havilland Inc.

Japan is very crowded. Japan is very crowded. When you

want to ride the subway during
rush hours, you may find yourself
pushed onto your train bya tran-
sit employee. It’s the only way they
can fill the cars ughtly enough.

Note that adding details does not necessarily result in more words. In the
second example above, both versions are about the same length, while in the
first example, the improved version is shorter.

224 Chapter Eight

 Checklist 8 —2 Report Style
Word Choice
e Can your words be understood by your Are your paragraphs relatively short (average
audience? What if laypeople need to about 8 typed lines)? Short paragraphs will seem
understand your report? Hold technical jargon easier to your reader and will encourage reading
to a minimum. Check for, and get rid of, of your material. Large blocks of type look
pompous language. intimidating and may hinder understanding.
Have you chosen specific words that convey Short paragraphs with good topic sentences require
your ideas clearly? Check for vagueness. fewer explicit transitions, but check to make sure
Check for wordiness. relationships among sentences are clear. If they are
Have you involved the reader through use of not, add transitional expressions as needed.
active voice rather than passive voice when
discussing important positive points? Passive Organizing Structure
voice is appropriate for downplaying or e Did you use levels of headings to show relative
subordinating ideas, but active voice lets you importance of parts?
focus on who is taking the action Did you use itemize (list) particularly important
points for emphasis? Did you use bullets to high-
Sentences and Paragraphs light lists?
e Are your sentences short enough (averaging
about 17 words) to need little internal punctua- Graphics
tion? You might have some very short sentences ¢ Did you help the reader understand your ideas
(for emphasis) and some long ones (ones that in- through graphics that add value to your words?
clude alist, for example). Write so that the struc- Graphics help make a report clearer and more
ture of your sentences enhances understanding. Interesting.

Will your report be bound? If so, leave a left-hand margin of 1.25 or 1.5 inches FORMAL-REPORT
rather than 1 inch. For the other margins, | inch is customary. Some firms print FORMAT
up reports double-sided, with a “gutter” at the binding between the even (left-
hand) pages and the odd (right-hand) pages. If this is the case, be aware that the
later versions of word processors allow you to set up “murror” left and mght
pages. The program puts the wider margin at the gutter automatically.
Your employer may stock certain cover types or colors for specific kinds of Organizational practice
reports. Some firms coordinate all their printing so that business cards, promo- and reader's convenience
tional materials, and report covers all carry the same logo and use similar paper shape format choices.
stock.
If the binding is your decision, choose a form of binding that lies flat for
reading ease. Because many business readers need to read a report with a pen in
hand, they don’t have a free hand to hold pages down to keep the report open.
The report title goes on the cover as well as on the title page of the report.
Some report covers have a small window through which the report title on the
title page can be read. Be sure that your title page is arranged so that the title
shows through this window attractively.

Next we’ll see what goes into the various parts of a formal report. Business read-
ers expect to see certain components, in a certain order. We'll discuss what goes
into each part and how to format the parts. You'll see their typical order dia-
grammed in Exhibit 8 - 1, on, p. 227.

Report Organization and Format 225

 Formal reports have several preliminary parts, sometimes called “front matter.”
Preliminary Parts
The shorter a report is, the less likely it is to have all of them. Report wmiters
prepare these pages after the final writing and revision of the report are com-
plete. Writing and formatting these pages takes longer than beginning wmiters
think. Allow sufficient time for preparing them.

Most long reports have atitle page, a transmittal, a table of contents, and an ex-
ecutive summary. You'll find examples of all four of these in the complete long-
report example that begins on p. 234. If the report contains numerous exhibits,
the exhibits are listed on a separate contents page. Very long reports may also
have a letter or memo of authorization anda letter or memo of acceptance.

Title Page

A balanced appearance is The title page of a formal report contains title, author’s name and (sometimes)
important in title page title, organization’s name, authorizer’s name and title, and date. The informa-
layout. tion is centered and is formatted in either three or four “spots” - blocks of type,
separated vertically and balanced for eye appeal. (See p. 227 and p. 234.) Use a
consistent type face (for example, Times New Roman) for all lines, but the most
important lines - the title lines — should be a larger size and, perhaps, bold. You
have considerable discretion in design of the title page, but be sure not to allow
it to look cluttered or “ransom-note”-like.
Sometimes the transmittal message precedes the title page. Sometimes it fol-
lows it immediately.

Transmittal Message

To transmit something means to deliver it, to hand it over. Formal reports have
a memo or letter that formally transfers the finished report from writer to
reader. A directly-structured message, it begins with wording that says, in effect,
“Here is the report you requested on [date] on [subject - or, give the title of the
report].” How you word it can vary. The transmittal then spends a few sentences
on the report’s most important findings. If the writer received assistance from
any particular people, she should acknowledge their contributions.
Even if writing the report Last, the writer should say something gracious about her appreciation at
wasn't much fun, think of having been asked to gather this information, or her willingness to help again in
something to say that is both the future or to respond to further queries, or her readiness to present findings
gracious and sincere.
orally if the reader needs that.
Make the transmittal a memo if the report remains inside your organization.
Make ita letter if you are directing it to an external reader or readers. If the lat-
ter, be especially careful to use a gracious tone.
An example of a memo transmitting a report on company newsletters is
shown in Exhibit 8 - 2, on page 228.

Table of Contents

A report longer than eight or ten pages needs a table of contents to allow the
reader to go immediately to the sections in which he is most interested. Title it
Contents, since it is obviously a table. The table of contents lists all the headings
in the report in order at left, and at right lists the page on which each heading

226 Chapter Eight

EXHIBIT 8-1 Typical Report Page Order and Numbering

To: XXXX XXXXXAAXAXX Contents

XXX XXXXXXX XX XXXXXAXX From: — XXXXX XXXXXXx
XAXXXXX XXXXM XXXX XX Date: = XXX Xx Xxxx
Subject: xx xxXxxx X X XXXXXX XX X

XXXXXXXXXXNXXXAXANXAMAAAKAMANANRAKAANN
XX AXXAXX AMXAXAXA XXXXXAXXXXXAXAXXMMAXAXXXKAAXAKAK

XAXXXXXAXAXAXXXMXAXAXAAMANANANAXAXNANAAN
XXXXXXAXXXXXXXXAXAAAMKAAANXAAAXKN
XXXXXXXXXMXNXXKAXXAXXANAKAMANAXAANK

XXXX XX XXXX XAXXXXXXXXXAXXAXXAXXAMXAXAAAAANANA

XXXXXXAXXXAXAAXXAXAXAXMAAN

Title Transmittal Letter or Contents: First page to have a

Page Memo (memo is shown) (small Roman numeral) number

Executive Summary
XXX XXXXAXXXX XX XXXXXXAX
XXXXXM XXXM XXXX XX
XXX XXXXXXX XX XXXXXXXX
XXXXXX XXMX XXXM XX

Introduction

Note: Single-space, double

Space between paragraphs.
Insert headings
17

Sources Appendix
Conclusion

Report Organization and Format 227

EXHIBIT 8—2 Memo of Transmittal

Mi pelta
TECHSOLOGIES, INC.

Apri 2a), 998

Tors Ms. Howell, V. P. Human Resources

From: Ad Hoc Committee on Newsletter Development

Subject: DEVELOPMENT OF A COMPANY NEWSLETTER

Opens with
purpose of Here is the information on how to compile a company newsletter.
report
This report summarizes the various aspects of a successful
Explains plan newsletter. The details covered include not only the content,
andcoverage but also design, layout, and various computer programs that are
ofreport available to companies wishing to produce their own newsletter.

When we make our presentation to the Board of Directors on May

Ends with
5, 1998, we will be able to answer any further questions that
future action
May arise.

12511 Industry Blvd.

Oakland, CA 94735
510 532 6438

228 Chapter Eight

begins its section. Often a row of dots (called leaders) connects each heading
with its page number. (See p. 237.) Be sure that the headings are worded in the
table of contents exactly as they are worded in the report. Align the page
numbers with the right-hand margin. You can do this either by night-justifying
the page or by using a nght-aligned tab setting.

The report’s most important headings are at the left margin. The next most im- Format definitely
portant level of headings is indented about .5 inch, and the next level of head- communicates.
ings is indented another .5 inch. (If the report has additional levels of subdivi-
sions, these will probably not appear in the table of contents.)

The table of contents lists the preliminary pages (starting with the page after the
table of contents) before it lists the report’s headings. After the report’s head-
ings, it lists the pages that come after the report’s conclusion, such as the biblio-
graphy and appendixes. Last, usually, come the lists of tables and figures, given
with the page numbers on which they appear. If there are several of each, the
writer should offer one list entitled “Tables” and another entitled “Figures.” If
there are only one or two of each, a combined list, entitled “Tables and Figures”
or “Exhibits,” is better.

Executive Summary

The executive summary, sometimes called an abstract or a synopsis, is usually a

one- or two-page summary of the whole report. The executive summary gives

the report’s title

a very short orientation based on the report’s introduction
the report’s main findings
the report’s conclusions - that is, any inferences that can be drawn on
the basis of the report's findings
e the recommendations, if recommendations were requested

The executive summary is often separated from the report, copied, and sent to
people who need the main ideas but not the entire report. The writer’s immedi-
ate supervisor will probably read the whole report, but higher levels of manage-
ment and, often, peers in other departments will not. For this reason the sum-
mary must not depend on the report to make sense, but must make complete
sense in itself.
The executive summary for the report on company newsletters appears in
Exhibit 8 - 3 on p. 230.
Observe good report style in
Do not show page numbers on the title page and the transmittal message, but numbering pages.
place them on all pages that follow. The other preliminary parts have lower-case
Roman numerals at center bottom of each page. The table of contents page
would be the first or second numbered page. It would be numbered iii if it is
the third actual page in the stack of pages that constitute the report. If the exe-
cutive summary precedes it, you would number the table of contents iv.
Pages after the preliminary parts use ordinary Arabic numbers. The intro-
duction starts on page 1. The pages that follow the report - the bibliography and
appendixes - continue the sequence of Arabic numbers.

Report Organization and Format 229

EXHIBIT 8-3 Executive Summary

Title ofreport is
repeated so page
could be separately IMPROVE INTERNAL COMMUNICATION WITH A CORPORATE NEWSLETTER
reproduced,
Executive Summary

Conclusion given in
YU
Publishing a newsletter will give Amalgamated Manufacturing many
firstparagraph benefits. it is an excellent medium for communication between
management and employees and also an excellent way to improve
employee morale.

In a large company like Amalgamated, the Human Resources

Department is the most logical publisher.of the newsletter.
Because it will be an internal newsletter, we won't have to use
the mail for distribution. Distributing the newsletter with
employee paychecks is the most efficient and cost effective means
Ore Chifseieslomeakoyale

The frequency of our newsletter is also very important. Sending a

newsletter out once every quarter is probably the minimum we
should consider.
Headings included to
letreader pre-read Content Influences Employee Attitudes

The content of a newsletter can either improve or damage internal

relations with employees. People are more concerned with stories
affecting their jobs than stories of personal news. A variety and
balance of stories and their themes will maintain reader
interest.

Management must ensure that the tone of the newsletter makes the
readers feel that they are getting complete and honest
information. Management must not use the newsletter in a
condescending manner to employees; this will only succeed in
damaging internal relations.

The name of the newsletter needs to relate to all employees in

the organization. A survey of employees before starting the
newsletter helps to determine what they want to see in it.

Design and Layout Simple But Effective

A two-column, four-page newsletter will work best. The newsletter

should have a well-chosen title, with conservative application of
color, white space, and art.

Software Yet to Be Chosen

The software package used to produce the newsletter will be the

deciding factor of many of the details of the newsletter. Type
fonts and sizes, spacing between columns, and other layout
oP eee ene will be influenced by the software package that we
choose.

230 Chapter Eight

The Report Body

Business writers generally single-space the report body, double-spacing between

paragraphs but not indenting them. Occasionally a business wants its reports
double-spaced. If so, signify new paragraphs in one of two ways: Indent .5 inch
for new paragraphs, or else triple-space between paragraphs. Whether single- or
double-spacing, be sure that you show clearly where each new paragraph begins.

On the first page of the report body, about two inches from the top of the page, Include the report title on the
the report’s title appears, centered. After a triple space comes the introduction first page of the actual report.
heading, centered. It may be just the word Introduction, but sometimes a writer
uses a more descriptive main heading here.

The introduction might have several subheadings. For a research report, these
would include (though not necessarily in this order) Problem Statement, Back-
ground, Scope and Limitations, Purpose of the Study (or Need for the Study),
Methods of Gathering Information, Definitions, and Report Preview.

Do not overdo the background section. Sometimes report writers think they For U. S. audiences, limit
have to tell everything about the topic, not just introduce the report. A good background to just the
introduction sets up the report for the reader. material needed to prepare
the readers for the report you
Keep remembering audience analysis. Don’t tell the readers more than they
have written.
need to know to understand the findings. In particular, don’t give more back-
ground than necessary just because it is easy information to gather. If you are
writing the report as an outside consultant, for example, you certainly don’t need
to tell readers the history of their own company, even though you might have
had to obtain and learn it yourself.
After your introduction, triple-space and begin the findings section. Do not
leave a large portion of a page blank. Similarly, after the findings portion of the
report, triple-space and begin the conclusion to the report - don’t start a new
page.

The findings section of the report needs a centered heading - several centered
headings if there are multiple major sections of approximately equal impor-
tance. Headings should be informative headings - “talking headings.” (See
examples in Chapter Two.)
The findings section probably has one or more additional levels of head-
-
ings. Signify the relative importance of each by a consistent system of typograph
ical treatment (also discussed in Chapter Two). The reader should be able to tell
intro-
by the appearance of a heading whether it begins a major new section or
duces a subpart of a preceding heading.
Make sure that the headings are easily visible. Don’t let them “disappear”
in
into the text that surrounds or follows them. Be sure all the various headings
and that subhead-
the body are informative, not just a generic word or phrase,
ings at a given level of subordination are parallel in grammatical form.
be sure you
If you have used sources for some or most of your information,
or endnotes,
have given perfect, accurate notes (in-text parenthetical references,
Use consis-
or footnotes) to let your reader know how to find those sources.
Five and
tently one of the three major bibliographic styles (see Chapter
If you have used
Appendix C of this textbook), as directed by your instructor.
be sure the reference note connects clearly with a bib-
in-text references,
Report Organization and Format 231
 liography item that starts exactly the same way the reference note starts, either
with the author’s last name or with the first couple of words of the ttle, if no
author for the piece was given in the source.

The ending section of the report needs a centered heading: Conclusion. Depen-
ding on what the report writer was asked to do, a long report might need sub-
headings under the centered heading: Summary, Conclusions, and Recom-
mendations. The word “conclusion” is used in two ways here: It means the
whole ending section of a report, but it also means, more specifically, the infer-
ences to be drawn from the summary. The conclusions are based on the sum-
marized findings, and the recommendations are based on the conclusions
drawn. Recommendations should be expressed as specific actions to take.

Reference Page(s)

After the report, offer source If the authorizer of your report has requested that you use endnotes for refer-
references and appendixes, as encing sources, the Endnotes page comes next, and then the Bibliography page.
needed by your reader. If you have used in-text parenthetical reference notes or footnotes, there is no
endnotes page, and the bibliography page comes next. If you have been asked to
list only the sources you quoted or paraphrased, name the page References
Cited. If you were asked to include also the works you read for background,
name the page List of Works Consulted, or Bibliography, or Sources Con-
sulted. Be meticulous in accuracy of information and use of form.

Appendix(es)

Some reports have one or more appendixes, usually labeled Appendix A, and a
title, Appendix B, and a title, and so on. Use an appendix to show, for instance,
the questionnaire if you used one, or one or more tables of raw data if you be-
lieve the reader would like them to be available. Use an appendix for any re-
lated material that would have been a distraction if given as part of the report but
that you believe the reader needs. Do not place in an appendix any figures or
tables that belong in the report body. Integrate them within the body.

After you have wnitten all parts, revise thoroughly, making several separate
Revise meticulously. passes through the document and its parts. Use Checklist 8 - 3. Also, run your
word processor's spelling checker, but do not automatically make the changes
that come up in the window. Spelling checkers are not perfect. When in doubt,
consult a good dictionary, and make sure the spelling is correct for the word you
intend.

For your reference, pp. 234-252 show a sample of a complete long formal
report, with preliminary parts and source list. The end-of-chapter review begins
on p. 253.

232 Chapter Eight

Checklist 8 —3 Report Revision

Cover Body of Report

e Is the cover attractive? Businesslike? Are headings in the report body descriptive
e Does the title show on the cover? and helpful to the reader?
e Will the cover lie flat when opened? e Do main headings (second and third level)
have spaces above and below them?
Title Page e Are the headings in predictable places to help
guide the reader?
Does it give the descriptive title of report? e Does the introduction describe the report
Does it give the specific audience for report? content and plan rather than try to give all the
Does it give the name(s) of writer(s)? possible background to the topic?
Does it give the date of the report? e Does the concluding section summarize, tie
main points together, and draw inferences
Transmittal Message based on findings?
e Are the recommendations (if any) a specific
e Is ita memo for an internal audience? A letter list of actions to take next?
for an external audience?
e Does it immediately tell the reader what the Exhibits
report is about and remind him or her that it
was requested? e Is each exhibit numbered and labeled (Table
e Does it concisely offer the main findings, for tables, Figure or Exhibit for all other
conclusions, and recommendations (if kinds)?
requested)? e Is each exhibit placed as close as possible to
Does it acknowledge others’ contributions? the discussion of it in the text?
e
e Does it close graciously? e Is each exhibit introduced, integrated into the
text, and then discussed to put it in context for
the reader?
Table of Contents
e Is each exhibit the appropriate size for the
information it presents?
Are page numbers aligned at the right margin?
e Are labels on all exhibits present? Readable?
e Are page numbers given just for beginning
e [fan exhibit is not original, is the source
pages of sections?
given?
Is the page entitled Contents?
Is it the first numbered page (page iii if just the
Sources
title page and transmittal precede it)?
e Are sources given in a consistent format
Executive Summary (APA, MLA, University of Chicago)?
e Is all information double-checked for
Does it show the report’s title?
accuracy?
e Does it give a concise version of the report’s
introduction? Appendixes
Does it give the most important findings?
Does it give the report’s conclusions — that e Do appendixes (if any) contain information
is, any inferences that can be drawn on the that would be distracting if included ‘in the
basis report body but that readers would still find
of the report's findings? useful?
© Does it give the recommendations, if e Are appendixes listed on the contents page?
recommendations were requested?

Report Organization and Format 233

 Pros and Cons of a Drug-Testing Program
For Meinhoff Manufacturing

Prepared for

Alvin R. Meinhoff
Chief Operating Officer

By Nicole Glusac
April 29, 1997

Used with permission.

234
 April 29, 1997

To: Alvin R. Meinhoff

From: Nicole Glusac nt

Subject: Information Regarding Drug Testing

Here is the report you requested providing information

on whether or not this company should
implement a drug-testing program.

This report starts out by discussing the different types of drug testing that are available. It looks
at the reasons some companies have drug-testing programs, examines the positive aspects of
these programs, and names a few companies which have drug-testing programs in effect.

Next the report explores the other side of the drug testing issue, looking at the reasons
companies choose not to test their workforce, the negative aspects of a drug-testing program,
and some employers who have chosen not to have a drug-testing program. The report concludes
by reviewing some of the legal issues employers need to be aware of

I would be happy to give an oral presentation of the results if required.

235
 Pros and Cons of a Drug-Testing Program
For Meinhoff Manufacturing

Abstract

This report’s purpose is to help Meinhoff Manufacturing decide whether the company would
benefit from a drug-testing program. The report introduces the different types of drug testing
available to employers, looks at how and on whom these tests are used, the special constraints ~
that limit public employers’ use of drug testing, and the legal issues that affect drug testing. The
drug testing types covered in this research are:

Urinalysis Rapid Eye Test

Blood Testing Lie-Detector
Hair Analysis Searches and Surveillance of Employees

Next the report examines the positive aspects of drug testing. The report looks at why
companies test their employees, the advantages of drug testing, and the experience of selected
companies that have implemented a drug-testing program.

Then the report reviews the negative aspects of drug testing: Why some companies choose not
to test their workforce, the ACLU's stand against drug testing, disadvantages of drug testing, and
selected companies that do not have a drug-testing program.

Last, the report covers the legal constraints affecting drug testing. Information is offered that
will help an employer put together an effective and legal drug-testing program. Other important
topics are the special constraints that public employers face and the issues that all companies,
public or private, need to look at to avoid legal problems.

After reading this report an employer will understand the different types of drug testing
available to their company, the positive and negative aspects of drug-testing programs, and the
legal constraints on these programs. An employer will be able to apply this report’s information
in deciding whether to implement a drug-testing program in their company.

236
 Contents

Introduction
Wmutine: Dit repent olvos ct sue UC Sti i aocc taeemltme essa oresas osevcermatnscaecezpsersks 2
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FRAT ES OSE Scena cers Rg san citrate cee 3
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Searches of Employees and Their Property ....0:.....-....:c::s:sscsene sssnensnereeneanenerserseanno neesnseanenees 3
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SUITVGNT AOE wn.Scasvinickere uf geons soto snne seta dtenoch er nas dahienideenosennunnn Rinse come eerie etree mere eames =
III. Why Should Companies Test Their Employees ..............::.::c ccsse 4
escent eenstenneeeeeteeencnens
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Companies That Test Their Employees ...............ccccccc renee cseceeeses
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IV. When Should Companies Choose Not to Test Their Workforce............c ices 8
ET PCTS TET ee ee ageeee ceed cas ae eee ea ne cece oe ia gr ee ee 9
TROT ra er ec eee Ot area Si recon eae es ee S
Companies Without Drug Testing Programs. ........ cee
........ eerste eeee tet
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V. Legal SSeS oie ees oessesacosscssevesne neenqesesetseonengsr gacevssvessanpuahage scusesanstnarcaneras astecacrertenssaznce asn 10
Legal Considerations for All Employers ..............::: cscs sees eerste teecteeneens sereceeceens 10
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Substance Abuse that Is Covered Under Americans With Disabilities Act .............-.005 11
Current Drug Use Under the ADA .0.........c ccceee
resterereeseseeneseseesene eee 11
neneneneneenenens
Are Employees Who Enter Drug Rehabilitati on Protected by PUD tt eee 11
Be INTROS ce eee eerie teenie eticar cate srondetetsacktor tanateeren ecco atanaes 12
Testing for Drugs and Alcohol Abuse.. ....... cesses
....... ieee teect ee
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teeneeceneeseeceas 12
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Threshold Décisions tod. pox 82 es. CE RE I, 12
Constitutional Restraints on Government Employers. ..............:::ccseecsseseeeee seeeteeeesensens 13
Right to Privacy 0... cies leccessnsecessesessatdiscssecsnesnseanessneennecnne enerasennitesesen 13
Freedom from Unreasonable Searches. ..............::cccccc ccceseteeec cece neeteese
sseneeesseneeas 13
Due: Process |... dius alle -ces..i. SE BR ee Re eee adc eaten mene 13
anheth bay ses ieipsss is sks eavabon ee eehew ava vlesaltavaseha das Seokdahagaathea Sasvean amet an eNO 13
SPE ccCreve
snecsnsonne sstisssonns nnsersnecna thidens
sssnecsnsen RUPEETERE
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Tables
Table 1: eeeereeesesensecteeceseneneneaeensnenenaneaaseeseenenees 5
The Cost Of Testing .......0.....ccccccccecececcee
Table 2: cece cece eenseseteeertatentensensesesercneanes 7
Attitudes About Drug Testing. .............:ccc

237
 Pros and Cons of a Drug-Testing Program
For Meinhoff Manufacturing

Introduction
Problem and Purpose of the Report

Substance abuse among employees is a costly but complex issue. This report examines an
employer's drug-testing options. After reading this report, employers will have a basis for
deciding whether implementing a drug-testing program would or would not benefit their
company.

Background

According to Coombs and West (1991) on the Pro side of the drug testing argument, many
employers feel a moral obligation to accomplish a drug free working environment in order to
1) provide a safe working atmosphere for all employees, 2) provide high quality service or
product to their consumers, and 3) protect the shareholders of the company (p. 25). On the Con
side of the argument, Coombs and West state that employers also have an obligation to their
workers to 1) respect individual nights and civil liberties, 2) provide reasonable privacy, and
3) advise employees of the drug policy and the consequences of policy violation (pp. 25-26).

Partridge and Reed, as referenced in Newcomb (1988), state that about 10 percent of the
workforce has a drug problem, but this 10 percent causes over 80 percent of most companies’
personnel problems (p. 6). Recent statistics indicate employer concerns in the area of high
absenteeism, injuries, medical claims, higher insurance costs, thefts, lower productivity, violence
among workers, and higher turnover.

On the other hand, many people find the drug-testing process humiliating. Other sources say the
drug-testing process can make the workforce hostile and cause them to view management as
their enemy. Every company needs to determine what option is best for them, by weighing the
positive aspects and negative aspects of drug testing.

Definitions of Key Terms

In general, three levels of testing have emerged in the job market: pre-employment screening,
testing for cause (also referred to as probable cause), and random testing. Employers apply these
three levels to all the different types of drug testing. In pre-employment screening, anyone
applying for a job is asked to consent to analysis as a part of the pre-employment process.
Testing for cause or probable cause occurs when an employee who exhibits signs of alcohol or
drug use at the work site is then asked to submit to an analysis. Some examples of "cause" for
the suspicion of drug use are slurred speech, the smell of alcohol on the individual’s breath, an

238 Chapter Eight

accident, or inability to walk straight. A random drug test is an unannounced mandatory test of
all employees or a certain category of employees. Random testing is established particularly in
work sites defined as "sensitive areas" (public transportation, law enforcement, nuclear power.)

It would benefit this study to define alcoholism, drug abuse, and addict.

Alcoholism: A chronic, progressive, and incurable disease characterized by one major symptom,
a loss of control over alcohol.
Drug abuse, sometimes referred to as drug addiction or chemical addiction: A chronic,
progressive, and incurable disease characterized by one major symptom, a loss of control over a
mood-altering chemical.
Addict. A person who desires to keep a minimum quantity of a drug in his or her blood stream at
all times. When the drug quantity in the bloodstream drops belowacritical level the addict will
automatically take another dose to raise the level of the substance in the blood.

Report Preview

This research study first describes the types of drug testing currently being used by employers.
The report looks at the reasons some organizations have drug-testing programs and others do
not. The Pros and Cons of drug testing are listed and discussed. The report names specific
companies with drug-testing program and companies that have chosen not to test their
workforce. Finally, the study introduces some legal issues of drug testing.

The Different Types Of Drug Testing

All the following drug-testing methods can be used on applicants or employees for pre-hire drug
screening, testing for cause, or random testing. Each of the procedures has a definite use. For
example, blood testing is very useful if a manager suspects that someone is drinking on the job.

Urinalysis

Urinalysis is the most widely used drug test. It comprises about 90 percent of the drug screening
conducted today for both public and private employers. Urinalysis tests for marijuana, cocaine,
opiates, amphetamines, and PCP. It is considered the least intrusive test for illegal drugs.
Evidence of drug use remains in the urine longer than in the blood. Chemical evidence of
marijuana use can stay in the urine up to 15 days. Other substances, on average, can be detected
in the user’s urine from 2-7 days after use. Urine tests are relatively quick, easy, inexpensive,
accurate and reliable.

There are also disadvantages to urinalysis. The tests can be embarrassing and offensive to
applicants and employees. The test can also cause some legal problems for the employer if they
are not careful of their employees’ rights.

Blood Testing

The traces of most drugs in the blood stream last only three to five hours. Blood tests are
intrusive, and most people dislike having blood drawn. If you are testing for just cause,' a blood
2

Report Organization and Format 239

 test can be very useful. If someone has just taken a drug or just consumed some alcohol it will
not show up in a urine test unless this individual is a regular user of a controlled substance. The
substance will, however, show up in the blood. A blood test is especially useful for alcohol,
which doesn't stay in the system long enough for a urine test to be accurate. The major advantage
of a blood test is accuracy. It will tell the employer not only whether an employee has alcohol in
his or her bloodstream but also how much. Blood tests cost more than urinalyses.

Hair Testing

The testing of an individual's hair is a fairly new method. One of the problems with this testing
_method is that traces of drugs can be found in the hair long after the drug was used. According to
Campbell and Graham (1988), "An individual who snorted cocaine once, six months previous,
might come up with a positive test although he has not used it since" (p. 95). It also takes about
thirty days before evidence of drug use will show in the hair. Testing an individual’s hair to
detect illegal drug use occurs more in forensic cases than in the workplace.

Rapid Eye Test

Banta and Tennant (1989) said, "Because the eye is part of the central nervous system and
anatomically located next to the brain, any drug that affects the nervous system or brain will
almost always produce an influence in the eye" (p. 96). Many employers in high-risk industries
such as transportation and the military are making use of this test to detect drug influence. This
test is cost-effective, noninvasive, and easily learnable by nonmedical personnel. It is frequently
used as a preliminary test of drug influence or for probable cause.

Lie-Detector Testing

Lie-detectors are now used by a handful of employers to test applicants. They believe that if they
screen out the potential employees who use drugs, they avoid many drug related problems in the
future. With a testing procedure that aids in the elimination of applicants with drug problems,
enforcement of drug policies would be quite easy. With this approach employers directly ask
applicants, while they are wired to a polygraph, whether they have ever used illicit drugs. If
applicants admit past use they are not hired. A trained polygraph technician will look at the test
‘results to see if there is any deception, which would be cause for not hiring the applicant.

Most public employers are not entitled to use this method. Private employers could also face
legal problems using a lie-detector. Many lawyers and unions believe that polygraphs are
inaccurate and unreliable and that they violate individuals’ rights.

Searches and Surveillance Legitimate Only For Employees

Searches of employees and/or their property and surveillance are methods that can only be used
on employees. They can be used for just cause or random testing. Private-sector employers use
searches as random tests and especially for just cause. Public employers, however, usually do
not use these methods, since they are covered by the constitutional amendment against illegal
searches and seizures. Surveillances could be done at random but mostly they are used for just

240 Chapter Eight

cause. Most employers will use surveillance if they have noticed strange behavior or have
received information from other employees regarding an employee’s illegal behavior.

Searches by Public Employers

Public employers are constrained more by law than private employers when it comes to searches
of employees and their property. Any federal, state, county, or city governmental agency is
covered under the Constitution's Fourth Amendment ban against unreasonable searches and
seizures. This ban applies directly to all federal employees and indirectly to all state and local
governments through the Fourteenth Amendment. In general, public employers do not have a
legal right to search employees and their belongings for drugs or alcohol.

Searches by Private Employers

Private employers are not covered by the Fourth Amendment, so they have considerably more
discretion in conducting searches of employees and their property. Private employers still need to
be careful, when conducting searches, to avoid potential lawsuits. They need to make sure that
every aspect of the search is conducted in a legal and ethical manner in accordance with a strict
company policy, communicated to all employees.

Searches work well as a deterrent. They keep employees from bringing substances to work in the
first place. One problem with searches, aside from potential lawsuits, is that they do not catch
employees who use drugs at home and never bring them to work.

Surveillance

Surveillance is another controversial technique. Surveillance is basically watching and/or

following an employee or a group of employees suspected of engaging in illegal practices at
work. There should be reliable initial evidence indicating a violation of the employer's
substance-abuse policy. If there is, the employer would put the employee or employees under
surveillance, either to confirm the violation and supply evidence, or to disprove the report. To
avoid any legal problems, a company needs to have a strict company policy that is effectively
communicated to all employees.

Why Should Companies Test Their Employees

In a recent article, Coolidge stated "Employee alcoholism and drug abuse cost U.S. companies
more than $200 billion a year - a number equal to nearly 3 percent of the nation's economic
output, according to a survey released earlier this year by the Conference Board, a business
group in New York" (1996, p. 1). Every employer wants a drug free working environment
their
without the problems drug abusers bring into a company. Companies who choose to test
that substance abusers impose on their companies .
workforce are trying to reduce the costs
use on social
Less tangible, but not less devastating, losses can result from the effects of drug
ng, and morale. Belohlar and Popp, as reference d in Newcomb
behavior, psychological functioni
l problems related to drug abuse on the job that are not
(1988), cite a partial list of additiona
of drug abuse to an employer . These include faulty decision
always included in the cost analysis
4

Report Organization and Format 241

 making, on- or off-the-job accidents, thefts, impaired morale of fellow workers, impaired
consumer and public relations, early retirement, premature disability or death, personnel
turnover, and the loss of skilled or valuable employees (p. 7). Other nontangible costs that can
affect the entire company include a lowering of imagination, creativity, and decision making
ability. These could jeopardize the entire company.

According to Lederer, as referenced in Newcomb (1988), alcohol and drug use is considered one
of the unresolved safety problems of industry (p.7). Drug use can affect perception, eye-hand
coordination, and judgment. Impaired individuals are often injured or cause injury to fellow
workers, damage equipment, and cause the production of faulty products. Three fourths of the
nation's 11.7 million drug users are employed full or part time, according to the National Institute
on Drug Abuse. Substance abusers are three or four times more likely to have an accident and
five times more likely to file a worker's compensation claim

The cost of the average drug test is between $30 and $50 apiece, depending on the kind of test
that is administered. Although drug tests are not inexpensive, most employers feel that if they can
avoid one expensive workers compensation claim, the price for these tests is worth it. Also many
people, such as Lindamood from Great American Insurance (referenced in Boyer, 1996), believe
that if a drug-testing program is fair, accurate, and confidential, it protects the rights of all
employees (p. 2).

The annual cost of drug testing is a function of the number of people tested and the
methodologies employed. In 1995 the average cost-per-test was $35; the average total cost was
$50,161 (Greenberg, 1996). Periodic testing programs, which increase the testing pool, naturally
incur greater costs. Table 1 shows a breakdown of costs companies paid in 1995 for drug-testing
programs.

Table 1
The Cost of Testing

Cost of a Drug Percent of Companies That Paid

Program This Amount in 1995

Less than $10,000 62%

$10,000 to $19,999 17%
$20,000 to $49,999 10%
$50,000 to $99,999 4%
$100,000 or more T™%

Source: Greenburg, E. R. (Sept 1996). Drug-testing now standard practice. HR Focus, 73 (9), 24.

The table illustrates that the cost of an average company’s drug-testing program was under
$10,000 in 1995. Most considered it an investment in a safer working environment. Table 1 also

242 Chapter Eight

shows that very few companies pay more than $100,000 a year for their drug-testing program.
Most companies’ drug-testing programs appear to be within a reasonable budget.

The Pros

According to Coolidge (1996), drug abuse in the workplace has been cut in half over the past
decade. Corporate America has worked to reduce a multibillion-dollar drag on the bottom line
(p. 1). The drop is attributed to company's vigorous drug-testing programs. The dramatic drop in
illegal drug use among employees and the role that businesses have played in that improvement
indicate that workplace intervention is an effective tool in deterring substance abuse in the U.S.

According to Coombs and West (1991), the United States has a serious drug-abuse problem that
threatens the health, welfare, and economy of the nation (p. 26). Drug testing has been shown to
be effective in reducing substance abuse in the workforce, reducing accidents and absenteeism,
lowering health benefit utilization, and increasing productivity. Certain employers, including the
Department of Defense, believe drug testing is the cornerstone to an effective substance-abuse
program.

Some of the positive effects a company will receive with reduced drug use are:

* Reduced number of workers * Reduced employee theft.

compensation claims. * Less friction among workers.
* Reduction in number of sick days. Fewer early retirements.
* Increased employee productivity. ° Better public relations.
¢ Fewer workplace accidents. ¢ Increased customer satisfaction.
* Decreased absenteeism. ¢ Reduction in employee turnover.
* Decreased health care costs. ¢ A safer working environment.

These four Pros are intangible These three advantages are especially
but are crucial to the company. sensitive areas for production companies.

¢ Increased morale of job units. * Less damage to machinery and/or tools.

* More imagination. * Less breakage of products.
¢ More creativity. * Increased quality of products.
* Better decision making abilities.

All the above Pros are positive and desirable outcomes for a company. All have the potential to
save the company money or help increase profits, and to improve the work environment.

Lindamood was quoted in Boyer (1996) as saying, "Companies have the right to protect the 90
percent of their employees who don't use drugs. They have a right to productive workers and a
right to low absenteeism. We sometimes get caught up in the rights of the abuser and forget
about the guy doing the right thing" (p. 2).

Report Organization and Format 243

 Some Companies That Test Their Employees

Large companies have led the way in drug testing, but now also many small companies are
starting drug-testing programs. Smaller companies are beginning to feel that if they do not test
their applicants, they will be getting the rejects from the larger corporations or their competitors.
Testing, once very rare for large and small companies, is now common in both categories and
increasing at a faster rate among small employers. Sixty-seven percent of companies employing
500 or fewer people performed some drug testing, according to the latest American Management
Association (AMA) survey, up from 37 percent in 1990.

Systematic drug testing by employers is becoming more common in the private sector. People's
attitudes about such testing also are changing, according to surveys by the Institute for a Drug
Free Workplace. (See Table 2). This table is based on a phone survey of 1,006 blue- and white-
collar workers, done in October 1995 for comparison with a Gallup poll conducted in 1989.

Table 2
Attitudes About Drug Testing

The question asked of the blue- and white-collar workers in 1995 and in 1989 was:

Which of the following comes close to characterizing your opinion on drug testing?

1995 1989

Have reservations but believe it should be done 38% 42%

Should be done only under limited circumstances 21% 29%
A necessity 38% 26%
Not needed 1% 3%

Source: Smith, L. (1996, September 18). If you want a job, better ‘just say no': For private
employers, drug screening is becoming the standard. The Washington Post, p. A-1

As more and more companies are starting drug-testing programs, more of the public agrees with
this practice. A larger percentage of employees feel that drug testing is a necessity, up 12
percent from 1989 to 1995. A smaller number of employees feel that drug testing is not needed;
3 percent of employees felt that is was unnecessary in 1989; and only 1 percent of employees in
1995 felt that it was unnecessary.

Many, like Motorola Inc. in Schaumburg, IL, find the cost of drug testing worthwhile. In 1990
Motorola spent $1 million to start its drug-testing program. They test job applicants as well as
their 75,000 U.S. employees -- from the CEO to factory workers. According to their spokes-
woman, Margot Brown, since the testing began, drugs are "a big nonissue."

244 Chapter Eight

The Home Depot is another company who tests all of its employees, from CEO to clerks. Home
Depot takes a very hard line. Prospective employees who test positive are not hired, and any
employee who tests positive is immediately fired.

Black & Decker North American Power Tools division tests all of their 6,000 employees. Job
applicants who test positive aren't hired, but employees who fail a drug test are not
automatically terminated. B&D give the employees a chance to rehabilitate themselves.

Campbell Soup's plant at Napoleon, Ohio, their largest plant, tests all employees for drug abuse,
but for just cause and never on a random basis. If someone tests positive the first time, the
person will keep his or her job and will be eligible for rehabilitation. But a second positive test
warrants automatic firing.

In Hollywood's movie industry, many bond and insurance coverage companies keep a low
profile but exercise great power over actors, directors and everyone else involved on a movie
project. One, a company called Entertainment Coalition, coordinates bond and insurance
coverage for movies, musical acts, and other properties. Courtney Love of the rock group Hole
took on the role of a dutiful and sober employee for the film "The People vs. Larry Flynt,” and
Entertainment Coalition guaranteed she would be drug-free. Without the insurer's approval,
Oliver Stone and the other producers would have never hired her. She had to agree to weekly
drug tests throughout filming, and an emissary from the insurance company also followed her
around every day on the set. Many other actors have to have an insurance and bond company
like Entertainment Coalition insure them in order for them to get parts in movies. Besides Love,
these include Gary Busey, Robert Downey, Jr., and the late rapper Tupac Shakur.

The National Football League, The National Basketball Association, Major League Baseball,
The World Boxing Council, and The Men's International Professional Tennis Council all have
some sort of drug testing procedure that they follow. The U.S. House of Representatives in
September of 1996 tested three dozen members at the invitation of Rep. Joe Barton, who
strongly favors random drug testing in the workplace.

When Should Companies Choose Not to Test Their Workforce

The question of whether to utilize drug-testing technology evokes a complex array of moral,
social, ethical, medical, scientific, and legal dilemmas for many American companies. Although
most companies do not condone drug abuse, their concerns about the erosion of civil liberties
generate feelings of uncertainty as to whether the end justifies the means.

Greenberg, as quoted in Smith (1996), said, "I imagine there are companies that test their
employees because they think they're doing god’s work . .. .It’s a very good way of finding
drug users. I know of no statistics that show it deters drug use" (p. 3).

Another statistic from Greenburg's study is that 4 percent of prospective new hires tested
positive for drugs in 1995, up slightly from 3.8 percent in 1994. This statistic could be
interpreted to mean that drug use is going up despite the increased drug testing in the country.

Report Organization and Format 245

 Several unions, including the Teamsters and the Airline Pilots Association, oppose urinalysis
and are adamantly against all random drug testing. Other unions approve the use of urinalysis
only when there is reasonable suspicion or probable cause to believe an employee may be under
the influence of illegal drugs at work.

Some perceive a national hysteria over drug use. They believe many statistics regarding drug
use are false and misleading, serving only to heighten national and corporate hysteria. Some
examples of outrageous statistics are from Burmaster's research (Newcomb, 1988). His work
stated that 27 to 45 percent of academic institutions, commercial enterprises, government
agencies, and industrial corporations employ individuals that use illegal drugs to get through the
day (p. 8). Since these figures explicitly exclude alcohol use, they seem improbable. Many
people believe that these and many other comparable figures are false, making the drug problem
seem larger than it is.

The ACLU's View

The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) has been among the most vocal organizations
actively lobbying against drug testing. In addition to constitutional issues, one of their major
concerns about drug-testing programs has been the potential for abuse by managers and
supervisors to discriminate against and harass employees. The focus of the ACLU argument is
that a positive urinalysis proves neither intoxication nor impairment of performance, and
therefore cannot be used to draw a connection between drug use and work performance. The
ACLU further argues that testing employees without cause is unconstitutional.

The American Civil Liberties Union denounces drug testing as a waste of time and a violation of
privacy rights. Civil liberties groups claim that a decade of widespread testing has failed to
produce substantial evidence that screening cuts down on workplace problems and drug abuse.
Lewis Maltby, director of the ACLU's workplace rights project, is quoted by Smith (1996) as
saying, "The evidence shows that [drug testing] is not only morally wrong but a colossal waste
of corporate money" (p. 3). Maltby also believes that most people who test positive for drug
abuse are not using at work; and what they do at home not only doesn't affect their work
performance but also is none of the employer’s business.

The Cons

Many firms have decided drug testing is not an appropriate solution for their company. Reasons
they cite include the threat of legal action, issues involving the employer-employee relationship,
uncertainty regarding the reliability of the tests, the fact that most tests can't measure current
impairment, the feeling that it would go against corporate culture, and the belief that they do not
have a noticeable drug problem and therefore the costs of the tests would not be justified.

Coombs and West (1991) determined that many Americans view the drug-testing process (i.e.,
collection of urine) as degrading and dehumanizing. Government employees, employee unions,
and civil libertarians argue strongly that drug testing is an invasion of privacy, that it constitutes
an illegal search and seizure and that it therefore violates individual rights guaranteed by the
constitution (p. 24). Also, those who oppose testing continually raise medical and scientific

246 Chapter Eight

questions about the accuracy and reliability of drug testing. Many believe that the tests’
unreliability causes many employees to be wrongly accused of using illegal substances.

Here are some of the negative effects of drug testing in the workplace:

The drug tests are expensive.

There is no statistical proof that they cut down on drug use.
They lower employee morale.
The tests are considered by many to be humiliating.
Expensive lawsuits are possible.
Employees being tested may view management as the enemy.
There is the potential for managers to discriminate against and harass the tested employees.
If employees are unionized there could be an increase in grievances.
If the workforce is non-unionized, upset employees could activate union activity.
The program could create more problems than it solves.

The list of negative aspects of drug testing may not be as long as the list of positive aspects of
drug testing, but each of the negatives in itself could be very disruptive to an organization. For
example, if a company’s employees start to view management as the enemy because the
employees feel the drug-testing program is unfair, employees could lash out by not cooperating
with management. Employees could become dissatisfied and the entire company could suffer.

Some Companies Without Drug Testing Programs

Several employers feel drug testing is unnecessary. One employer who decided not to test their
workforce stated that they didn't feel drug testing should be used in the selection process
because it is discriminatory. The National Hockey League and The Major Indoor Soccer League
believe a drug-testing program is unnecessary.

Public employers are restricted by the constitutional right to be free of unreasonable search or
seizure. The government will appeal a court ruling that found the Clinton administration
violated the Constitution when they tried to administer random drug tests to all employees of
the Old Executive Office Building. U.S. District Judge Charles Richey ruled that mandatory
testing of all employees with entry passes to the Old Executive Office Building cannot be
justified by security or safety arguments. Judge Richey said (Sniffen, 1996, p. 1), "While this
court abhors the sale, use or distribution of drugs, it will not suspend the Constitution.”

Employers who oppose drug testing speculate that the reason for the reduction in drug use, in
the past decade, is that young people -- who are most likely to use drugs -- make up a smaller
percentage of the workforce than they did in the 1980's, when drug abuse peaked.
Companies opposing drug testing cite another aspect as proof of its ineffectiveness: Figures
suggest that alcohol abuse has not gone down much. Seven percent of workers were heavy
alcohol users in 1993 — not much change from 8.5 percent in 1985, This is offered as further
evidence that drug-testing programs are not the reason drug abuse has decreased.

Report Organization and Format 247

 Legal Considerations For All Employers

Negligence Law

Employee negligence actions against employers are generally of three types. First, an employer
may be liable for negligence in hiring a substance abuser who harms another employee or the
public. This is referred to as negligent hiring. The importance of controlling substance abuse in
the workplace assumes additional significance because of an employer's duty to foresee the
dangers presented by an impaired employee or face substantial damages should the employer fail
to do so. Second, an employer may be liable for negligence should the employer fail to conduct
the drug testing procedure with proper care. This is referred to as negligent testing. It is
particularly important to select a lab with high quality control standards and adherence to proper
procedures. Third, while an employer has a qualified privilege to communicate test results
within the company on a need-to-know basis, an employer who maliciously spreads untrue
reports will not be protected from charges of libel and slander.

Labor Law

An employer who plans to institute a drug-testing program or other means of detecting illegal
drug use should determine whether the plan complies with employment or union contracts. If it
doesn't, the employer would need to renegotiate any contracts that do not comply before
implementing a program. Management should inform the union of its intent to institute a drug-
testing program and discuss the reasons for such a program with employee representatives.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and Substance Abuse

Mook and Powell reported (1996), "The ADA prohibits employment discrimination against a
qualified individual with a disability because of the disability of such individual" (p. 58). It is
now well established that alcoholism is a disability; therefore, employees who are alcoholics are
entitled to the protections of the ADA. The ADA's language, however, explicitly exempts from
coverage any employee or job applicant currently engaging in illegal use of drugs. Therefore, an
employee who is currently addicted to and using illegal drugs is not an ‘individual with a disabil-
ity' entitled to any of the ADA's protections. The ADA also protects persons addicted to legal
drugs, but unlawful use of the drug removes the protection of the ADA from the drug user.

The ADA does not protect persons who simply have a ‘drinking problem' or who engage in the
‘recreational’ use of drugs. Having a tendency to drink too much is not a physical or mental
impairment, nor is occasional use of marijuana. In the four years since the employment
provisions of the ADA took effect, courts have generally upheld the actions of employers in
dealing with substance abuse problems in the workplace.

Current Drug Testing Within Limits of the ADA

According to Mook and Powell (1996), " 'Current' has a much broader definition, which, ac-
cording to the EEOC's regulations, is intended to apply to the illegal use of drugs that has oc-
curred recently enough to indicate that the individual is actively engaged in such conduct"
(p. 59). The clear trend in the courts is to define "current" as applying to conduct that has

11

248 Chapter Eight

occurred in the recent past and to uphold an employer's discharge of employees for illegal drug
use that may have occurred a number of weeks prior to termination.

Are employees who enter drug rehabilitation protected by the ADA? According to the Equal
Employment Opportunity Commission's (EEOC) Technical Assistance Manual (Mook and
Powell, 1996, p. 63), "An applicant or employee who tests positive for an illegal drug cannot
immediately enter a drug rehabilitation program and seek to avoid the possibility of discipline or
termination by claiming that she/he now is in rehabilitation and is no longer using drugs illegally.
A person who tests positive for illegal use of drugs is not entitled to the protection that may be
available to former users who have been or are in rehabilitation.”

Strictures affecting alcoholics are similar. Although alcoholism is considered a disability, the
statutory language specifically allows an employer to prohibit the use of alcohol in the
workplace and to require that employees not be under the influence of alcohol. The statute
provides that an employer may hold an alcoholic to the same qualification standards in job
performance and behavior that the employer holds other employees even if unsatisfactory
performance is related to the individual’s alcoholism.

An employer may, without violating the ADA, conduct drug tests of both applicants and
employees. This is because, under the ADA, a test to determine whether there has been current
illegal use of drugs is not deemed to be a medical examination. Tests to determine whether an
employee is under the influence of alcohol are considered by the EEOC to be medical
examinations, even if they are not invasive.

During the pre-employment stage an employer may test only for the illegal use of drugs.

Drug tests are not deemed medical examinations under the ADA. An employer may institute
random drug testing at any time and for any reason. The same is not true for alcohol tests,
which the EEOC considers to be medical examinations. Once an individual is an employee,
alcohol tests and other medical inquiries and examinations must be job-related and consistent
with business necessity. However, an employer may establish medical standards and conduct
medical examinations of employees where a particular job function has a significant impact on
public safety and the state of the employee's health is important to ensure that the job is done
properly.

Public or private companies will be held accountable for failing to act reasonably in conducting
employee drug testing or other drug-detection programs. If carried out with reasonableness and
discretion, a testing program can satisfy both social and legal standards

Threshold Decisions

There are two key threshold questions that businesses considering a drug-testing program
should address. If a company can answer these questions persuasively, its workers in all
probability will accept the company's testing program and policy and not file legal challenges.

The first question is: Why do I want to test? A company should be able to justify the decision to
test by clearly showing employees why drug use cannot be tolerated.
12

Report Organization and Format 249

 The second question is: What do I do when I find that someone is using drugs? Before
beginning testing, a company must develop clear procedures based upon afully articulated,
written policy for dealing with employees who test positive. These procedures must be
communicated clearly, enforced consistently, and applied fairly.

Constitutional Restraints on Public-Sector Employers

Right to Privacy

The constitutional right to privacy protects people only against governmental intrusion.
Individuals acting as private citizens and private employers are not bound by these constitutional
restraints.

Freedom from Unreasonable Searches

Most court claims of an invasion of privacy are based on the Fourth Amendment prohibition
against unreasonable searches and seizures by government authorities. This constitutional
protection against unreasonable searches and seizures protects only against unreasonable
government interference.

Due Process

The Fifth and Fourteenth amendments to the Constitution require the government to provide a
person with due process before depriving anyone 'of life, liberty, or property’. This requires that
the government engage in a fair decision-making process before taking measures that affect an
individual's basic rights. The courts have held that the actions a government employer takes
toward its employees must be reasonably related to their jobs. When the government plans to
penalize employees, they must notify them in advance and provide them with an opportunity to
defend themselves.

Conclusion

Prior to 1986 the majority of employers’ drug-testing policies consisted solely of a rule -- posted
on the bulletin board and placed in the employee handbook -- that prohibited employees from
possessing or being under the influence of alcohol or illegal drugs while working or on company
property. Only a small percentage of employers had detailed sophisticated anti-drug programs.
By 1997 most large companies and some smaller companies had a detailed drug-testing
program. But there are also a number of companies that have decided against drug testing as a
solution for any drug problems that might be present in their company.

Whether to implement a drug-testing program is a difficult decision. To begin to answer this

question, a company would need to examine the drug-testing methods that are available, and
their costs, and then determine which testing method is right for that company. What drug or
drugs would the company be looking for? Is the company a public or private employer? If a
public employer, the company would need to look at all the special constraints that govern these
companies.

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250 Chapter Eight

Then the firm needs to examine the Pros and the Cons. Which outweighs the other? For
example, what would be the total cost of implementing a drug-testing program compared to the
actual amount that drug abusers are costing the company? If the company’s drug problem is
relatively small, and the implementation of a drug-testing program would cost $100,000 or
more, then a drug-testing program would be infeasible.

Employers contemplating this question should look at other companies similar to themselves
and review those companies’ drug-testing policies and procedures. What other companies in the
industry are testing their employees and what companies are not testing? How are they doing it,
and why?

Drug testing raises complex legal questions. An organization considering a drug-testing

program should examine all the legal issues and seek the advice of corporate counsel. They
should formulate a legally sound company policy and communicate it effectively to all
employees. This way the employer can safeguard the company against lawsuits from their
drug-testing program.

14

251
Report Organization and Format
 Bibliography

Banta, W. F., & Tennant, F. (1989). Combating substance abuse in the workplace: Medical
facts, legal issues, and practical solutions. Lexington, MA, Toronto: D.C. Heath and Company,
Lexington Books.

Boyer, M. (1996, September 16). Drug testing vs. workers rights. Cincinnati Enquirer, p. $12.

Campbell, D., & Graham, M. (1988). Drugs and alcohol in the workplace. New York, NY:
Facts On File Publications.

Cimini, M. H., & Muhl, C. J. (1995, May). Drug testing at Campbell Soup. Monthly Labor
Review, 118 (5), 61.

Collins, S. (1996, December 31). On the money: Insurance and bond companies are
’ Hollywood's hidden power brokers. Chicago Tribune, p. C 1.

Coolidge, S. D. (1996, October 30). In workplace, efforts to nip drug abuse pay dividends.
Christian Science Monitor, p. 1.

Coombs, R. H., & West, L. J. (1991). Drug testing: Issues and options. New York: Oxford
University Press.

Drug abuse: The workplace issues. (1987). An AMA research study. AMA Membership
Publications Division: American Management Association.

Greenberg, E. R. (1996, September). Drug-testing now standard practice. HR Focus, 73 (9),

24.

Jones, D. (1996, July 15). Low unemployment makes employers less picky. USA Today, p. 1B.

Maddux, R. B., & Voorhees, L. (1987). Job performance and chemical dependency: Guide for
supervisors and managers. Los Altos, CA: Crisp Publications, Inc.

Mathis, D. (1996, October 11). Ashcroft would like to have random drug testing of staff.
Gannett News Service, p. 1.

Mook, J. R. & Powell, E. E. (1996, Autumn). Substance abuse and the ADA: What every
employer should know. Employee Relations Law Journal, 22 (2), 57-78.

Newcomb, M. D. (1988). Drug use in the workplace: Risk factor for disruptive substance use
among young adults. Dover, MA: Auburn House Publishing Company.

Silverstein, S. (1996, April 21). Work & careers: On the job: Substance abuse in decline, but
still heavy in some fields. Los Angeles Times, p. 14.

252 Chapter Eight

REVIEW Writing a long report requires more organization because you have more
material to work with. However, you use the same good writing skills you have
developed in writing shorter messages.

First, plan your report.

e Identify the audience, purpose, and due date. If readers are foreign,
consider what adaptations are necessary.
e Decide what the report will cover.
e Determine how long the report will take to prepare an in what order
the parts must be completed.
e Decide who will write each part of the report, if it is a team project.
e Determine the report style (layout, writing style).

Then start the report-writing process.

Begin your research and collect your source list for the final report.
Organize your findings and write the report introduction.
Write up your results into the body of the report.
Form conclusions. Form recommendations, if appropriate.
Write the preliminary pages of the report (summary, transmittal,
table of contents, title page).
Revise meticulously for style and correctness.
Revise for most effective layout design.

Use the writing style most effective for the reader and circumstances of this
particular report.

The best look for the report will include:

A cover with the report tytle.

Easy-to-read type.
A consistent system of headings.
Appropriate graphics elements

The best sound for the report will include:

Specific, clear, active word choice.

Words the reader will understand.
Active voice.
Relatively short sentences and paragraphs.
Topic sentences, summarizing sentences, and transitions.
Itemizing of important points.
Graphic elements that will help the reader understand the report

Report and Organization Format 253

 Your report should include these elements:

e Title page, with name of authorizer, author(s), and date.

e Letter of authorization or acceptance (optional).
e Letter or memo of transmittal.
e Table of contents.
e Table of illustrations (optional).
e Executive summary
e Body of report, with
e Introduction
e Data, findings, and discussion
e Conclusion
e Recommendations (if requested)
e Source list.
e Appendixes (if needed).

254 Report Organization and Format

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
Using the Report Process checklist, write out the Find examples of two different styles of business
first five steps for the topic you have chosen for the writing. Explain how the styles differ. Then tell
class report. How does your audience affect the style why the styles fit their respective audiences.
you will use? Name the four pieces of information that appear on a
Put the following headings in logical order. Then properly prepared title page.
place them on a page so that the reader can see Explain when you will use a letter of transmittal and
which are second-, third-, and fourth-level headings. when you will use a memo of transmittal. What is
the primary difference between them?
Form Number Investigate your word processing program's
Logical Grouping of Data features. How will you make the numbers on your
Instructions for Using the Form contents page flush right?
Technical Functions Explain when you would use a preface in your report.
Procedural Functions Which three parts of your report will tell the reader
Establishing a Forms Program the purpose of the report? Why is this information
Documenting Information Flows repeated?
Forms Design and Layout Explain the difference between conclusions and
Forms Control Group recommendations.
Administrative Functions 10. If your class report will have an appendix, where
Name of Form will you put it? Can you number its pages?
Proper Use of Graphics

CASES
Choosing Your Own Topic. If your instructor cover only one problem), and, at this point, stated
allows you to develop your own topic for a long as a question (because you do not have an answer
analytical report, use the following guidelines. (You yet).
can also use them to further develop other topics.) Potential readers of the report should be a very
Good topics usually focus on solving a small group or, better yet, one person. If you try to
problem. The problem may be one faced by a write to a larger audience, several things happen.
business, nonprofit organization, or small You can't write directly to a decision maker. You
government entity. The following are examples of can't aim the report at a certain person whose
topics that have worked well for three former opinions and background on the topic you can at
students. least partially identify. You may lose focus because
you provide information for a wide audience rather
How Can Kelly Quick Printing Attract More than just the information needed to make a decision.
The audiences for the topics listed above were
Business Customers? (Problem analysis includes
given specific names: Christine Kelly, president,
designing a marketing plan to attract the target
Kelly Printing; Ralph Brennan, business manager,
market. )
Bristol Court Theatre; and Donald Varcoe, principal,
What Fund-Raising Projects Could Raise $50,000
Hoover Elementary School.
for the Bristol Court Theatre? (Problem analysis
You sometimes need to write to the board of
includes identifying projects, finding out what fund-
directors of a company, but you should direct the
raisers have already been used in the theater area,
transmittal letter to the chair of the board (by name)
planning theater-related fund-raiser.)
Which Computer Is Best for Special Education to keep the report focused on the decision maker.
Difficult audiences include large groups such as
Classes at Hoover Elementary School? (Problem
analysis includes finding out needs of special state legislatures, anyone who might want to rent a
car, or people who want to learn about computers.
education students, and identifying which computers
The last two groups are perfect audiences for
have these characteristics.)
magazines or specialized
Notice that these topics are also specific (dealing
with a specific firm or entity), narrow (defined to

Report Organization and Format 255

newspapers and journals. The first group might get approved topic, try to stay with it to avoid having
position papers from corporations or other groups, to start your research over.
but those aren’t necessarily analytical reports.
Analysis versus Information: Because this will 2. Comparison Report Case. Genetic
be an analytical report, you will need to gather Technologies has just received approval from the
information on your topic as described in Chapters Food and Drug Administration to begin
5 and 6 and then sort it out and interpret it. For manufacturing Menorem, a new drug to treat
example, if you find out the technical specifications Hodgkin’s disease patients. As operations manager
for three fax/modem boards for a computer, that’s of the company, you have been asked to write a
information. If you show which product your client report recommending a location for the
should buy based on client needs, price, features, manufacturing plant.
and other criteria, that’s analysis. Think show Your company headquarters and research
rather than fell. Give information that applies to facility are located in San Mateo, California, close
your reader’s needs, not just “generic” information. to the research labs at Stanford and the financial
A good class topic should send you to the center of San Francisco. You would like to locate the
library to obtain secondary information and give manufacturing close by if feasible, because there are
you an opportunity to gather some primary many costs associated with a remote location—
information through surveys, interviews, or executive travel (air fares, travel time), telephone
observation. The library research will show you and courier, and other coordination costs. Also, the
what has previously been done on this topic on Bay Area has a heavy concentration of biotech
related companies, and the primary research will companies, so you will be able to hire the skilled
give you current opinions and facts on the topic. work force you need for manufacturing.
Your instructor may assign you a completely However, you know that locating in the Bay
primary or completely secondary research report. Area has its own costs. Labor rates and living costs
When you have chosen and developed your are high. California environmental regulations will
topic, submit a proposal to your instructor for make your plant cost more and take longer to
approval. Write a memo that includes the following: complete. Water, a key factor in your manufacturing
process, is both scarce and expensive.
DATE: The state of Colorado has been trying to
TO: Your Instructor develop the area around the University of Colorado
FROM: Your Name (or Group Name for a team in Boulder as a center for biotech manufacturing. It
report) offers tax incentives for new facilities, a reliable,
SUBJECT: TOPIC FOR ANALYTICAL REPORT skilled labor force at relatively low costs, and help
in getting the environmental and other permits
Paragraph 1: Tell what your topic is and why it is necessary to build a new plant. Water is readily
important for you to solve this particular problem. available and inexpensive.
Paragraph 2: Explain who your audience is and how Write a report recommending asite either near
this will affect your report (audience analysis). your headquarters or in Boulder. Make your decision
Paragraph 3: List the main parts of your report based on labor costs and availability, water cost and
between the introduction and conclusion. If this is a availability, coordination costs, living costs and
team report, tell who will write each section. conditions, plant construction costs and timing,
Paragraph 4: Describe the sources you will use to get and taxes.
relevant information for your report.
Paragraph 5: Give your time line for completing Sh Report Topics. With guidance from your
this report. instructor, select one of the following topics for
your long analytical report. Choose a topic that
A less academic way to do this proposal is to hasn’t been used too often recently so that people
write a letter to your client or a memo to your boss you will want to talk to for your research will be
covering this material so they will know how you willing to talk to college students. Locate the
plan to proceed with the project. business or institution in either your college town
If you need to change your outline later, add or your home town. Make sure your information is
sources, or otherwise alter your plan, get your up to date. Write the report to the person indicated.
instructor’s approval. Once you have chosen an a) To Mayor Jane Corbin: Should the city
begin a curbside recycling program?

Chapter Eight
b) To personnel manager LaVon Williams: Should c) Which postal service provides the best service
Watertown Manufacturing start a child-care center and price for a small business that sends 10
for its 225-person work force? time-sensitive packages weighing under three
c) To owner Walter Bates: Should Bates Appliances pounds per week to clients in large cities? What
advertise on the radio, in the newspaper, or by direct if the clients are in small towns? What if
mail? business increases to 20 packages a week?
d) To branch executive vice president Edna Sims: At What if some packages weigh only one pound?
which of two locations should United National Bank d) Which method of desalinization would be most
open its new college-area branch? cost effective for a beach city on the West
e) To director of information systems Earl Chan: Coast? For Saudi Arabia?
Which of two local area network software systems
should the company use for its networked DOS- Major Event Report. Your city will be hosting a
based computers? major event (the Super Bowl, a World Cup Soccer match,
f) To president Lyn Baswell: What incentives should a world’s fair, or some other one-time event that will
be adopted for the sales force of Premium Copier draw over 100,000 people) in about a year. If you are in a
Company? small city or town, pick a city with facilities that could
g) To executive director Robin Wallison: Should the support such an event. You are a consultant hired by one
Chamber of Commerce offer its members a group of these kinds of business: (a) limousine service, (b)
health insurance program? restaurant, (c) jazz club, (d) small hotel, (e) taxi
h) To owner. Tim Carter: Should Carter Machining own company, (f) car rental company, or (g) business
or lease its new numerically controlled milling services company (secretarial, fax, etc.). Your client has
machine? asked you how best to take advantage of this opportunity
i) To business manager Carl Masters: Should the for additional business.
Symphony Orchestra begin a summer pops concert In your report, tell how to package services, how to
series? promote them, and how best to prepare for the temporary
j) To city manager James Kawanaga: Should the city influx of business. Remember: This is a one-time event,
offer tax incentives to entice manufacturing so you can’t expand the restaurant or buyalot of new
companies to locate there? limousines just for it. You probably can hire some
k) To transit director Wayne Northrop: Should the temporary people and may be able to add some temporary
transit system buy and use minibuses for low- facilities. Advise your client how to finance any such
ridership routes? additional people or facilities. You can get information
1) To marketing director Maria Gomez: How should on the impact of events like this from the Chamber of
United States Foods promote its new sports drink, Commerce in a city that has hosted such an event in the
Refresh? past.
m) To investor Janos Pulaski: What is the best way to
get real-time stock quotations into his office? Pacific Rim Office. You work for a Big Six
accounting firm in management advisory services
Corporate Travel Policy. Using. business (MAS). Your boss tells you the firm is going to open a
periodicals, travel industry publications, and interviews Pacific Rim office. He asks you to write a report detailing
as your sources, write a report to the controller of a mid- what the firm needs to know to have a successful office in
size company recommending a corporate travel policy. the chosen location. Specifically cover the following:
Look at airline, hotel, and rental car rates; tax treatment a) How do the country’s customs differ from
American customs, particularly with respect to
of employee expenses; and other issues you think should
business practice? Look for things like the
affect the firm’s policy.
significance of colors, the concept of personal
Alternate assignment: Write this report for the
director of a nonprofit organization. space, the way business is conducted, taboos
about body parts, and anything else an
American would need to know to avoid looking
Short Comparison Reports. If your instructor
foolish.
assigns a less extensive report (about 10 pages), the
b) What industries should the firm concentrate on
following topics may give you some ages from which
serving? Look not only at the businesses that
you can develop atopic.
are important now but also at which part of the
a) Which mountain bike should University Bike
economy is growing fastest.
Shop carry to increase sales to students?
b) Which economy car is the best choice for a
paralegal who drives 300 business miles a week
and is reimbursed for her expenses?

Report Organization and Format 257

 c) How do the laws of the country differ for information to the central office, which starts the
business? For example, what are the legal process over again.
forms of companies (partnerships, The information from the truck's radio
proprietorships, corporations)? What kinds of transmission is used to update inventory and
taxes are there? How do contract laws differ? accounting records in the central office, with no
What about patents and local ownership laws? further manual input. When the technician returns to
You won't be able to cover this completely, so the shop at the end of the day, the truck is restocked
try to find out just the major differences. based on the computer reports sent in during the day
d) Who are the major trading partners? How is telling what materials were used.
trade conducted, and how does that differ from The Plumbing Computer Company system ties
the way trade is conducted in the United States? in to the accounting software the company already
What is U.S. tariff policy for this country? uses. There are six major software packages used by
e) What is the available labor pool? Will the firm plumbing companies, with installed bases of from
be able to hire most of the people locally, or 500 to 5,000 companies. The plumbing companies
will it have to be staffed with Americans? Look using these packages have an average of 25 trucks
at all levels of employees. each. Plumbing Computer systems cost about
Prepare your report for one of these countries: $5,000 per truck.
As marketing director of Plumbing Computer,
Singapore China write a report to Edward Schwartz, president, telling
Hong Kong South Korea him how best to sell his systems to the plumbing
Malaysia Philippines contractors. Should he make an exclusive
Taiwan arrangement with the largest plumbing software
company or try to work with all of them? (Because
Sources include the following: each software package is different, Schwartz will
have to modify his software slightly to make it
Price Waterhouse. Doing Business in series. work properly with each package. ) Should he have
his own sales force, use representatives, or pay the
Culturegrams: The Nations Around Us, David M. software company salespeople to sell the systems?
Kennedy Center for International Studies, Brigham Should he advertise? If so, how? Direct mail? Trade
Young University, Provo, Utah. magazines?

Robert Grosse and Duane Kujawa, International Wireless Communication. You run a regional
Business, 2nd ed. (Homewood, Ill.: Richard D. sales office, and it's important to give your clients
Irwin, 1992). up-to-date information. In an NCR white paper,
Mobile Network Computing, you read about
U.S. Department of Commerce and the consular wireless computers that can give your salespeople
office of the country you choose. up-to-the-minute information on prices, technical
data, and availability of products.
Marketing Strategy Report. Plumbing Do some research and write a report to your
Computer Company has developed a system that boss, Sylvia Shepard, about how this technology
allows plumbing companies to dispatch their can help you. Can you identify a product that would
servicepeople to customers via radio enable you to send a note to a colleague during a
communications to hand-held computers in the meeting? Could a secretary compare a team's
trucks. The home office sends a message telling the calendars electronically and schedule a meeting?
serviceperson who and where the next customer is You don't necessarily have to decide what
and what needs to be done. The message also gives products to buy right now, but sell Shepard on the
any special instructions. idea so she can approve mobile offices for your
When the technician arrives at the job, he or people at about $5,000 each.
she enters that information in the hand-held To get an idea of how the technology can help
computer, and the clock starts. Any supplies or improve an office, try to find out about products by
materials used on the job are logged by passing a IBM (PCRadio 9075), Apple (Newton's personal
bar code reader across a label on the materials. When Digital Assistant), Motorola (RPM405i modem and
the job is completed, the technician enters that EMBARC wireless information service), and others.
information into the hand-held computer, and the Look for newer equipment than this; technology
job clock stops. The computer calculates an changes very quickly.’
invoice, which is printed in the truck and given to
the customer. Then the technician attaches the
computer to the radio and sends all of the
258 Chapter Eight
 be made until the amount is depleted, when the user
must make another transfer.
10. Health-Care Cost Containment. You work What do the cards cost? What kinds are there?
for Sellers and Son, a large advertising agency, as Do most of them serve multiple functions or just
director of employee benefits. Your boss, Carlos one function, like a phone card? Does usage differ
Romero, director of human resources, has just seen regionally, nationally, or internationally? What are
an article about the health-care system that Forbes the market barriers? What is their acceptance level?
magazine implemented in 1992. He has asked you What new uses are foreseen?
to report back on how the Forbes system is working As you begin to read, you will need to narrow
and whether it would reduce health care costs for this topic. Answering all these questions in one
Sellers and Son. report might not be feasible.
If a Forbes employee has health insurance
claims of less than $500 in a year, the company 12. Workplace Violence -- Going Postal In
pays that employee twice the difference, plus all about the last decade, the workplace has seen
applicable taxes. For example, if Susan Barnes has increasing instances of threats, assaults, murders,
claims of only $400, the difference is $500 minus and suicides. What are the actual numbers, and
$400 = $100. Forbes pays her twice the $100, or what accounts for the increase?
$200, plus taxes. In what kinds of businesses is violence more
Employees "quickly realized that each dollar of likely? Less likely? Why? What is the profile of the
claims costs them $2 and that they win if total typical offender? How can an organization keep
submissions are under $1,000 (if your expenses are that kind of person away without interfering with
$800 and you don't submit them to the insurer, you anyone's individual rights?
will receive that $1,000 and come out ahead by What are organizational consequences when a
$200)." Routine claims and paperwork are cut violent incident occurs? What can an organization
down. Health insurance premiums dropped by 10 do to protect its employees? What can it do to cover
percent the first year, while average premiums were itself legally in the event of a violent incident?
rising by 20 percent and more. What is available in terms of training? Do most
Write your. report to Romero with a firms' crisis management plans say what to do in
recommendation about the Forbes health-care case of a violent incident? Should they?
policy.’ Here, too, you will need to narrow your focus
(exclude some of these questions) after you have
11. How Smart is the Smart Card? Find out done preliminary reading.
what uses are being made, by whom, of the "smart
13. Talk Your Word Processing Ever since
card," the credit-card-sized card with a computer
chip in it. What are the problems with it? How "Star Trek," computer users have been waiting for
important are the advantages? Are there privacy worthwhile, accurate, friendly voice-to-text speech
issues? Security issues? recognition software. Several such programs were
The card can be programmed as an introduced in 1997 and 1998. How good are they?
identification card for a person, with the Find 20 people who use such a program.
individual's health and medical record on it. It could Design a set of questions that will get you some
numerical data on users' perceptions of accuracy
contain the familiar photo but also DNA
(how many errors per 8-line paragraph, for
information and other highly individual means of
identification. example), ease of use, time required to "train" the
The card can replace a key, work a pay phone software, number of users the system supports,
or a vending machine, and control access to secure amount of post-dictation editing required, and so
areas. It can let a user onto a pay-when-you-drive on. Ask people for estimates on their productivity
with, and without, the software.
toll road.
It can also replace the need to carry cash. The
user transfers money to the card, and purchases can 14. Do Company-Benefits Insurance Programs
Cover Mental Health? —_Read the published
literature on mental-health insurance coverage in
2Based on Jesse Cole, "It's in the Pocket,” Sky, December 1992,
pp 82-89. company-sponsored insurance policies. How often
3 Based on Malcolm S. Forbes, Jr., "How Forbes Cured
Spiraling Health
does coverage exist? What is its extent? What
Care Costs," Forbes, January 19, 1993, p. 25: limits are common? Do some kinds of companies
offer it more often than other kinds of companies? are the practical considerations in hiring and
What does it cost the company, compared to the training people who lack skills and have not
company's cost for physical health coverage? worked at a job before?
Are many people shy about making claims? What incentives exist for an organization to
Are many claimants abusing the system? Are create jobs for former welfare recipients? What are
fraudulent claims more, or less, frequent than the numbers, currently, for successful placements?
fraudulent claims on physical-health insurance? What kinds of training are needed? Are those kinds
being offered? By whom? What is offered by
15. Welfare-to-Work The countdown to the turn government job-placement offices? What is offered
of the millennium has seen renewed emphasis on on the job (or prior to employment) by the
individual responsibility and less emphasis on employing organization? How successful is the
welfare. training?
Business and public-sector organizations are Stay focused on business aspects of the topic.
being asked to find jobs for people with few or no For this project, leave aside any consideration of
work skills and no real exposure to workplace the moral or social-conscience elements of this
norms and expectations. For the organization, what question.
Business Communication Quarterly, Volume 60, Number 1, March 1997, pages 59-76. Copyright | 997 by the Association for Business
Communication

Formats for the Citation of Electronic Sources in

Business Writing

Mary Ellen Guffey

Los Angeles Pierce College, Woodland Hills, California

Many business researchers today are puzzled when they attempt to construct electronic references to cite sources used in
their writing. The most recent editions of both the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association and the MLA
Handbook for Writers of Research Papers were published before today's most widely used Internet protocols were introduced.
This article presents APA and MLA guides for formatting electronic references. The guides, intended as handouts for
students, illustrate typical business communication uses.

STUDENTS AND INSTRUCTORS in business communication need up-to-date guides that

explain and exemplify electronic reference formats that might be required in the presentation of
business research. Recent publications from the APA and MLA do not provide adequate guidance
for current electronic resources, particularly for business researchers. The two sets of guides
provided in this article show basic citation forms and specific citation examples extrapolated from
formats appearing earlier in MLA** and APA publications. A great deal of research and analysis
went into the creation of these guides. However, definitive citation style formats are not yet
possible for the emerging field of electronic publication. Thus, these guides are formative and will
have to be revised as the modes of electronic communication continue to evolve.

American Psychological Association Style for Electronic Formats The following

formats and examples are offered as models for references that might appear in the "References"
section (bibliography) of a business writer's research paper. These formats are based primarily on
the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, Fourth Edition (1994). The APA
publication, however, was compiled before many of today's most widely used Internet protocols,
such as the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) of the World Wide Web, had become universally
established. Thus, the citation formats recommended for some kinds of electronic sources failed to
include specific and necessary elements. Today, by using the concept of Uniform Resource
Locators (URLs), we are able to indicate specific locations of most electronic sources. A Uniform
Resource Locator typically has four parts:

http://www.westwords.com/guffey/students.html

f
(1) protocol
{senate
(2) site (3) path (4) file

Among the various kinds of protocols now in use are the following: http, gopher, ftp, telnet, and
news. For citation formats more current than those featured in the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association, | consulted Xia Li and Nancy Crane, "Electronic Sources: APA

Report Organization and Format 261

 Style of Citation" (http://www.uvm.edu/~Exli/reference/apa.html). I also examined Li and Crane's
newly published Electronic Styles: A Handbook for Citing Electronic Information (Medford, NJ:
Information Today, Inc., 1996). In the recommended basic formats and examples that follow,
every effort was made to maintain consistency with published APA formats When no model format
for an electronic source appeared in the APA Manual, | extrapolated a logical APA-style format. As
more information becomes available electronically and as the means of gathering such information
evolve, citation formats will doubtless have to change and this guide will have to be updated.
Below are additional considerations for business writers citing electronic sources.

Some authorities recommend placing URLs within these symbols: < >.
Check with your instructor or organization for the preferred style.
Try to avoid breaking an electronic address at the end ofa line. If
necessary, divide at a logical spot, such as after a diagonal (/),
period, or hyphen. For reasons of clarity, do not insert an additional
hyphen at the division point.
The word "online" may be written "on-line" or "online." Select one
version; use it consistently
APA style emphasizes dates. Place the date of a publication in
parentheses immediately following an author's name. If no author
is cited, place the date after the first item (usually the title).
Italicize the titles of books. Use "sentence-style" capitalization.
This means that only the first word ofa title, a proper noun, or the
first word after an internal colon is to be capitalized.
Italicize the titles of magazines and journals. Use "headline" style,
capitalizing the letters of all important words.
Do not use underlining, italics, or quotation marks to distinguish
the titles of magazine or journal articles. Use "sentence-style" capi-
talization.
APA style suggests the indication of an article's length, such as by
the number of paragraphs (for articles without pagination). In this
guide we have not included paragraph counts. Check with your
instructor or organization to determine whether such counts are
required.
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (4th
edition, 1994, P. 174) does not recommend including personal com-
munications (such as e-mail, discussion-list messages, and USE-
NET newsgroup postings) in a reference list because these items
are difficult to recover. Instead, it suggests citing personal commu-
nications only in the text (such as "M. Guthrie, personal communi-
cation, September 3, 1996"). More current guides, however, suggest
including such citations in a reference list (see Li & Crane, Elec-
tronic Styles, p. 53). Consult your instructor or organization.

In-text citations should be shown in parentheses. They should consist of the author's last name, if
given, or identifying initial words from the title of the electronic reference. Also include the date of

262 Chapter Eight

publication, if given. For further clarity, you may want to name the source medium or indicate the
Internet protocol. Examples: (Goizueta, 1996, http), (Nordstrom personal touch, http), (Parson,
1996, ftp), (International Narcotics, 1996, gopher), (Clark, 1994, CD-ROM). Your goal is to
interrupt the flow of text as little as possible while pointing readers to a complete citation in the
References.

Bibliographic citation forms and examples in the APA style are shown for
the following types of sources:

World Wide Web home page

World Wide Web secondary page
Book, online
Book review, online
Encyclopedia article, online
Encyclopedia article, CD-ROM
FTP file
Journal article, online
=CHIAARWN
Journal article, CD-ROM
. Magazine article, online
. Abstract, CD-ROM
. Material from online database
. Newspaper article, online, simple
. Newspaper article, online, using search term
. Discussion list message, real time
. Discussion list message, archived
17. Newsgroup article
18. Personal electronic communication (E-mail)

1. World Wide Web home page

Basic Form:

Author/editor (if known). (Revision or copyright date, if available). Title of page. [Publication
medium]. Page publisher. Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File) [Access date].

Example:

Nordstrom personal touch America. [Online]. Nordstrom, Inc. Available: http://www.npta.com/

[1996, November 14].

2. World Wide Web secondary page

Basic Form:

Author/editor (if known). (Revision or copyright date, if available.) Title of page. [Publication
medium]. Page publisher. Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File) [Access date].

Report Organization and Format 263

 Example:

Goizueta, R. C. (1996, February 26). Annual report to share owners. [Online]. Coca-Cola Company.
Available: http://www.cocacola.com/co/chairman.html [1996, November 14].

3. Book, online

Basic Form:

Author. (Date -- indicate "No date" if none is known). Title of book. (Edition or other available
information) [Publication medium]. Producer (optional) Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File)
[Access date].

Examples:

Strunk, W, Jr. (1918). The elements of style [Online]. Available: http:// www.columbia.edu/
acis/bartleby/strunk/strunk.html #11 [1996, June 5].

McCaskill, M. K. (No date). Grammar, punctuation, and capitalization: A handbook for technical
writers and editors (Chapter 3) [Online]. Available: http://www.sti.larc.nasa.gov/html/
Chapt3-TOC. html [1996, June 16].

4. Book review, online

Basic Form:

Author of review. (Date). [Review of Book title by Author] [Publication medium]. Journal or
Magazine Title. volume (issue) (if given), paging or n. pag. indicating no pagination. Available: URL
(Protocol: Site/Path/File) [Access date].

Example:

Hansen, R. (1995). [Review of A pragmatic approach to business ethics by A. Michalos] [Online].

The Online Journal of Ethics 1 (1) n. pag. Available: http://condor.depaul.edu/ethics/ michalos.html
[1996, May 5].

5. Encyclopedia article, online

Basic Form:

Author/editor (if given). (Date). Title of material accessed. In Source (edition) (if given) [Publication
medium]. Producer (optional). Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File) ["search term," if necessary
for retrieval] [Access date]

Example:

Stock market crash of 1929. (1995). In Britannica Online [Online]. Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Available: http://www.eb.com ["stock market"] [1996, June 7].

264 Chapter Eight

6. Encyclopedia article, CD-ROM

Basic Form:

Author/editor (if given). (Date). Title of material accessed. In Source (edition, release, or version, if
relevant) Available: [Publication medium]. Location: Name of Producer.

Example:

Genetic engineering. (1994). In Compton's Interactive Encyclopedia (Version 2.0) Available:

[CD-ROM] Carlsbad, CA: Compton's NewMedia, Inc.

7. FTP file

Basic Form:

Author (if known). (Date). Title [Publication medium]. Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File).
[Access date].

Example:

Parson, R. (1996, May 15). What is the Antarctic ozone hole? [Online]. Available:
ftp://rtfrm.mit.edu/pub/usenet/news.answers/ozone-depletion/antarctic [1996, June 7].

8. Journal article, online

Basic Form:

Author. (Date). Title. Journal Title [Publication medium], volume (issue) (if given), paging.
Available: URL (Protocol:/Site/Path/File) [Access date].

Examples:

Koehn, D. (1995). The ethics of handwriting analysis in preemployment screening. The Online
Journal of Ethics [Online], / ( 1), n. pag. Available: http://condor.depaul.edu/ethics/ hand.html [
1996, June 2].

Nakata, C., and Sivakumar, K. (1996, January). National culture and new product development: An
integrative review. Journal of Marketing [Online], 60 (1), 12 pages. Available:
telnet://melvyl.ucop.edu [1996, May 13].

9. Journal article, CD-ROM

Basic Form:

Author. (Date). Title. Journal Title [Publication medium], volume (issue) (if given), paging.
Available: Supplier/Database name (Database identifier or number, if available)/Item or accession
number [Access date].

Report Organization and Format 265

 Example:

Clark, J. K. (1994). Complications in academia: Sexual harassment and the law. Siecus Report
[CD-ROM], 2/(6), 6-10. Available: 1994 SIRS/SIRS 1993 School/Volume 4/Article 93A [1995, June
13]

10. Magazine article, online

Basic Form:

Author. (Date). Title. Magazine Title [Publication medium], volume (if given), paging. Name of
computer service and/or database. Available: URL (Protocol: Site/Path/File). [Access date].

Examples:

Rosner, H. (1996, March 4) Will e-mail become j-mail? Brandweek [Online], 37,30. ABI/INFORM.
Available: telnet://melvyl.ucop.edu [1996, May 13].

Smart, T. (1993, October 4). Can Xerox duplicate its glory days? Business Week [Online], 56-58.
CompuServe. Available: Lexis-Nexis [1995, November 14].

11. Abstract, CD-ROM

Basic Form:

Author/compiler. (Date). Title of abstract (use italics for dissertation title) [Publication medium]. Title
of Journal (if abstract appears in a journal), volume, paging (if given). Available: Source and retrieval
identification.

Example:

Barsky, J. D. (1992). Customer satisfaction in the hotel industry: Meaning and measurement
[CD-ROM]. Available: UMI ProQuest File: Dissertation Abstracts Ondisc Item DAI-A 52/10.

12. Material from online database

Basic Form:

Author. (Date). Title [Publication medium, such as Online database]. Location and name of computer
service, producer, or distributor of content. Available: URL (Protocol:Site/ Path/File) ["search term,"
if necessary for data retrieval]. [Access date].

Examples:

Mirza, Q. (1995). Race Relations in the Work Place [Online database]. Warwick, England: CRER
Database of Resources in Ethnic Relations. Available: http://www.warwick.ac.uk/
www/faculties/social studies/CRER_RC/search.html ["women" "work"] [10 June 1996].

Women- and Minority-owned Business Surveys (1994) [Online database]. Washington, DC: US.
Census Bureau. Available: http://www.census.gov/ftp/pub/econ/www/mu0200.htm] [12 May 1996].

266 Chapter Eight

 International Narcotics Control Strategy Report: Financial Crimes and Money Laundering (1996,
March) [Online database]. Washington, DC: US. Dept. of State, Bureau for International Narcotics
and Law Enforcement. Available: gopher://dosfan.lib.uic.edu:70/OF 1%3A21342%3A5.7K [9 June
1996].

13. Newspaper article, online, simple

Basic Form:

Author. (Date). Title. Newspaper Title [Publication medium], paging. Available: URL (Protocol:
Site/Path/File) [Access date].

Example:

Markoff, J. (1996, June 5). Voluntary rules proposed to help insure privacy for Internet users. The
New York Times [Online]. Available: http://www.nytimes.com/library/cyber/week/Y 05dat.html [5
June 1996].

14. Newspaper article, online, using search term

Basic Form:

Author. (Date). Title. Newspaper Title [Publication medium], paging. Available: URL (Protocol:
Site/Path/File) ["search term" if necessary for data retrieval] [Access date].

Example:

Chapman, G. (1996, April 1) Your name and privacy -- Lost in cyberspace? Los Angeles Times
[Online], D-7. Available: http://www. latimes.com/home/research/archives/SIMPLE.HTM ["forged
e-mail"] [1996, June 5].

. Discussion list message, real time

Basic Form:

Author. (Date). Subject of message. Discussion List [Publication medium]. Available E-mail:
DISCUSSION LIST@E-mail address [Access date].

Example:

Bowman, J. (1996, December 10). Employee communication skills. Business Communication.

[Online]. Available E-mail: [email protected] [1996, December 11].

. Discussion list message, archived

Basic Form:

Author. (Date). Subject of message. Discussion List [Publication medium]. Available E-mail:
LISTSERV @E-mail address/Get [Access date].

Report Organization and Format 267

 Example:

Sandwen, J. (1995, August 8). GSA's airline city-pair contracts. Travel [Online]. Available E-mail:
LISTSERV @financenet.gov/Get travel 950809 [1996, December 11].

Newsgroup article

Basic Form:

Author (if given). (Date). Article title. Newsgroup focus. Available: URL
(Protocol:Topic.Subtopic[s]) [Access date].

Example:

Japan sends confusing signal on US. chip dispute. (1996, June 3). News on world, Asia, and Japan
business. Available: news:clari.world.asia.japan.biz [1996, June 5].

Personal electronic communication (E-mail)

Basic Form:

Sender (Sender's e-mail address). (Date). Subject of Message. E-mail to recipient (Recipient's e-mail
address).

Example:

Omar, B. W ([email protected]). (1996, June 5). Excellent Web Sites for Job Seekers. E-mail to M. E.
Guffey (meguffey@ rain.org).

These citation formats are maintained and updated electronically at the following Web site: http:
/Iwww.westwords.com/guffey/ students.htm|

[Because of space limitations, Guffey's MLA formats are not reproduced in this textbook.]

268 Chapter Eight

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(Chapter Nine

(ral Presentations
Nearly all businesspeople make oral reports and presentations in the course of
their work. They speak to convey needed information economically and
memorably. If you understand the basics of oral business presentations (and
do not hold yourself up to the inapplicable standards of network television),
your anxiety about speaking will diminish and your chances of success will
greatly increase.
In this chapter, we will discuss self-analysis and audience analysis, the
parts of a talk, different modes of delivery, ways to control nonverbals, and
ways to organize both informative and persuasive talks. Presentation visuals
will be discussed and compared. You will also read about several kinds of
video presentations.

271
 Just an Everyday Business
, rom the deskof.: Presentation? Help!

Vince who has worked with me at Secrist and Associates for five weeks, wasn’t
ce eating | his lunch. “What's wrong?” I asked him. “I’m presenting our proposal to
the management team at Boulez Inc. Thursday,” he said. “Actually, I’m think-
ing just how long till Iget fired after I blow the presentation. I’ve never done this
before, and $20,000 worthof nce is riding on it. Julian, I don’t think I can
_ do this at all.” _ oe
oo ay to move away mee how you feel,’ I said. “Put yourself inside the au-
_ dience’s heads. What’s in it for them to choose us? You know their problem and
our corresponding services down to the finest detail. This proposal will succeed
when you show pen how oe thosetwo ae match. e

a already know. Come andpractice the talk on me tis after-

~ noon. We'll spend some time on it tomorrow, too.”

THE SELF AND THE In this chapter, we assume you have done relatively little speaking in front of
groups. A few lucky people seem to be “born speakers,” and a few more gain
AUDIENCE experience early. Many, however, have avoided giving presentations entirely
or have given just a few talks, fearing and hating every moment.
Many businesspeople give talks regularly. If your mind resists the idea of
making presentations, you may be imagining yourself in front of certain past
audiences you will never deal with. Maybe in high school the class clown sat
in the back of the room staring at you and wiggling his eyebrows to make you
laugh and ruin your speech. Maybe you've seen a street-corner radical being
heckled by the passers-by he insults. Business audiences, unlike these, consist
of rational and generally well-intentioned adults. As you read this chapter,
then, keep these points in mind:
e Working in business, you will be giving talks.
e Practice will make you a more effective speaker.
e Audiences generally want speakers to succeed.
e Audiences have a surprisingly wide tolerance for individual speakers’
differences.
Good speakers gain favorable As you move through the steps in preparing to speak before a group, you
vpbility; will lay some of the groundwork for all the talks you will give in your career.
Your ability to give a good oral presentation will bear strongly on your pro-
motability.
Speakers need to cause audiences to view them as (1) knowledgeable and
(2) likable. To achieve these two goals, speakers learn their material thor-
oughly — not memorizing it, but instead becoming completely familiar with it.
Then they practice giving their talk until it is fluent and natural.

Good Speakers Know A newcomer to speaking sometimes “knows” things that simply aren’t true. For
Themselves instance, people tell themselves, “I'll be boring.” “I'll make stupid mistakes.”
272 Chapter Nine
“Tll forget everything.” These attitudes create negative behaviors, and sure
enough, the speaker causes the outcomes he or she wants so much to avoid.
Speech coaches know that belief follows behavior. To an audience, speaker
confidence is simply a set of behaviors, which we will take up in this chapter.
If you exhibit these behaviors despite any fears you may have, the audience Acting confident leads to being
confident.
will perceive you as confident. When you behave confidently and see people
responding as you wish, you will feel genuine confidence. Continued speaking
experiences will reinforce that confidence. .
Many seasoned speakers admit that as beginners they were almost paralyzed
with fear. Many good speakers still feel “butterflies in the stomach” just before
giving a talk. This minor nervousness, however, is rarely harmful. In fact, it
gives most speakers an important surge of energy as they begin speaking, just
when they need it most.
Nothing can substitute for experience in giving talks. Seek out opportunities
to practice. In particular, check out Toastmasters. Most localities have one or
more chapters of this organization. Check your local phone book, or call the
Chamber of Commerce to obtain the numbers of contact persons. Larger
corporations have their own chapters. Your school may have one. You can
attend as an observer as many times as you wish. Participating in Toastmasters
is inexpensive and has changed many fearful speakers into highly effective and
comfortable presenters.
The most important self-truth a speaker knows is “I can give this audience
something they will value.” As you go through the self-analysis task, ask
yourself:
e What do I already know about this topic?
e What do I still need to learn?
e What are my useful attitudes and feelings about this topic?
e What are my biases, and how can I minimize their influence as I gather
and present information?

Whatever your subject, the way you present it will depend on the people
to Good Speakers Know Their
audience s bring different sets of informat ion Audiences
whom you will speak. Different
h
needs and different levels of ability, attention, and receptiveness. Althoug
question to a presenta tion: “What's in it for
audiences differ, they all bring one
on list
me?” (the WIIFM factor). As you move through the audience evaluati
question for them early in your talk and Respond to your audience’s
that follows, resolve to answer this WIIFM.
you continue to speak. If you do, you will
keep the question in your mind as
retain their attention and never waste their time.
if you su-
Often you will already know your audience well. For instance,
will have convers ed with them fre-
pervise a small group of employees, you
them. For less familiar audience s,
quently and will know a great deal about
learn ahead of time at least these facts:
very little,
1. Their level of knowledge about your topic. If they know
you will spend much of your speaking time conveying basic
talk about
information. If they are well grounded in the topic, you can
finer details.
rs of your
2. Their level of academic preparation. Have most membe
college ? Or will you be
audience graduated from or at least attended
high school and
speaking mainly to people who completed only
perhaps even considered dropping out at one time?
Oral Presentation 273
 3. Their level of receptiveness. Will they welcome the material, or will
they resist certain parts?
4. Their approximate average age. Are they established and long-term
members of the work force, or are they younger people without
extensive experience?
5. Their socioeconomic level. People’s underlying assumptions about
many things change as they advance in earning power.
6. Their number. With a group of 50, you will interact differently than
you will with a group of 10.
You will have to research some audiences. If, for instance, you will be
explaining a new plant-security policy to a community group outside your
organization, go to the person with whom you arranged the-speech and ask
your questions. Be particularly alert for information on how this audience
already feels about the new policy. If, on the other hand, you will be giving a
new-product briefing to top management, ask their staffers your questions. For
instance, you will need to know how detailed their knowledge is on the
existing product line and whether they feel especially committed to the prod-
uct the new one will replace.
The nature of your audience determines the length, the level of formality,
and the degree of sophistication in what you present. As with any other mes-
sage, your audience also determines word choice and the many other basic
language choices. You will be considering your audience’s needs from the
moment you begin gathering your content.
As you plan and organize your information, remember that listeners have
certain limitations that readers do not have. Listeners cannot move back and
forth in the information stream the way readers can. They receive each word
only once. Speakers help their listeners by using a simple, familiar, understand-
able plan for the talk, explicitly stating that plan in their introduction, sticking
to the plan and referring to it, point by point, in the body of the talk, and
recapping the plan in the conclusion. Presentation visuals, covered in Chapter
Seven, help the audience follow the talk’s organization.

About Audiences in General Audiences are usually. receptive. Typically, listeners want speakers to look
good and do well. An audience will not be against the speaker unless he or she
offends them in some way or the situation is tense and they somehow feel the
speaker is to blame. Such cases are rare and almost never occur unforeseen.
Audiences want speakers to Remember that your audience wants to help you. If you look at your audi-
succeed.
ence, they will look at you, and their attentiveness will encourage you. If your
face looks friendly (even if you’re scared stiff), their faces will look friendly.
You have to help them, though. They don’t want you to exclaim, “Oh, I’m so
nervous!” They don’t want you to apologize profusely if you have to pause to
recollect a word or reinsert an idea you omitted earlier. You are only human,
and so is your audience. A completely flawless presentation is unrealistic and
probably not even desirable. If you look too slick or sound too “canned,” you
will risk sounding insincere.
You must breathe. Tense people breathe shallowly or forget to pause for
breath. You are allowed to pause. You may occasionally use an incomplete
sentence if the context is clear. If you say “um” twice in the talk, no one will
notice it. Ifyou say “um” every fourth word, of course, this nonword will drive
your audience crazy. The principle here is that your audience will happily
tolerate your individuality, within fairly broad limits. Different speakers, even
274 Chapter Nine
 YOU'RE BIG, YOU'RE I'M A POPSICLE
BEAUTIFUL, AND WITH HAIR
PEOPLE LOVE ‘OU

Z661
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GARFIELD reprinted by permission of UFS, Inc.

Positive imaging works for speakers. Garfield needs to be more audience

centered.

the top speakers on the lecture circuit, have different styles. Preparing thor-
oughly, however, will help you stay within your audience’s tolerance limits.
Just before beginning your presentation, prepare your mind by positive
imaging. Create positive mental pictures of yourself and your audience. Re-
mind yourself that you are fully prepared and eager to tell your audience
something they really need. Tell yourself, “I like these people. They are going
to like what I have to say.” Think, “I feel tall. ’'m a strong, energetic person.
This is going to go well.” Thinking these positive thoughts helps turn nervous- Use positive imaging.
ness into energy. When you think tall, you will stand erect. When you think
energy, you can project it. When you think “friendly,” your face becomes
pleasant. Its muscles unfreeze and become ready to add expressiveness to your
words and voice.

In many business presentations, your audience will be ready to hear you. Like BEGINNING, MIDDLE,
written reports, most business presentations fill receivers’ need for informa- AND END
tion. Your business presentations will not be expected to entertain.
Thus, for many presentations, some of the “attention grabbers” you may
have heard about might be undesirable. Engage the audience’s attention and
involve their interest early in your talk, but don’t waste their costly time. Don’t
bother opening with a personal anecdote. Who cares what your Uncle Joe used
to say? Don’t open with a joke. Either everyone has already heard it, or it’s not
relevant to your subject, or it’s in bad taste. The only humor that nearly always
works in a business presentation isa little mild kidding of oneself. Don’t open
with a definition. “Webster says, . . .” sounds juvenile. Open with a shocking
statement? Business audiences are tolerant, but they’re not tolerant of baloney.
Within the first few sentences, the audience needs to know exactly what
you will do and what use it will be to them. Time-honored advice says, “Tell
them what you will tell them, tell them, then tell them what you have told
them.” Your introduction needs to accomplish the first of those tasks. If you
use
have an opener that is witty, engaging, relevant to the subject, and not trite,
part of the speech. It is not its own reason for
it. But the opener is an integral
in the introduct ion is WIIFM: “What’s in
being. What the audience really wants
it for me?”
Project energy as you speak. It sustains audience interest because it conveys
knowl-
your interest. You are the expert on the subject. Your enthusiasm and
edge will bring the material home to your audience .
The body of your talk should have a fairly simple structure. You will have
communicated it to your audience in your introduction, and the audience
Oral Presentation 275
 should be able to follow that plan easily as you speak. We will cover some
options for organizing a talk later in this chapter.
Your talk also needs a clear ending. Beginning speakers often end their talks
abruptly, sometimes leaving their own voices at middle-of-the-sentence pitch.
The audience has no idea they have finished. Or the beginner finishes with
“blah-blah-blah-blah-blah-blah-thank you” or “blah-blah-blah-blah-blah-blah-any
questions?” Or “That’s about all I have to say” or “Well, that’s it.” Do not end
your talks so weakly and unmemorably.
Plan a solid conclusion. After completing the last main point in the body of
your talk, pause briefly, then verbally signal your move to your conclusion
section. Some people say, “In summary,. . .” or “In conclusion,. . . ,” but try
to do better than that. For instance, you can say, “You’ve heard three cases
showing the need for improved interagency exchange. The plan I’ve outlined
will provide for it.” Then tell them again what you have told them.
With your last few words, give your voice the sound of an ending: Use a
downward vocal intonation. Then stop, wait a couple of seconds, and then ask
for questions if you have planned time for them. If not, wait a second or two,
then leave the podium. Leaving that brief silence doesn’t come to most people
naturally, but it is the way professionals end a talk.

DELIVERY STYLES Speech teachers and trainers recognize four styles of speeches. Some speeches
are read word for word from a prepared manuscript. Some are committed to
AND TECHNIQUES memory and spoken word for word. Some, called extemporaneous speeches,
are given using only a prepared outline or set of notes. Others, called im-
promptu speeches, are given with no preparation at all. Extemporaneous and
impromptu talks are by far the most common in business.

Manuscript Speeches, Read In everyday business you are unlikely to give a memorized speech. Your
or Memorized instructor is unlikely to assign or permit you to give one. Still, because you
have probably seen important speakers use a manuscript, we will discuss them
briefly.
Manuscript speeches are A speaker reads a prepared manuscript when the wording of the material is
infrequent in business. critical. Reading a speech well requires as much preparation as giving one
extemporaneously. People who will read a prepared manuscript have the
speech typed in large type, triple-spaced, on one side of the paper. They mark
the text for pauses, gestures, and even facial expressions. Then they rehearse
it many times, making sure that it sounds like talk rather than like reading, that
the phrasing sounds natural, that the wording is characteristic of them and not
someone else, and that they can actually bring the sounds out of their mouths
without tripping over words.
To a beginning speaker, reading a talk looks like the easy way. She might not
believe she can give a speech without reading it. She also might not understand
about the extensive preparation needed for reading from a manuscript. Con-
sequently, audiences suffer as she rapidly reads in a singsong voice stilted
material from a notebook-paper scrawl, stumbling over words. This is not
speaking.
Occasionally a person might commit a whole speech to memory. A mem-
orized speech might be appropriate, for instance, when the speaker will give
it again and again to different audiences. These speakers, too, prepare exhaus-
tively. The talk should sound like “talk,” not a recital. This kind of clean
delivery doesn’t just happen.
276 Chapter Nine
 In general, business audiences tolerate a well-read or memorized speech Most business presentations are
but prefer an extemporaneous one. They like to feel that the speaker is inter- extemporaneous.
acting with them, looking at them, almost conversing with them. In fact’ the
best presenters of read or memorized speeches simulate this manner. Extem-
poraneous delivery is also by far the most foolproof. Because it is also the most
frequent delivery style in business, we will cover it more extensively than the
other styles.

An extemporaneous speaker talks from a few notes, an outline, a few visual Extemporaneous Speaking
aids, or a combination of these cues. In most cases, the talk never exists in
written form.
Beginning speakers resist the idea of just speaking to an audience. Often
they clutch pages of writing the way infants clutch their blankets. The sooner
a beginning speaker breaks loose from a written-out text, the sooner he begins
to develop as a speaker. Underprepared beginners’ eyes “default” to the type-
written, printed out, or penned pages. Their voices develop the repetitive
singsong of unpracticed reading or reciting. Their audiences’ minds drift off to
the golf course or the lake.
Should a speaker never write out a speech he intends to give extempora- Speakers must speak, not read.
neously? Some speakers like to write out the talk in order to time it carefully.
Some think better on paper and like to see, study, and revise their thoughts in
that form. Sometimes the material will be distributed to the audience as a
handout after the talk is over. Whatever the reasons for committing a talk to
paper, before beginning to rehearse the talk a speaker must break free of all
those words on all that paper.
Written material a speaker carries to the front for an extemporaneous talk
should include no more than an outline and a few notes. Outline and notes
should be on a few cards, which the speaker numbers in order, refers to
sparingly, and uses in a natural and nondistracting way.
The speaker must use these notes in his rehearsals. It is essential to actually
talk the talk—the whole talk—a number of times. The ideas need not always
be worded exactly the same way. In fact, if the wording varies, the speaker has
more options (synonyms, for instance, or spare examples to illustrate main Audiences like spontaneity.
points) than if he stays slavishly with uniform wording. He also sounds more
spontaneous. Another important part of rehearsing is actually working with the
note cards and audiovisual aids. Rehearsal will show where a transparency is
unwieldy, a chart is unclear, the cues on the cards need modification, the order
can be improved, a memory lapse is possible, and so on.
Many speech trainers urge speakers to memorize openings and closings.
They correctly believe that a speaker's first and last words must be meticu-
lously chosen because their position makes them most memorable to the
audience. If you are in serious danger of “drawing a blank,” prepare two special
cue cards, one for the opener and one for the close, containing minimal cues
to make your memory foolproof. Practice the opener and the close until you
don’t need those two cards at all. Then take them with you to the talk and don’t
refer to them unless your mind goes blank (which will be exceedingly un-
likely). In the middle of a talk, forgetting something is relatively unimportant.
At the beginning and end, however, a speaker cannot take that chance.

A businessperson gives an impromptu speech when he is asked, without any Impromptu Speaking
chance to prepare, to respond to a question or to “say a few words.” Im-
Oral Presentation 277
 promptu speeches may sound risky and potentially humiliating, but they need
not be.
Rarely are people given absolutely no inkling that they might be called on.
If you work in a group where people are sometimes asked to respond im-
promptu, chances are excellent that one day soon your turn will come. Just
from observing, you will have a pretty good advance idea about what kinds of
questions are asked, how long a respectable response lasts, and what degree of
awkwardness is within tolerance, just to name a few variables.
You can prepare, actually. In your projects at work, what might others ask
about? Formulate some likely questions and mentally rough out responses. In
fact, you already handle many impromptu questions in meetings and on the
telephone. You exercise impromptu skills when you get someone’s answering
machine instead of the human being you expected. Reducing your thoughts to
a short message is one of the most important impromptu skills.
Think of an impromptu talk in this way: Your job is to operate your mouth
for X time and sound intelligent. Ifyou have X time, you will be able to cover
a given and limited number of main ideas. Because businesspeople rarely waste
time by asking someone to speak in an area where he or she lacks expertise,
you will have something, probably plenty, to say.
You can and should take a few seconds to marshal your thoughts before
beginning to speak. Think about what ideas you want to cover, and think of a
Asked for impromptu remarks, simple organizational scheme for covering them. Do not begin to speak before
a speaker should pause to you have done so. Remember, you need to sound knowledgeable. You might
organize before answering.
begin by restating the question or request, even rewording it if doing so
permits you to give a better or more useful response. Then, just as in the other
delivery styles, tell your audience what you intend to tell them, tell them, and
then tell them what you just said.
In one minute, for instance, you might be able to give two pros and two
cons of a new plan just proposed and under discussion. In five minutes, you
might have time to make an assertion and illustrate it with several examples.
In eight minutes, you can probably give a capsule comparison of sales in
regions A, B, and C. Note that each of these examples uses a different orga-
nizing scheme: pros and cons, illustration by example, and coverage by geo-
graphical region.
Impromptu talks are not expected to be flawless. Rather than striving for
perfection, work to convey interest in your subject matter and respect for your
listeners. Look at them; their faces will be responding to you. Good talks are
interactions rather than performances.
Think of your content, organize it, and talk. You will sound knowledgeable.

CONTROLLING Some of the strongest influences on an audience’s response are nonverbal

signals (unworded messages such as posture, position, movement, and facial
NONVERBALS AND expression) and paraverbal signals (noncontent elements of a worded mes-
PARAVERBALS sage such as tone of voice, pitch, and intensity). In this section, we will ex-
Nonverbals and paraverbals can amine some of the appropriate signals for speakers to send nonverbally and
drown out words. paraverbally.
Before we begin, remember that although audiences are fairly tolerant of
speakers’ individual differences, they have expectations about speaker behay-
ior. As you read, consider how you will meet your audience’s expectations and
find a natural-feeling place within their range of tolerance.

278 Chapter Nine

Speakers send a message by the way they walk to the front of the room and say Posture
their first few words. They should walk to the front with a confident, deliberate
stride, maintain erect posture once they arrive, and spend a second or two of
silence giving the audience a friendly look.
. Most of us have seen beginners who creep or shuffle to the front like a
condemned prisoner approaching the gallows. They consult their notes wor-
riedly, sigh, and eye the exit sign with longing. Then they suddenly brighten
up, smile radiantly down at their notecards, and read “Good morning.” Obvi-
ously, this is the wrong approach. Speakers need to be “in character” from the
moment their audience begins looking in their direction.

Good grooming is essential and must be complete before the speaker enters Grooming
the room. Nervous beginners sometimes finish grooming or undo perfectly
good grooming while in front of the audience. We’ve seen speakers tidy up
hair, check to see that all eight earrings are accounted for, and tighten or
loosen the necktie knot— unaware that they were doing so.

Speakers need to dress to meet the audience’s expectations. For business Dress
presentations, that means professional-looking business clothing. One expert
suggests that to make the best impression, a speaker should dress a fraction
more conservatively than the people he or she will address. In most business
presentations, both women and men are advised to wear good-quality, dark-
colored suits and attractive, good-quality, but low-key accessories. The idea is
that a speaker’s job is not only to convey content. but also to inspire confi-
dence. Anything that looks flashy to an audience can undermine the speaker's
credibility."

Audiences prefer open, interested facial expressions that change as the ideas Face
change. Individuals (and cultures) vary widely in degree of expressiveness.
One person’s rubber-faced expressiveness makes a more staid person think of
monkeys. Another person’s immovable face makes a more expressive person
think of tombstone carvings. Here too, be aware of an acceptable range of Becoming aware of nonverbals
precedes improving them.
audience tolerance and avoid the extremes. If you are too near the extremes,
becoming aware will help you begin to modify a habit that might get in the way
of your advancement. -
An occasional smile is a positive nonverbal signal. Constant smiling, how-
ever, is a negative nonverbal, conveying nervousness or insincerity to many
people. Women tend to smile more than they should, as speakers. If speakers
maintain a friendly expression around the eyes, a smile can be just one among
many lively and communicative expressions.

Practiced speakers control their hands but gesture for appropriate emphasis at Hands
the right points in the talk. Unpracticed speakers may find that their mouths are
saying one thing and their hands another. For instance, a hand might be tapping
on the lectern, clenching and unclenching, diving in and out and in and out of Hands should support a
a pocket, hiding behind the speaker’s back, clicking a pen, twirling a curl of speaker’s message, not put on a
hair, and so on. Hands must not be allowed to go their own way during a talk. show all their own.

Students often ask, “Then what am I supposed to do with my hands?” The

answer is: Make your hands work for you. As you rehearse your speech, re-

e Letter, June 1, 1977.

1Richard J. Kulda, “Dressing to Win,” Professional Eloquenc

Oral Presentation 279

 hearse your gestures as well. When you are not gesturing, your hands should
be at rest. Where? They can be at your sides, or they can rest lightly on (but
not clutch) the lectern. One hand, but not both, can be in a pocket (but don’t
trap it there). One hand can hold a pointer. One hand can hold your few
notecards (but should keep them inconspicuous). However, keep your hands
available so that you can move them deliberately when you want to.
Gestures emphasize words or phrases, and the principle of emphasis is
differentness. For instance, underlining emphasizes because it contrasts with
nonunderlined material. If everything were underlined, nothing would be em-
phasized. The same holds true with gestures. If hand movements are virtually
constant, they cease to have meaning and instead distract.

Feet Keeping the weight evenly distributed on both feet achieves two ends. First,
the speaker looks stable rather than off balance or jittery. He isn’t tempted to
lean on or clutch the lectern. Also to be avoided are slumping to one side,
frequent shifting weight from one foot to another, turning a foot to one side,
attempting to wrap one ankle around the other, and excessive walking around.
Speakers can walk and change position, but they should do so deliberately
rather than to work off adrenalin.

Eye Contact While going through a presentation, speakers move their eyes from one audi-
ence member’s face to another, lingering a few seconds before moving on.
Keep a high level of eye contact Speakers don’t look at every single face in the audience. Rather, they find a
with the audience. receptive face in each section of the audience: front left, front right, center,
back left, and back right. In this way, the whole audience feels included.
Eyes must not avoid the audience. Unpracticed speakers’ eyes tend to “de-
fault” to the notes or to the floor, ceiling, or back wall. Speakers’ eye contact
helps the audience pay attention. Furthermore, speakers need to read audience
nonverbals. If audience members do not understand something or become
distracted or inattentive, the speaker can modify the talk to get them back on
track.

Poise Speakers must stay “in character” while walking confidently back to sit down.
We have heard a speaker mutter, “That was gross!” as he slunk away from the
lectern. We have heard “Whew!!” and “Thank God that’s over.” To undercut
effectiveness and behave unprofessionally at the end, after all that work, is
foolish.
The right signals come much more easily to the speaker who has prepared
thoroughly than to the one who has avoided preparing and rehearsing. People
who say they loathe speaking have the most to gain by good preparation.

Voice and Paraverbals Audiences will tolerate a wide range of voice traits. However, speakers should
avoid the limits of audience tolerance and cultivate those voice attributes that
project energy and enthusiasm.
Voices vary in a number of characteristics. Some paraverbals are pitch
(high, medium, or low tones), range (variability from highest to lowest pitch),
speed (the rate at which the presenter speaks), and volume (loudness or
projection).Other variables include articulation (ability to enunciate clearly)
and fluency.
If you naturally have an excellent speaking voice, you probably have few
problems. Not all potential speakers are thus gifted, and certain voice charac-
teristics can work against speaking effectiveness. From vocal differences in
280 Chapter Nine
factors like loudness and speed, audiences infer a positive or negative para-
verbal message, an added message accompanying the worded message.
e Pitch. A high voice may seem to lack authority. A high-pitched voice is
a disadvantage for both women and men. Many business speakers work
to develop a deeper-toned voice.
Range. A voice with very limited range bores an audience. Although a
speaker may feel enthusiastic about his or her subject, a one-note
delivery communicates the opposite. Media announcers deliberately
use a wide vocal range. Effective business presenters can do just as
well.
Speed. A too-rapid delivery interferes with the audience’s ability to
keep up; too slow a pace invites them to daydream. Audiences
sometimes suspect a fast talker of insincerity or uncontrolled nerves
and a slow speaker of slow-wittedness or lack of interest. Audiences
welcome purposeful variations in speed just as they do variety in pitch
and volume. Also, they know the speaker has to pause for breath now
and then.
e Volume. A small, soft voice undermines a speaker’s authoritative
presence and in some cases prevents all or part of the audience from
hearing. Too loud a voice is irritating. Speakers need to be able to
project their voices enough to fill the room comfortably.
e Articulation. Clear, distinct, but natural enunciation projects
intelligence and credibility. Mumbling has the opposite effect.
Exaggerated enunciation can make an audience feel patronized.
e Fluency. Practiced speakers rarely have to grope for a word. Still, the
normal stream of speech contains pauses. Effective speakers control
their pauses, sometimes using them to add emphasis or to signal a
transition. Pauses should not be filled with intrusive sounds such as
“you know” or “I mean.” If you have an “um” habit, now is the time to
break it.
Whether audiences’ negative reactions to some paraverbals are fair is beside
the point. If speakers can minimize the negatives by developing their voices,
Pleasant, low-pitched, easily
they will reach their goals more easily. Most people can learn to project their heard voices project authority
voices and to communicate energy. Most can develop their voices’ range, and credibility.
whether to lower the overall range or simply to increase variation. Many can
and should improve their articulation.

Ga MOU WILLGIVE NORMAN | [1 KNOW TUIS SOUNDS CRAZN, TI NEED TO

A TRANS AM! NORM, BOT I WOKE UP WITH WORK ON MY ,
mfFf URGE ENONCIATION!
I OU WILL GIVE NORMAN | | AN OVERWHELMING
A TRANS AM! 10 GIWE YOU A CANNED WAM!
YOU WILL GIWE NORMAN
A TRANS AM!

Inc.
Syndicate,
Feature
United
1992
©

DRABBLE reprinted by permission of UFS, Inc

Norman has to articulate much more clearly to become an effective business

presenter.
Oral Presentation 281
 Most students can ‘improve the “listenability” of their voices just by becom-
ing aware of what they need to change. In unusual cases, a student may want
to pay a voice coach for some lessons. Ask your instructor to videotape one or
more of your presentations. You won’t fully understand what you need to work
on until you see yourself on tape. As you watch the tape, you will see many
things you are doing well. Give yourself credit. Doing so will give you more
incentive to work on what does need improvement.

Nonverbals and paraverbals exert a strong influence on the audience's re-

ception of a talk’s content. Human beings are loaded with biases that operate
full time without their owners’ even being aware of them. If you can control
some of the elements that precondition the audience’s evaluation of what you
say, you will meet the goals of your presentation much more effectively.
Thus far, we have been discussing the how of presentations. Next, we will
focus on the what.

INFORMING AND Informing and persuading are not two separate things. Most messages do some
of both but intend mainly to do one or the other.
PERSUADING Speakers who set out to persuade must usually provide information to
support what they want their hearers to think, feel, or do. Speakers informing
audiences who do not know them may have to persuade their hearers to view
them as credible before the information will be accepted. In an example of
the way informing and persuading often mix, an upper-level manager’s talk
describes two cost-cutting measures. He tells his subordinates that the mea-
sures will initially be uncomfortable but will lead to long-term benefits. The
talk mainly informs them what will be done, but the subtext persuades: “We
need your cooperation. Opposing the measures will hurt everybody.”
The material to follow shows how to plan and organize talks when the
content is mainly informational, then how to plan and organize talks when the
content is mainly persuasive. Chapter Eleven discusses informing and persuad-
ing in more detail.

Informative Presentations Every day, businesspersons convey information orally. When several people
need the information, a business presentation is often the most efficient me-
dium. The more important the information, the audience, and the business
need served by the talk, the more carefully the speaker prepares.
Between your carefully constructed beginning and ending, you can orga-
The organizational plans for nize the body of your talk using one or a combination of these familiar patterns,
informative talks are familiar. which you learned about in Chapter One:

Chronological Geographic
Description Analysis
Cause and effect Definition
Classification Illustration by examples
Narration Process |
Problem-solution Comparison and contrast
Speakers and audiences use these patterns daily as ways of thinking about
experience. All can be used alone or in combinations. Let’s take one example,
analysis. An introduction could say:
The market for luxury skin-care products has five main segments. I'll outline these and
then show you, on the basis of our research, the two segments where our competitors
282 Chapter Nine
 are strong, the two where they are most vulnerable, and the three where our line can
best be promoted.
The audience, now knowing that the body of the talk will be arranged accord-
ing to division of a whole into its parts, will easily follow the speaker’s orga-
nization. In the body of the talk, the speaker must let the audience know, both
verbally and nonverbally, when he moves from one point to the next. In his
concluding section, he must summarize according to this same plan.

The persuasive speaking we do in business tends not to be fancy, catchy, or Persuasive Presentations
shocking. It tends to be workaday and low key. Persuasive speaking in business
is rarely debatelike, performancelike, or confrontational. It is more like an
outgrowth of persuading interpersonally, which we do constantly. Much of
what we learn in life about successful and unsuccessful persuasion will carry In business, persuasion builds
over into persuading in business. For instance, in business persuasive talks, just common ground and
deemphasizes differences
as in our daily living, we call as little attention to our differences with our between speaker and audience.
audience as we can and still accomplish all or part of our persuasive goal.
Stated abstractly, our persuasive goal is to modify our audience’s opinions,
attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. Stated concretely, our goal in a persuasive talk
might be to get a fragmented work group back on track, to get the firm’s
executives to endorse a capital expenditure, to open the minds of 30 first-line
supervisors to the idea of quality circles, or to replace with the truth a rumor
flourishing in the grapevine. The list could go on and on.
Informative speaking usually reaches its goal: It informs. In contrast, even
the best persuasive presentations sometimes fail to persuade. Persuasion is
harder. Emotions, ego involvement, elements of the business situation, and
even personal history can create obstacles.

Suppose we take on the task of getting the first-line supervisors to consider Objective and Audience
quality circles. Already you can see that the persuasive goal and the audience
are closely connected. Audience analysis is critical and can be complicated. If
the supervisors are neutral but uninformed, the task is relatively easy. But what
if Roth, the most influential supervisor, has seen quality circles not only fail but
also create a sour working environment in her last job? She has talked about
the experience, and the supervisors are very dubious of QCs. Your persuasive
goal changes.
In the first case, where the audience is neutral, you present the benefits a
well-managed QC program can bring. In the second case, you do not yet try to
influence the group until you have conversed extensively with Roth to learn
what her experiences were, why the other QC program failed, how much she
has generalized her opinion of QCs, how much influence she has with the
other supervisors, and whether she is open to revising her opinion.

If an audience is strongly opposed to your position, you will rarely change Degree of Opposition:
in
their minds with one message and usually should not try. Instead, think Multiple Messages
to
terms of multiple messages. A more modest goal is not to change them but
understa nd some of the reasons why others feel different ly
ask them to try to
it.
than they do. This you can do, and, more important, they will let you do
They will hear you. If they think, however, that you want them to change from
all.
“Absolutely not!” to “Yes, of course we will,” they will not listen to you at
The usual result of this less assertive talk is some actual softenin g of their
not
opposition. (Not all audience members will change, and those who do will
Oral Presentation 283
 all change to the same degree.) Your next message can take your persuasion
one or two steps further. If you have enough time and opportunity, you can
eventually win many of them to your way of thinking.

Organizational Patterns for If your persuasive task is to develop the reasons why an opposing idea is
wrong, the following structure might work well. It arranges arguments (rea-
Persuading
sons, pieces of evidence) according to their relative strength:
e Introduce the subject, developing common ground, that is, ideas that
both you and your audience know and agree on.
e Discuss one or more strong pro arguments.
e Mention one or more weaker pro arguments.
e Cite and refute one or more opposing arguments.
e Return to strong pro arguments; discuss at least one more.
e Summarize the main points.
e Say confidently what you would like the audience to do or believe. _

Primacy and recency govern The placement of the strongest arguments first and last makes use of the
placement of the strongest principles of primacy and recency. Audiences remember best what they hear
arguments.
or read first (prime position) and what they hear or read last (most recently).
The less important ideas are placed in the middle, where audiences’ attention
tends to lessen.
Some of the opposing arguments need to be mentioned and refuted. Choose
opposing arguments you can deal with and show as well as possible how they
are weaker or less important than the audience might think. Sometimes the
arguments against can be turned into (weak) arguments for.
The ideal counterarguments to bring up are those that permit you to refute
them strongly and convincingly. If the audience has an opportunity for ques-
tions afterward, you might be asked about some of the others. If you can, offer
some evidence against the counterargument. If you cannot, one strategy is to
acknowledge that no solution is perfect and then add a restatement of one of
your stronger arguments.
For sections within your talk, any of the patterns listed on page 282 for
informative speaking might suit your persuasive task as well. For example, you
might use a comparison-and-contrast pattern for one of your arguments and
the process pattern for another.
If your persuasive task is to motivate, unify a group, or sell an idea in some
other way, the AIDA (attention-interest-desire-action) pattern might work
well. A more common name for this arrangement is the motivated sequence.
It’s useful for a persuasive effort in which the receiver is initially uninterested
The motivated sequence can
lead an audience from initial in the subject, the speaker, or any part of the situation. Business speakers must
uninvolvement to action. sometimes persuade people just to listen before they can persuade them to do
anything else.
The motivated sequence has five steps— attention, need, satisfaction, visu-
alization, and action:

. Use an attention-getting opener to grab the audience’s attention.

. Establish and develop the audience’s need for your plan or idea.
. Demonstrate that your plan or idea will satisfy the need.
Br
=
WN . Encourage listeners to visualize themselves having solved the problem,
enjoying the result of the new idea.

284 Chapter Nine

 5. Move the audience to whatever action you have in mind: increasing
their sense of team spirit, re-igniting their enthusiasm for a project, or
conveying warmth and welcome to customers.
How might this sequence work? Suppose a speaker has to give a pep talk
about workplace safety to a group of employees who have grown lax. The
opener might describe a workplace accident, with clear examples of its pain
and cost (step 1). Then the speaker might say, “You know we have a gain-
sharing plan in place here. In the next few minutes, I'll show you three cases
where increased attention to safety on the job yielded employee bonuses of
4.3, percent, 6 percent, and 18 percent, respectively.” The audience now has
in mind the speaker’s plan (step 2).
Three detailed examples would follow, each showing a cause-and-effect
pattern. The examples would talk about cost savings and pain avoidance—
about the accidents that didn’t happen (step 3). The speaker would then ask
listeners to think about how they might spend or invest their share of the gain
(step 4).
An ending might be: “We can all make this work. We just need to bealittle
sharper and alittle more alert, to clean up the work area, to get rid of the
hazards. It’ll be fun to spend that percentage we save— and you won't have to
go visit an accident victim in the hospital, or be that victim yourself” (step 5).
As in other forms of business communication, your task is to analyze the
source (yourself), analyze the communication situation (including the prob-
lem), analyze the receiver, and craft the message. The message grows out of all
the other elements.

Increasingly, business speakers add interest, value, and impact to their oral PRESENTATION
presentations by using audiovisual aids. Studies have shown that presentations VISUALS AND
using well-prepared and appropriate visuals are more convincing and more
memorable than presentations without them. Vendors continue to offer speak- AUDIOVISUALS
ers better means of preparing these aids. Because striking, high-tech, simple-
to-prepare audiovisuals have become common, business audiences’ expecta-
tions have risen. While low-tech, simple aids are still useful, more speakers are
reaping the rewards of learning to use higher-tech AV, such as multimedia,
which we will describe later in this section. Table 9— 1 shows the strengths
and drawbacks of the various kinds of audiovisuals to be treated in the section
to follow.
Take great care in preparing all types of audiovisuals. Since they are likely
to contain the elements you want to emphasize, the impression they make Presentation visuals make a
strong impression. Make sure
tends to be a lasting one. Your visuals need an attractive appearance, perfect it’s a good impression.
spelling, adequate size and readability, a logical order, and strong impact. The
impression they make, positive or negative, will represent you memorably.
Practice using your visuals as you rehearse your talk. Here are some guide-
lines for handling your audiovisuals smoothly and effectively:
e Keep them simple.
e Have them in the correct order and ready to use. For instance, peeling
sticky paper backing off transparencies can be noisy and awkward, so
do this before you need them.
e Use visuals smoothly, without fumbling.
e Give the audience enough time to read each visual.

Oral Presentation 285

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Oral presentations, especially when accompanied by visuals,

present business information powerfully. This speaker is
projecting actual computer-screen images, which she can change
using a computer keyboard as she speaks.

e Remove a visual when you are finished using it.

e Don’t simply read a visual to your audience. Discuss it.
e Avoid letting your body block the audience’s view of any audiovisual.
An oral report based on the written report illustrated in Chapter 8 gener-
ated a set of nine visuals. The slides shown in Exhibit 9—1 would be most
suitable for overhead transparencies or 35mm slides. They could, however,
assume the form of handouts, flipcharts, posters, or deskcharts as well, and
could be incorporated into any of the more complex media, such as videotape.
As sequenced, the nine slides illustrate the oral report's “story.”
Next, we'll examine the different kinds of AV available.

are
Virtually anything you can replicate can become a handout. Most handouts Handouts
can be impressiv e. One handout we
printed on ordinary paper, but even these
ng a picture of a compact disk,
saw recently boasted a cover page containi
paper on
made out of shiny compact-disk material, but flat and flexible as the
material the speaker had found
which it was mounted. It was made of iron-on
ive or they can be slick and
at an art supply store. Handouts can be inexpens
folders containi ng multiple
costly, as are the four-color, card-stock pocket
color-printed pages in different sizes and formats.
encies
A handout might be an outline of the talk, a paper copy of all transpar
of a written report related
used in the talk, a bibliography, a diagram, a copy
to the oral report, or a combination of all these. Many other options exist.
When should handouts be distributed? Something short and basic, like an
outline, can be passed out at the beginning. A longer handout, however, such Long handout? Do not give it
as a copy of the complete report, will draw audience members’ attention away
out till the talk is over.

Oral Presentation 287

 @xuisit 9-1 Presentation Visuals to Accompany Oral Report ‘ ‘Developing a Fitness
Component to Our Wellness Program”

Developing a Fitness Component Agenda Why Do We Need a

to Our Wellness Program * Costs Physical Fitness Program?
* Corporate
* Employee Benefits :
Absenteeism
Prepared for:
Board of Directors * Motivation e Job Satisfaction
= + Facility Criteria « Turnover
é Facility Comparison * Productivity
by « Recommendation * Health Care Costs
Catherine Morgan and Linda Mason, HR Department * Plan of Action
April 30, 1992

Slide 1 Slide 2 Slide 3

Mesa Limited Partnership

Benefits Reported by Motivation Physical Fitness Incentive Program
Those Who Exercise
© Voluntary
Reduce stress
improve self-concept
Enhance energy
Improve performance
Control weight
Reduce Iliness

meron
Improve concentration
0
Percent of interviewees.
‘SeonHOMaga, Oncember 1080

Slide 4 Slide 5

Location Options Off-Site versus On-Site Corporate Benefits of

Decision Criteria Employee Fitness Program
oe
Program Facility Program | Facili Program ¢ Reduced Absenteeism :
|S008ora a)ete he Gee a | ¢ Improved Job Satisfaction
Ptasmy |)erent mae fees |
ieee
[peo een ee
er RS ¢ Reduced Turnover
* Improved Productivity
On-Site ¢ Reduced Health Care Costs
Program ‘Source; Personne! Administrator, 1984

Slide 7 Slide 8 Slide 9

The nine slides serve different purposes:

Slide 1 introduces the speakers and the topic.
Slide 2 presents the talk’s organization.
Slide 3 presents one of the important points, Corporate Benefits.
Slide 4 presents and elaborates with a bar graph the important section Employee Benefits.
Slide 5 presents an important point, Motivation.
Slide 6 details a subsection of Motivation, Incentives.
Slide 7 introduces the section of the talk on Facility Location.
Slide 8 shows the decision matrix for Facility Location.
| Slide 9 sums up the main benefits leading organizations to consider employee fitness programs. |

from the speaker as they scan ahead of where the speaker wants them to be.
Many speakers tell an audience what the handout will contain and then pass it
out at the end. This information permits audience members to limit notetaking
to only those notes the handout does not offer. Thus, their attention remains
on the speaker.
288 Chapter Nine
 Most other audiovisual aids occupy a place near the speaker. Since they
must be large enough for a group to see, they are often sizable and sometimes
distract the audience’s attention from the speaker. Speakers have to (1) keep
the audience’s attention where it should be and (2) avoid blocking the visual
with their bodies while using it.

If you will be demonstrating a process, such as the calculation of a formula or Chalkboards or Whiteboards
a multistep problem and solution, a chalkboard or whiteboard might be best
for your purpose. These aids are versatile, common, and low in cost. However,
the speaker cannot write on the board while facing the audience. Eye contact
is lost during that time, and the audience has nothing to do until the speaker
turns back to them. Attention can wander. In addition, some speakers write so
rapidly on the board that the result is illegible.

Flipcharts are inexpensive and versatile but, like chalkboards, they require the Flipeharts
user to turn away from the audience unless they have been prepared in ad-
vance. Turning the large, unwieldy, crackly pages creates a minor distraction.
The easels for flipcharts are often wobbly, but can be moved around easily.
A speaker can draw or write each page’s exhibit in advance. Best practice
recommends leaving a blank page at the beginning and every other page blank.
Thus, an exhibit remains covered until needed. The speaker can turn a blank
page after finishing with each exhibit and can direct the audience’s attention
as desired. Many speakers trace lightly in pencil what they will write boldly in
marking-pen strokes during the talk. Doing so yields a neat result, especially if
the user is ordinarily a hasty scribbler.
Some speakers begin with a completely blank tablet, develop the entire talk
as they write phrases on the flipchart, and tear off each sheet and tape it to the
wall in sequence. This technique makes for a vigorous, dynamic talk. A second
advantage— especially if the material is complex, as in engineering or the
sciences— is that the audience can view the entire presentation as a whole.
The disadvantage is the visual chaos this method can create.

The stiff cardboard used for posters gives speakers more options for charts, Posters
illustrations, lists, photographs, and other graphics. Because posters are already
prepared, the speaker retains eye contact with the audience. They are inex-
pensive but somewhat unwieldy, and they require an easel or hooks on the
front wall to hold them. Posterboard comes in many weights and sizes. Choose
board heavy enough to stand sturdily on the easel without curling or falling
over. Use large, dark, clear lettering on a white or yellow background so that
even those sitting in the back can read the poster easily.

For a small audience—say, five or six people—deskcharts combine the ad- Deskcharts
vantages of flipcharts and posters. Deskcharts are small, prepared posters, usu-
ally in landscape format. If you turn your notebook so that the spiral is at the
top, you are looking at the basic size and shape of a deck of deskcharts. Because
deskcharts are loosebound, you can stand them on a desk and turn them like
the pages of a flipchart.

Transparencies may offer the fewest disadvantages and the most advantages. Overhead Transparencies
Overhead projectors are readily obtainable and transparencies are inexpensive
and easy to make. Unlike 35 mm slides and motion picture film, overheads do Overhead transparencies are
inexpensive and versatile.
not require turning all the lights off.
Oral Presentation 289
 With transparency marking pens, you can draw or hand-letter a transpar-
ency in advance or develop an exhibit on a transparency as you speak. You can
draw, type, or print out a good, clear paper original and make an excellent
transparency on a photocopier. Color transparencies have been available at a
reasonable price since about 1989.
Computer programs and output devices offer speakers great variety. In-
creasingly, schools and organizations are making these computer tools avail-
able to their members. Transparencies made on a color printer or plotter can
add great vividness and impact toatalk.

35 mm Slides Slide shows, especially when accompanied by sound, look very sharp and
professional. They also fall into a different cost category. Yes, an amateur can
make a series of good slides inexpensively. When audiences see a slide pro-
jector, though, they tend to expect a “dog-and-pony show” —something with
variety, pizzazz, imagination, and often music or sound effects.
A business or educational speaker may have access to an in-house produc-
tion department. Speakers can also locate many small-business vendors of AV
production services. These services offer advice, guidance, and many addi-
tional options. .
The more a speaker spends on a given slide show (or any other audiovisual)
the more he expects to get out of it. Costly AV should either serve a very
important one-time purpose or have good capacity for multiple use. Slides
alone are easy to change. Slides with audio are less adaptable.
Even the best slide shows are limited to two-dimensional color images that
audiences view in a darkened room. Live narration, if provided, seems to come
from a disembodied voice. If the narration is recorded, the speaker essentially
disappears until the slide show is finished, when he must regain the audience’s
attention.

Audiotape Recordings Audiotape recordings are useful for illustrating some brief segments of a talk.
For example, a speaker could play a recording of the reactions of people in a
target market to a new product or idea. A taped comment from an expert on
the given topic might make a piece of evidence particularly convincing. A
speaker could use a short bit of music to set a mood. But a business presen-
tation accents the visual and should not rely too heavily on audio effects.

Videotapes Camcorders, which dropped in price to about $700 in 1991, are now within
many speakers’ personal budgets. Most camcorder owners, however, lack the
production skills needed to create a videotape of sufficient quality to enhance
an important business presentation. For a relatively informal talk, a homemade
videotape can work for you. For a full-fledged business presentation, you will
do best to hire professionals.
Videotape opens enormous possibilities to presenters. Anything you can
show by any other medium you can show on videotape—and much more. You
can tape a skit, a “talking head,” a mood piece, a demonstration, a segment of
a focus group, or the steps in solving a problem, just to name a few possibilities.
You can add music and other sound effects. You can use stills like photographs,
diagrams, and models. Voiceover is easy, you can retape any number of times,
and editing the tape is not difficult.
Playback equipment is easy to find and lets you show the tape in ordinary
room light. The video screen is large enough for viewers to see clearly, but not
so large that you have to compete with it.
290 Chapter Nine
|@xuisit 9—2 Four Examples of Computer-Drawn Stills |

. The Sound of the Forest

Fire and Water
, aut Lesson of the Babbling
Brook :
The Wisdom of the Mountain

(rem ier mantcs

(a) an outline

{ Growth/Income 1992 - 45,235

2 Tax-Sheltered
1993 - 39,400
3 International
4 Precious Metals (projected) 1994 - 50,490
= Bonds/Money Market
(projected) 1995 - 75,520

(c) a listing (d) trend numbers

(Computer “Shows”
Several computer application packages permit the user to build onscreen color
presentation exhibits quickly and easily. The four examples shown in Exhibit
ie)
9—2 were built using one such package, Microsoft Powerpoint™.
Most of your images will be stills or will use very limited animation, but they
are versatile and can be revised with a few keystrokes. Also, any image you can
digitize can be inserted into a computer presentation. If you do not wish to
show your images on a computer screen, you can print them out on a color
printer or output them as 35mm color slides.

Multimedia combines existing audiovisual options and permits a user to Multimedia

move back and forth among them. This new computer-based approach to
audiovisuals is poised to develop rapidly for business use. Ce
Most multimedia systems employ a compact disk. This super-high digital
storage medium can hold, for instance, a 24-volume encyclopedia on one disk
and permit the user to access it at random. Besides text, it can store audio
signals and visual images in both still and full-motion form.
Oral Presentation 291
 The possibilities of this medium go far beyond those of videotape (which it
can incorporate). For instance, suppose a corporate trainer is addressing a
group of 30 insurance adjuster trainees. She gives her introduction, then
switches on the video playback screens from her keyboard. Trainees see and
hear a typical and relatively trouble-free meeting between an adjuster and a
claimant. The trainer then shows the text of the policies in small or large
segments. She can highlight a word and call up more detailed information
about it. She can also call up case law pertaining to similar claims.
In addition, the trainer can show comparable encounters between an ad-
juster and insured parties, including encounters that caused problems because
of tactless word choice, unclear terminology or jargon, inattention, or misdi-
rection. She can zero in on any part of the video, pausing for discussion at any
time. She can play tapes of angry encounters backed by harsh music and sound
to simulate the stress levels trainees must learn to deal with. She can teach one
or two coping mechanisms, showing, telling, and referencing psychology lit-
erature—all onscreen from her keyboard. She can play telephone scripts that
lead to a satisfactory outcome for both parties and telephone scripts that do
not. This array only begins to tap the potential applications of multimedia
technology in business presentations.

Ensuring Your Visuals’ Clearly, business presenters have many choices in audiovisual aids, ranging
Success from simple and inexpensive to elaborate and costly. The topic, the audience,
and the business need will determine your choices among these options. In all
cases, however, you must prepare AV materials meticulously and use them
with grace, skill, and smoothness. As with all other aspects of presentations,
practice is critical to success.
Well ahead of your talk, check out the place where you will be speaking.
How does the room look? Are there power outlets for your projector(s)? Will
you need one or more extension cords? If you need to darken or partially
darken the room, can you do so easily? Is there a lectern? A microphone?

PRESENTING ON When business presentations are recorded on video, a few elements assume

VIDEO particular importance. These elements differ depending on whether the per-
son is speaking for the media, for in-house use, or for a videoconference.

Presenting for the Media When we discuss presenting on video for the media, we do not mean in a time
of crisis. In the case of a crisis or emergency on company premises (a fire, a
robbery, an accidental death, or other catastrophic occurrence), most organi-
zations’ communication policies refer members of the media to designated
spokespersons. If you are approached by a reporter or editor, politely refer
inquiries to those designated persons. Only these people should give media
representatives any information at all.
You might receive an inquiry, however, about a topic of public interest that
happens to be in your area of expertise. You might be asked to speak about the
topic, either in front of a group or in an interview. Always ask your organiza-
tion’s public affairs or public relations representative to check for authoriza-
tion. Sometimes, for legal or public image reasons, offering your expertise
could harm your firm. Keep in mind that businesses operate in a litigious and
volatile environment.
Suppose your superiors authorize you to give an interview or that you run
a small business and are the only spokesperson. Brainstorm all the questions
292 Chapter Nine
you might be asked and prepare short, concise, informative answers to all of
them. Keep word choice positive.
Remember that interviewees are often quoted in “sound bites” (15- to What speakers say to the media
45-second clips). Leading with your key points, prepare answers in that man- must retain its intended
meaning even if it is cut
ner, so that you are easy and interesting to quote. Use language that will be drastically and quoted out of
familiar to the audience, and keep their WIIFM (“What’s in it for me?”) in mind. context.
Be sure to find out exactly how much time you will have, where the tape
will be recorded, who will be present, what kind of AV you should prepare, and
what the format should be. Find out exactly who the intended media viewers
are. (Time of day makes a difference. Cable or network channel makes a
difference.) Visualize these viewers’ backgrounds and interests. Then plan
fascinating material designed not only for this audience but also for the re-
porter and the editor.
As you plan your speech, resolve not to use it as a forum for applauding your
organization or unit. The mass media are especially sensitive to puffery. They
will resent it, will almost certainly cut it, and may treat your whole talk less
respectfully than they would if you had kept it straight.
Then practice. Get a critique. Practice on videotape, and practice again.
Dress professionally and conservatively. Many, though not all, television
people still recommend avoiding white and black. Avoid flash of any kind. Any
jewelry should be conservative; remember that strong lights sometimes ac-
company cameras. If a tie-bar or other flat, shiny surface reflects a high-wattage
beam back into the camera lens, the effect will be distracting.
Probably the most important difference between a media presentation and
other types of presentations is this: Only the people physically sitting there in
the room with you are sure to hear all of what you say. Once you are on
videotape, the media staff can do what they like with the tape. They are ethical,
yet they are still selling a product. They will not drastically alter what you have
said, but they will cut out whatever is not extremely interesting. Your opinions
may differ from theirs in that what you consider to be essential explanation
may be to them just so much wind.
As you speak, then, keep in mind that you are likely to be edited. Make your
most interesting statements so clear that they will make sense even if the
material developing them is cut. Make the explanation useful but not crucial.
Entirely avoid irony (saying one thing and implying, usually nonverbally, the
opposite).Irony can be humorous, but an astonishing number of people mis-
understand it. Educate and inform. Stay away from anything controversial.
Show your most professional, approachable, authoritative, and credible man-
ner. Be pleasant and positive. When you finish an answer, stop. The interviewer
may continue to look at you expectantly, but don’t fill the pause; wait for the
next question.
If unexpected questions come, remember your impromptu skills, and pause
to think and organize an answer before you reply. If a question is phrased
inappropriately, rephrase it before you respond. If you are asked an unfair
“ejther-or question” or a question with an untrue or misleading lead-in, correct Cover yourself, but do not
sound hostile or defensive.
the wording (do not repeat the untrue wording as you do so), rephrase the
question, and respond with one of the points you prepared. You, not they,
decide what you will answer. Stay pleasant.
Keep your eye contact open and sincere. Make sure nonverbals do not
convey anything negative.
Never say anything “off the record.” Consider that everything you say can
be quoted and that the microphone is always on. Roger Ailes, author of You
Oral Presentation 293
 Are the Message, tells of an experience he had while being interviewed for the
television program “60 Minutes”:
The person interviewing me was either trying to relax me or thought
he’d get me to open up in some way in an unguarded moment. He
ordered his crew to take a break. But I noticed that, while the crew
locked their recording gear in place and drifted away, the camera
lenses were uncapped and pointed at me. I heard the faint whir of the
camera motor and I knew it was still on. The trick didn’t work, so
they officially continued the interview.”
If you are asked questions that you cannot or must not answer, avoid the
phrase, “No comment.” Instead, say, “I don’t know, but I will find out and have
the answer for you at 10 a.m. tomorrow.” Or “The person to ask about that is
Marcia Kepperly.” Or “I’m sorry, but that information is proprietary.” Never say
anything that is untrue.
Finally, be sure to make your own recording of the interview session.

Presenting for In-house Uses Videotaped presentations for in-house uses permit you more control over the
preparation and editing than do those for the mass media. They are also more
likely to be retained for repeated use. You, your unit, and the AV production
workers, whether they are in-house or from an outside agency, typically will
share the goal of making the videotaped presentation excellent. Tap the ex-
perience of others who have made presentations. Listen to advice. Find out
what didn’t work.
Audience analysis will be straightforward. If, for example, your firm puts out
a video newsletter for employees every 90 days, your audience is the whole
organization, all levels. Suppose you are asked to talk about bringing a new and
newsworthy development online. You will need to convey not only informa-
tion about the project but also your enthusiasm toward it. Your persuasive
subtext, expressed nonverbally, paraverbally, and sincerely, will be: “This is an
interesting job. This is a good place to work.”
As another example, suppose you are asked to make a training film on a
basic procedure for new hires in your department. Your audience has no
knowledge of your organization beyond first-week orientation. The basic tasks
are performed by people with little technical knowledge; thus, your presen-
tation must be elementary without being condescending. As you can see, your
agenda is very different from that in the first example.
In essence, you will present a procedure report in video form. You will
move step by step through a process. Clarity will be greatly enhanced, how-
ever, because at every step you can show as well as tell. Present the steps in
the order that makes sense to the new employees, not to you. Omit nothing,
but do not bring up anything they don’t need to know. Think of all possible
questions a newcomer might have, and make sure the presentation answers
them at the time they would arise. Your purpose is mainly informative. The
only persuasive element is the confidence you convey that your audience will
be able to do this task well.
For in-house videos, presenters wear what they would wear under ordinary,
on-the-job circumstances, such as shirtsleeves or labcoats. Usually dress be-
comes formal only when the representative of the firm is shown meeting peo-
ple from the outside. Even top management, although they may appear in coat

Roger Ailes, You Are the Message (Homewood, Ill.: Dow Jones—Irwin, 1988), p. 164.

294. Chapter Nine

and tie at the beginning of an in-house video, often opt for less formality when
they move to nuts-and-bolts matters. A possible exception: Women managers
often prefer to be videotaped wearing the suit jacket or blazer. Viewers are still
too likely to assume they are not in positions of authority otherwise.
For all in-house video presentations, especially if they will be used often,
practice—and practice again.

Videoconferenced presentations usually occur within the context of a meet- Presenting for
ing. Like in-person meetings, videoconferenced meetings fill a one-time need, Videoconferences
with a different agenda each time. Most of the material on meetings in this text
(see Chapter 15) applies to meetings by videoconference. A presenter might
be a main event and speak for 15 minutes or more, or one of several contrib-
utors, speaking for just a few minutes.
Because videoconference time is expensive (though less expensive than the A videoconference must use
meeting time economically to
travel it replaces), speakers must condense. They analyze carefully the level of meet the participants’ goal.
existing knowledge of the videoconference participants to learn what not to
spend time on. Then they plan and organize a succinct talk.
A videoconference presenter faces one challenge peculiar to the medium.
When people meet for the first time by videoconference, the level of trust and
liking is lower than it is when they meet in person. The medium does not make
this difference when participants already know each other. As you can infer, an
informational speaker must take extra care in establishing credibility. In addi-
Oral Presentation 295
 tion to credibility, a speaker with a persuasive goal needs to work harder to
establish common ground with those on the other end of the conference.

REVIEW Oral business presentations or reports give audiences material that they need.
Speakers must analyze audiences with respect to background and knowledge;
receptiveness; education, age, and other demographics; and size of audience.
Business audiences generally support speakers; they expect competence but
not perfection. Speakers need to know themselves well, work to project con-
fidence, plan talks carefully, practice thoroughly, and prepare their own minds
by positive imaging before beginning to speak.
Business presentations need a strong opening and close and an organized
body. Speakers need to give plenty of “direction signals” to help the audience
follow the talk’s structure. Most business presentations are extemporaneous;
other forms are manuscript and impromptu speaking.
Effective speakers control nonverbal and paraverbal signals to project com-
petence, energy, and enthusiasm. Nonverbals include erect posture and stable
stance, careful grooming, appropriate dress, communicative facial expression,
deliberate use of gesture, and full eye contact that takes in all parts of the
audience. Paraverbals—variations in voice accompanying words— include
pitch, range, speed, volume, articulation, and fluency.
Informational presentations follow familiar, logical patterns. Persuasive pre-
sentations, which make use of psychology and indirection, follow different
patterns.
Business presenters use visuals such as handouts, chalkboards, flipcharts,
posters, deskcharts, transparencies, 35mm slides, and audio- or videotapes.
Communications technology offers new computer-assisted media. Video pre-
sentations include those for mass media, for in-house purposes, and for video-
conferencing.

296 Chapter Nine

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
. Describe a typical business audience’s attitude monotone delivery, or ‘um’ intrusions.” Do you
toward, and expectations of, a business speaker. agree or disagree? Discuss your reasons.
. Does a speaker’s nervousness always show? 10. Distinguish between speaking to inform and
Explain. speaking to persuade. Is there always a firm
. Explain positive imaging, and give examples of dividing line between the two kinds of talks?
helpful ways to visualize oneself and one’s 11. How are persuasive talks organized? Why are they
audience. . organized in those ways? i
. What audience analysis must business speakers 12. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
perform? handouts, chalkboards, flipcharts, posters,
. What are some ways business presentations differ transparencies, and 35mm slides.
from other kinds of speeches, such as after-dinner 13. Would you attempt to make a videotape to use as
speeches, political speeches, and speech class a visual in a presentation? What would you have
assignments? to do to make it effective?
. Give several reasons typical business presentations. 14. “The mass media have a grudge against business.
are seldom memorized or read from a manuscript. Reporters are always trying to embarrass
. Differentiate between extemporaneous and businesspeople in interviews.” Do you agree or
impromptu speaking. disagree? Discuss your reasons. °
. In your experience, what nonverbals are hardest 15. What precautions does a business interviewee
for beginning speakers to control? Why? What need to take with respect to a video interview
suggestions can you make to help control them? intended for the media?
. “Business audiences are unfair when they react
negatively to a speaker’s high or soft voice,

CASES
. Critiquing a Pro. Watch a professional give a your class why your topic is important to them.
speech. For instance, you might choose an on- Inform and interest them.
campus guest speaker or an influential person
3. Summarizing a News Story. Your library
speaking on a cable or network channel. In
subscribes to one or more daily newspapers. Read
writing, analyze and evaluate the effectiveness of
the business section of several recent issues.
what you saw and heard. Specify whether the
Select a news feature of importance to students
speaker read the speech or spoke
preparing to work in business. The article could
extemporaneously. In either case, did it sound.
be about politics, economics, influential
natural and professional? Evaluate the speaker and
individuals, scientific breakthroughs, military
the speech in terms of the aspects of presentation issues, or virtually anything else likely to influence
covered in this chapter. Include suggestions for
what happens in business. Study the article and
improvement.
prepare a three-minute summary to present
. Generating Interest and Informing. Based on orally to your class. Tell them why the content is
your present knowledge and interests, fill in the important; tell them the content; then tell them
blank in this sentence: “As future businesspersons, what you have told them. Inform and interest
my classmates should be aware of ___ .” them. Develop WIIFM.
Virtually any business-related topic could fill the
blank. Examples— just to get you started 4. Suggesting a Way to Solve a Problem. Ina
thinking— include GATT (General Agreement on five-minute presentation, present a well-
Tariffs and Trade), disposable cameras, hurricane developed idea for improving a function, service,
warning systems, time management, the North or facility on your campus. Campuses and
American Free Trade Agreement, the under-12 students’ perceptions differ, but possibilities might
market for compact disks, business and political include bike parking, use of student fees,
slogans. Choose your own topic. You don’t have bookstore practices at opening of term, pedestrian
to know or learn everything about a topic to safety, a cumbersome procedure, recreational
introduce it and show that it is important to facilities, campus elections, or appearance of the
business. In a three-minute presentation, show campus. You will think of dozens of others.

Oral Presentation 297

 5. Presenting Your Research. Present a five-person combo cost, and what kinds of music
extemporaneously to your class the most can they offer? How about a DJ who plays
important material from your written report. recorded music on state-of-the-art equipment? Are
Keep in mind the differences between oral and there other alternatives? Report orally on the
written reports. You will not be presenting committee’s options.
everything you wrote. Select content to suit your 8. Reporting on Development of New Service
audience’s needs. Make your talk interesting. Build Businesses. What small service businesses did
a strong structure with excellent introduction and not exist 15 or 20 years ago? An example might
conclusion and an easy-to-follow body. Prepare be the plant-care services that supply, care for,
one or more visuals. Practice with your notes and and replace the growing plants that adorn many
visuals until you sound like a professional. Aim at offices. Find out about another relatively new
giving your audience 100 percent eye contact. small service business. Report on it orally to
Your instructor will set time limits and other your class.
specifics of the assignment. 9. Presenting Results of Comparative Pricing
. Increasing Intercultural Awareness. Study. The vice president of administration is
Interview a non-U.S.-born student on your reviewing suppliers. Your firm’s office manager
campus. Ask your subject to describe the aspects has assigned you this task: Make a list of 25
of daily living and interpersonal common office supplies, including a 10-ream case
communication that seem most different from of copy paper, a box of 100 9" 12” clasp
those of his or her home country. (If you were envelopes, a box of 100 letter-size manila folders,
born in another country, interview a and 22 other items of your choice. Price your
non-U.S.-born student whose home country is choices at two office supply vendors. Compare
different from yours.) What experiences were prices. If one vendor is higher, are additional
most startling when the person first arrived? Try advantages offered that justify the price
hard to see through this international student’s differential? Are the two vendors about the same?
eyes and to understand the different assumptions Present your findings orally, along with a
and reasons underlying the different practices. recommendation, to the vice president and the
Then, in an oral presentation, tell your seven managers she supervises (the office
classmates what you learned. Make certain they manager is one).
know why this information is useful and 10. Presenting Results of a Site Selection Study.
important. Your employer owns several photocopying stores
x Presenting a Feasibility Report: What Options and is considering expansion. You are asked to
at What Costs? Your organization will hold a gather cost figures on 1,200 square feet of office
retirement dinner party for seven 30-year space in two different sections of your town. The
members, two of whom are vice presidents. You decision maker has in mind locating in a strip
are asked by the planning committee to price shopping center or a downtown building. Up to
musical entertainment for the occasion. The four- 15 parking spaces are desirable. Visit the two
hour Friday evening party, to be attended by 150 sites. Present orally what you learn; include
guests of all ages, will include dancing. What does visuals.

GUIDELINES FOR BETTER VISUALS

eading 9-1] Marian K. Woodall

1. Aim for cleanness and clarity. Resist the impulse to supporting, plus one or two major items for
be too fancy; even though your computer system perspective.
enables you to mix six different type faces, don’t. : 3. When developing word visuals, be brief. Use words
Don’t let the art overwhelm the message. or short phrases, not sentences. Use single-syllable
Zn Aim for simplicity. When using a drawing of a words whenever possible. Use common
mechanism, for example, resist the temptation to
fill in or label all the fields or parts. Include enough Source: Marian K. Woodall, Speaking to a Group (Lake
detail for authenticity. Label those parts necessary Oswego, Ore.: Professional Business Communications, 1990),
to make the point that that specific graphic is pp. 112-13.

298 Chapter Nine

 abbreviations (you can explain them as you debrief 7. For bold visual impact on short lists, use bullets,
the slide). closed boxes, or closed circles rather than asterisks
4. Use capitals and lower case lettering rather than all or open characters.
caps. People read more quickly by scanning the 8. If you have more than three items in a subhead
ascenders and descenders (the parts of letters consider numbering or lettering them. If the items
which come above and below the regular line of must be taken in order—if they are steps in a
type). Use bold when you want extra emphasis, process, for example—it is important to number
instead of capital letters. them. You remind the audience of the importance
5. Use color. Remember what your audience sees on of keeping them in order.
television. But resist the opportunity to be gaudy. NOTE—If the material requires more depth than
subheads, print that extra material only on the
6. Headings or titles should usually be in large type.
paper copy of the handouts that you give the
Subheads should be in the same font (type style),
audience. An overhead or slide should generally
with smaller type than the headings. Consider bold
have only the title and the briefly phrased, bulleted
or some other special treatment for emphasis of a
subheads.
key word or phrase.

THE NOT-SO-HIDDEN BENEFITS

eading 9—2 OF POWERFUL SPEAKING
Dorothy Leeds

I have seen what a newfound speaking ability can do for a competent. If you don’t use public speaking to your advan-
person. Being a good presenter makes you visible, and in tage, someone else will use it to his.
corporations, money, resources, and power flow to the vis- There is just so much spotlight to go around, and ‘it’s a
ible high achiever. The visibility that speaking abilities give given that speakers occupy it regularly. Presenting in pub-
you becomes part of your overall professional growth. A lic is advertising with subtlety: You are displaying your abil-
colleague of mine at a large Fortune 500 company moved ities without touting them. As the old rhyme reminds us:
through the ranks with startling speed and ease. Many ofhis The codfish lays ten thousand eggs, the homely hen
peers were just as competent, but he was a very good lays one.
public speaker; his presentations were effective, persuasive The codfish never cackles to tell us what she’s done;
events. He had an undeniable edge. and so we scorn the codfish while the homely hen
I also watched the careers of two executives at a large we prize.
manufacturing firm. She was a highly persuasive speaker It only goes to show you that it pays to advertise.
who had studied public speaking and ran dynamic meet-
ings. She really knew how to inform and persuade. He, on Source: from POWERSPEAK: The Complete Guide to
the other hand, was a dull speaker. After five years, she was Persuasive Public Speaking and Presenting by Dorothy Leeds.
vice-president of their division, and he was still a manager. New York: Berkley Books (originally published by Prentice-Hall,
1988).
Needless to say, the executives may well have been equally

THE ORIGINS OF PUBLIC-SPEAKING PANIC

eading 9— 3 Dorothy Leeds

and it’s probably an honor, too. So try to see it as an honor,

As a speaker, you’re a person apart from the crowd. People
since your perception of the event will be crucial to your
are more comfortable in groups than leading them; that
success.
way, no one is on the spot, and others can carry the con-
versation if you run out of ideas. Speaking isolates you; it
removes you from your peers and designates you different
from everyone else—you’re the one who has something Source: from POWERSPEAK: The Complete Guide to
worthwhile to say. Some people relish this attention; oth- Persuasive Public Speaking and Presenting by Dorothy Leeds.
ers, understandably, find the sudden spotlight daunting. New York: Berkley Books (originally published by Prentice-Hall,
1988).
The trick is to accept your being singled out; it’s temporary,
Oral Presentation 299
 It also helps if you don’t let the spotlight become a bar- I once saw a speaker address a small group in a U-shaped
rier. Many novice speakers blow up their isolation in their seating arrangement. At the back of the room, a man
own mind, until it takes on exaggerated importance. Think seemed to be paying no attention; he spent the entire
less about yourself and more about your audience and speech scribbling and gazing into space. During the break,
some of the fear will leave, as you perceive yourself not as other people in the audience asked the speaker how he
isolated but as part of the group you're addressing—a could tolerate the noticeably rude man. The speaker was
group that wants to hear what you have to say. relaxed; he said he just focused on the rest of the seemingly
Except for optional question-and-answer sessions, speak- more interested audience. But after the session was over,
ing is a one-way street. You don’t get the direct feedback the scribbler came up to the speaker, identified himself as
conversation provides. You’re not sure if people are really a reporter, said he was particularly fascinated by the pre-
following you. You can see their eyes—though not very sentation and would be writing an article on it, and thanked
well— but you don’t know what they’re thinking. A person the speaker. Moral: Don’t guess at what your audience’s
may leave the room, and you feel personally rejected, even reactions mean. It detracts from your effectiveness to
though he is only stepping outside to make a phone call. A worry about those who don’t seem to be listening, since
joke you’ve told many times with great success may not get they may be listening the hardest, anyway.
a laugh. ; When I tell someone they can learn to be a commanding
What’s missing is swift feedback and knowledge of where speaker, I usually get a swift, standard protest: “But you
you stand, and the absence of this throws you off. Everyone, can’t learn it; public speaking is a talent you are either born
not just speakers, needs feedback. To prove this point, a with or not.” Not so. Public speaking is not an innate skill;
man in a pub took bets from people in the pub and chal- good speakers are made—not born—through hard work
lenged one of England’s champion dart throwers that he and practice. As with any learned skill, some people are
could make the expert falter in less than four throws— and better than others, but everyone can work at it successfully.
without interfering with the throw itself. The challenger If someone had told me twenty years ago that I, with my
held up a piece of paper in front of the champion just after wispy voice and fear of crowds, would really enjoy public
he released the dart—so the champion could not see how speaking, I would not have believed a word. But it’s true;
he did—and then removed the dart before the next throw. and one of the most important kinds of power speaking
Sure enough, the champion’s game went to pieces in three brings you is the power to change your own perception of
throws. Without seeing—instantly—the results of each yourself—not to mention other people’s perceptions of
throw, he missed the next shots. you.
People do get reactions to their speeches— afterward. Giving a speech is not a natural, ordinary event. Speakers
Knowing that during the speech you will plunge ahead like who expect to feel at ease are kidding themselves. It may
the dart thrower, without feedback, accounts for much of seem hard to believe that even the most polished, experi-
the nervousness speakers feel. But forewarned is indeed enced speakers get nervous, but they do. So don’t expect,
forearmed. Expect the pauses, the small silences, and they or long for, relaxation; expect the nervous excitement and
won't seem strange. Different audiences will also react dif- energy that come from the task at hand. In other words, use
ferently; don’t expect the same noises from both a general fear to your advantage; charisma and adrenaline are closely
audience and one with a very:technical bent. And don’t linked.
misread reactions out of sheer nervousness. Silence can
indicate: deep thought and agreement as much as it can
alert you to boredom.

300 Chapter Nine

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._Sndirect Messages:
Handling Negative and
Sensitive Information
In this chapter, you will learn more about indirect messages and how to send tactful
and effective messages containing negative or sensitive information. When sending
information directly to a reading or listening audience, you can begin with the most
important piece of information, because that is what the audience is waiting for. An
indirect message, on the other hand, can begin with a number of different ideas, but
not with the most important piece of information, because the audience hopes to
read or hear something else. |
Usually you will choose to be indirect when refusing to do something;
when making adjustments that will only partially satisfy the customer's concerns;
when dealing with mail-order problems such as incomplete information, back
orders, and substitute orders; and when handling personnel problems. Being
indirect means handling a potentially negative situation with tact and extra attention
to audience reaction.
A number of negative or disappointing messages are handled by phone or
fax if the problem can be fixed more quickly that way (order problems, for
example). Regardless of the medium used, you should prepare the message with
attention to the "you attitude" and audience analysis so that you do not run the risk
of unintentionally alienating a customer.
Using passive voice, emphasizing positive over negative, and avoiding
negative words are three techniques for conveying disappointing information while
taking the reader's or listener’s feeling into consideration.

303
 Not all business messages should be direct. If you need to tell your reader or
listener something negative, it is often best to do so indirectly. This softens the
blow and can prepare your audience for your explanation. You don’t want to
argue with a customer over who is right!

PSYCHOLOGICAL In most cases, when people ask for something, they think there is a chance they
will get what they want. As a result, when you refuse someone’s request, you
REASONS FOR need to consider the human interaction that’s taking place. You need to say no
INDIRECTNESS tactfully so the reader or listener doesn’t feel foolish for having asked in the
first place.
To convey negative information successfully, you should give priority to the
human considerations of the situation. If you can give the negative message
without blaming the reader (by using passive voice, for example), your reader
will probably accept it more easily.
Think about a time when you had to give someone bad news over the
phone, such as your decision to break up with the person you had been dating
for months. Surely you didn’t call the person and say, “Roger, I don’t want to
see you any more.” More likely, you began, “Roger, there’s something we need
to talk about.” However, while we tend to use indirectness in speaking of bad
news, when we convey bad news in writing, we are often more blunt and less
attentive to the reader’s feelings. In organizing a negative message, we need to
be concerned with both the negative part (you didn’t get the job, we don’t give
out samples) and getting the reader to listen to our explanation.
One objection to the negative phrases many business writers used in the
past is that they sound so insincere that the reader loses interest in the expla-
nation. If you don’t treat the reader as a thinking human being in the beginning
of the letter, he or she will not expect you to be truthful later. Phrases such as
“we would like to thank you for considering us,” “we regret to inform you that
. .” or “I’m really sorry that. . .” don’t sound like the writer means them.
Save apologies for really extreme situations; don’t apologize for simple busi-
ness decisions and other daily occurrences. When you do apologize, do so
convincingly.
Audience analysis is very important in planning negative messages. If you
think first how your reader or listener might react to your message, you will be
304. Chapter Ten
on your way to writing a more successful message, whether a letter, memo,
voice or E-mail message, or report.
Remember the audience analysis checklist from Chapter 1. The last ques-
tion is “What action do you want your audience to take as a result of your
message?” In direct messages, you can get action quickly by getting right to the
point, because the audience agrees with your point of view or expects your
information. In indirect messages, you need to prove your case before offering
your conclusion or action to allow the reader time to accept your point of
view.
In a direct message, the most important piece of information is the news
you convey. In an indirect message, the most important thing is the fact that
you have listened to the reader’s request or concern. By being indirect, you
can be diplomatic and keep the customer. For the same reason, as you will see
in Chapter 11, in persuading you think first of reader benefit and then of your
gain from the granted request.

A conventional outline for an indirect message appeared in Chapter 1: STEPS IN WRITING

e Begin with a buffer to set up the situation. INDIRECT NEGATIVE
e Explain the problem. OR SENSITIVE ©
e Imply or embed the negative. MESSAGES
e Get the necessary action.
e End on a positive note.

Notice how the steps in this process differ from those for direct business
messages discussed in Chapter 2.

Because the reader needs to be prepared for the negative or sensitive infor- Begin with a Buffer to Set Up
mation, begin with a buffer, an opening statement that shows agreement with the Situation
something the reader said (but not with the request, for example, if you are
turning down a request.) A buffer needs to be agreeable, noncommital (not
saying that the request will be granted), relevant (not coming out of left field
and unrelated to later information), concise, and transitional. In the later
examples of refused requests for donations, for example, note how the buffers
set the stage for an agreeable discussion with the reader but do not promise
fulfillment of the request.
Consider the opening of the Beatse Confection letter that appears in full
later in Exhibit 10—1 (page 307):
Your Shakespeare Birthday Festival sounds like a wonderful addition to the schedule
of family-oriented outdoor events here in San Clemente.
is a
This opening is friendly and agreeable. It acknowledges that the festival
The writer
worthy project, but it stops short of offering to support the event.
; the opening isn’t just an
has added enough detail to sound well informed
empty cliché.

Make the explanation logical and as specific as is reasonable, rememb

ering that Explain the Problem
explana tion from the
specifics are more credible that generalities. Here is the
Beatse Confection letter:
As you can imagine, Beatse Confection International is approached by a large number
g
of charities, social groups, foundations, and organizations from all of our marketin
305
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information
 areas in the Southwest. While we would like to help all of these worthwhile efforts, we
have found that the most efficient and equitable approach is to extend a “helping
hand” through our corporate donations to United Way.
This explanation is logical, relatively specific, and friendly but businesslike. It
stresses fairness—a positive value— rather than mentioning limited resources
or the reader’s having an unworthy cause—both negatives.

Imply or Embed the Negative Notice how the preceding excerpt says no without actually using the word. By
telling the reader what the company can do (donate through United Way), the
letter eliminates other options, such as donating directly to the reader’s event.
An even stronger way to do this would be to reword the last part of the
sentence:
extend a “helping hand” exclusively through our corporate donations to United Way.
Using a word like exclusively, solely, or only makes it clear to the reader that
the writer will not do what the reader asked because the requested action is
not included in this limited group of acceptable actions. The writer has clearly
said no without saying so directly.
If a stronger refusal seems in order, embed the negative material by placing
it in the middle of a paragraph rather than implying the action as the preceding
example does. This subordinates the negative information to the explanation
and helps retain the reader’s goodwill.

Get the Necessary Action Some negative messages require no further action on the part of the reader
(and the writer doesn’t want the reader to reply or to continue the process any
longer). Take care of any necessary action toward the end of the letter or
memo.

End on a Positive Note The final idea to present to the reader is a positive one (don’t refer again to the
negative part of the message). Here is how the Beatse Confection letter ends:
We wish your festival every success.
This positive ending is friendly, but it promises nothing. Further, it doesn’t
refer to the request again or use negative language such as “we regret we
cannot fulfill your request at this time.” The writer has listened to the reader’s
request and said no, rejecting the request idea but not the reader.

NEGATIVE BUSINESS Some common negative or sensitive situations that occur in business are Cr}
refusals, (2) adjustments and claims, (3) order problems, and (4) personnel
SITUATIONS problems.

Refusals Tactful rejection letters such as those in Exhibits 10—1 through 10-3 give
reasonable explanations and let the reader down gently. Exhibit 10-1 gives
the full version of the letter whose parts we examined earlier. Exhibit 10—2 is
another refusal for a similar fund-raising cause. Notice how the explanation and
implied refusal in the second paragraph limit Adrian Arcades’ donations to
“children and teenagers in need.” Since the USO is not primarily a children’s
organization, it will not receive a donation. Here again, the writer has said no
without actually saying so.
Your initial reaction may be “Why on earth are these people bothering us
for a donation?” But remember that all of those fund-raising organizations are
306 Chapter Ten
XHIBIT 10-1 Tactful Refusal Letter

Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information

|@xmerr 10-2 Another Tactful Turndown |

AAA an
Jersey City, NJ 07306

June 24, 1994

Ms. Ruth Duncan

USO Annual Dinner
59 Rosewood Parkway
Long Island, NY 11245

Dear Ms. Duncan:

Thank you very much for inviting Adrian Arcades to be a

part of your USO Annual Dinner.

Adrian Arcades receives contribution requests from

numerous organizations almost on a daily basis and it
would be wonderful if we could help each one. Adrian
Arcades believes in strong community involvement.
However, since we are a video game company, we think
our contributions should be directed towards groups
aiding children and teenagers in need.

Good luck and best wishes for a successful event!

Sincerely,

Lhe Coban
Albert Adrian
Promotions Director

308 Chapter Ten

QXHIBIT 10-3 Refusal with Negative Stated but Embedded

ae yane alee
RIO PIE

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Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information

 filled with potential customers for your business. A tactful turndown (some-
times called a TNT, or “thanks, but no thanks” letter) may build you some
goodwill. In Exhibit 10-1, the no was the only reply received from three
similar companies approached. Of course, Beatse Confection looks better than
the others because of its courtesy, even though none donated to the cause.
Exhibit 10—3 gives another potential reason for saying no to a request. The
stilted language (“for consideration”) and the unnecessary passive voice (“was
presented,” “is unable to”) make this message distant, but the letter leaves the
door open for future inquiries and leaves the reader believing that the writer
seriously considered the request.
Now consider Exhibit 10—4, a refusal that concentrates on saying no rather
than on the reader’s reaction to the message. This tritely worded message does
have a few positive points: The company is replying to the request (many firms
lose the opportunity to create goodwill by at least answering letters asking for
contributions); the letter speaks of assisting as an opportunity rather than
something negative; and the letter wishes the boutique good luck in its event.
However, the negative aspects more than offset these positive points. The
letter contains trite phrasing (“Thank you for your interest,” “we regret that
we must decline”). It includes little explanation—why might the boutique
give to others and not to us? Overall, the letter sounds condescending. The
writer has failed to realize that the organization’s members are potential cus-
tomers for his store!
Of course, not all refusals involve fund-raising efforts. You might refuse to
present a talk at an organization’s meeting, refuse to give an information in-
terview to a job seeker who wants contacts in your field, or refuse to sell your
product at wholesale to a potential customer trying to avoid retail prices.

Adjustments and Sometimes you will have to tell a customer that you cannot grant a requested
Compromises on Complaints refund or adjustment. When replying to a customer who had a concern about
your product or service, you need to acknowledge the problem yet leave a
positive impression rather than dwelling on the negative occurrence. You may
tactfully refuse to take the reader’s desired action entirely or partially. You can
refuse an adjustment and carefully explain why (as in Exhibit 10—5) or offer
the reader an action other than the one requested (see Exhibits 10—7 and
10—8 on pages 312 and 314).
In essence, a customer who complains regrets having done business with
you—and you need to change that opinion. To regain the customer’s good-
will, you need to explain the situation and remind the customer that the
product or service in question is a good one. Of course, you don’t begin
directly with this resale—an effort to reinforce the customer’s purchase de-
cision—in a way that sounds like you are arguing with the reader about the
value of the product.

Adjustments In another example (Exhibit 10-5), an orthodontist is rejecting a request

from a parent to fill her child’s cavities for free. This businesslike refusal main-
tains client goodwill. It tactfully reminds the parent of the signed care agree-
ment, and solves the problem (the child’s cavities) by providing an answer (go
to your regular dentist)—Dbut it does not give the parent the free work re-
quested.
The form letter from Ford Motor Company (Exhibit 10—6) rejects a cus-
tomer’s request politely but firmly. It attempts to close the issue while en-
couraging possible future interaction on other matters. The indirectly
310 Chapter Ten
XHIBIT 10-4 Poor Refusal Letter

Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information

XHIBIT 10-5 Good Refusal Letter

ashia alate
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fed Oe een

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mecelia
rater ae
Sete

Chapter Ten
|Qxuir 10—6 Form Refusal Letter |

Ford Motor Company The American Road

Dearborn, Michigan 48121

Dear Mr. Sample:

We have received the information necessary to respond fully to your inquiry

concerning service problems with your (vehicle model).

Although the joint efforts of your dealer and our representative have not met
with your expectations, we feel that every consideration has been given to the
matter and the decision reached was correct.

If you have concerns other than those we have already reviewed, please contact
the service manager of your dealership.

Thank you for contacting us.

Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information 313

Q@xuiit 10—7 Low-Cost Adjustment
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Chapter Ten
presented message is that Ford has considered and investigated the customer’s
request or concern and does not think the company is at fault. The first
paragraph introduces the idea that the inquiry about service problems has
been fully investigated. The second paragraph says no politely and firmly. The
third paragraph tells how to deal with other, future concerns. The letter ends
on a friendly note. This type of form response may still not satisfy the reader,
but is a reasonable form response to a recurring problem.
In replying to a customer’s complaint or concern letter, you can sometimes
give the customer something that is easy for you to give and often costs you
less than the value to the customer. Examples of such a “free” gift would be a
complimentary hotel stay from a hotel (subject to availability so that you don’t
lose a paying customer), a free drink in the bar from a restaurant (only your
cost is involved), or free theater tickets from a theater (again, subject to
availability).
The letter in Exhibit 10—7 does a reasonable job of pacifying a customer
who attended a performance during an unseasonal heat wave in an older
theater with a broken air conditioning system. The reader gets two theater
tickets for his inconvenience, and— equally important—the writer makes an
effort to sound helpful and concerned. If the reader had asked for his money
back, the example would show a compromise adjustment, one in which the
reader receives an action other than that requested, but a logical action (dis-
cussed in the next section).
It is impossible to satisfy every customer concern through compensation
that would be cost effective for a business. However, a service-oriented busi-
ness at least attempts to make the customer feel listened to and understood.
The explanation part of a negative message often can help convey this expres-
sion of helpfulness by discussing changes in procedure that the reader’s com-
plaint helped institute or future changes that will improve the situation. Don’t
go so far as to promise that something “will never happen again” unless you are
very sure you can fulfill that promise. Of course, some customers will be
impossible to satisfy despite your best efforts.

Another type of adjustment letter involves a compromise: giving something Compromise Adjustments
logical, but not what the reader asked for. The bookseller in Exhibit 10—8 not
only provides the customer with new binders but also transfers the reference
series into them. Clearly a business. will choose this action only when an

Calvin and Hobbes by Bill Watterson

YOU KNOW WHAT THERES NO TOLL-FREE \F THE UNIVERSE HAD ANY | BUT THE \ SEE, THATS
THE PROBLEM CUSTOMER SERVICE HOT DECENT MANAGEMENT, WE'D | PLACE IS | ANOTHER
IS WITH THE GET A FULL REFUND IF FREE . THING, THEN
UNIVERSE ? WE WNERENT COMPLETELN SHOULD HAVE
SATISFIED! A QVER
THINGS DONT CHARGE AND
cer Fixep! /@ KEEP OUT
THE RIFFRAFF.

ZE6L
WOSHBIEM
PAHNANISIG
AQ
BTemPUAS
LESAN)
Ssaiei

CALVIN AND HOBBES copyright 1992 Watterson, Dist. by UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE. Reprinted with
permission, All rights reserved.

Calvin has an objection to every one of Hobbes’ ideas.

Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information 315
| @xusrr 10—8 Compromise Letter |

July 17, 1993

Mr. Pradip Singh

4314 Windsor Court
North York, Ontario

Dear Mr. Singh:

The Walpole Optics Reference series, with its monthly

updates, is one of the most widely used and highly
respected references in current developments in optics.
You must have referred to yours many times to have worn
out its binders in only a year.

etic So you
in your
won’t have to do without this
business, we will upgrade your binders to
valuable reference
the
than a complete Library version, which is designed to withstand
replacement
or frequent use, at no charge.
cancelled order,
Just give us a call; we will come out to your office
Action sounds easy and transfer your existing issues to the new binders.
and helpful Then, you can continue to get the regular updates you
have found so valuable in the past.
Dinal sentence
shetses satisfaction Sincerely, ,
and resale
ucinda Beamish

316 Chapter Ten

expensive product is involved (here, an ongoing monthly series) and it wants
to satisfy— and keep—the customer.

After refusals and adjustments, order problems are the largest category of Order Problems
negative business messages. The key goal in all order problem letters is keep-
ing the order. In handling the potential negatives of a delay or a substitution,
emphasize positives (when the products will arrive, what a good choice the
purchase was) over negatives (how long the delay will be, what information
the customer forgot to give you).

Resale—reminding a customer about the good features of a product—can Using Resale to Keep Orders
help keep a customer from canceling an order due to a delay or reinforce a
customer’s positive feelings about an order. Resale differs from sales promo-
tion in that it refers to products the customer has already ordered or expressed
an interest in, whereas sales promotion refers to new or related products.
If an order will be delayed because of production problems or because the
buyer omitted a piece of information, resale can help you keep the order.
Specific, audience-centered resale reminds the reader why the product choice
was a good one in the first place. The paragraphs from order problem letters
in this chapter show some good examples of product resale.
Even if you can send something right away, resale can help you make the
customer feel glad about ordering the product:
The personally autographed Michael Jordan wall poster is a collector's item. Framed in
a solid oak frame with gold accents, this poster is sure to be cherished for years to
come. It is on its way now, soon to be enjoyed by your grandson.
in
Resale to a single customer emphasizes different features than those used
of a product. If the wall poster in the precedin g example is
resale to a dealer
would be
being sent in quantity to a dealer, a more appropriate resale strategy
quickly the product sells, what the markup is, and whether
to mention how
national advertising for the product exists.
Order problems fall into three main groups:
« Back orders (you cannot ship the goods right away).
tion
e Missing information (the customer didn’t give you all the informa
).
about size, color, etc. that you need before shipping the product
carry
Substitutions (you don’t carry the product ordered, but you
another product that serves the same purpose ).

Often not all items ordered by mail are available to send at once.
In Chapter Back Orders
r that an item is
2, you saw a postcard used by one company to tell a custome
out of stock (see page 33):
tell us
The product(s) noted below is out of stock. Because our supplier is not able to
shipment , it is necessar y to cancel this order. Your account will
when we may expect
not be billed for this merchandise.
this may
We are sorry to disappoint you, and wish to apologize for any inconvenience
cause. We hope that we may be of service at some future time.
misused
In Chapter 2, we looked at this message as an example of a possibly
order doesn’t need to be
form—if only one item is out of stock, the whole
. The explana tion is that
cancelled. Now let’s consider it as a negative message
reasona bly expect the
the supplier can’t give a delivery date close enough to
tion 317
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Informa
 customer to wait for the item or items. However, this situation is probably not
enough of a crisis to warrant all the apologizing in the second paragraph.
Exhibit 10—9 shows how another mail-order company handled a similar
situation. This letter is a good example of adaptation to the customer (it
mentions specifics from the customer’s order letter). It also includes major
parts of an indirect message involving negative material:
e It begins indirectly, with information showing interest in the customer
rather than a direct notification of the delay.
e The writer explains the delay in terms specific enough to sound
believable and stresses when the down jacket will arrive rather than
how much later than it was expected.
e Mail-order requirements follow, allowing the reader to take further
action if necessary.
e The letter ends on a positive, helpful note.
If the letter writer had added information about insulated hiking boots, he
would have made a sales promotion. In contrast, the information in the letter
is resale, because the customer had already ordered the jacket.
Mail-order regulations. Because the Federal Trade Commission regulates sell-
ing by mail, mail-order letters contain some standard information. The letter in
Exhibit 10— 9 shows that you can present legal information and still sound like
a friendly, helpful person. Here are the standards mail order companies must
follow:
e Goods need to be shipped within 30 days if your ad didn’t state
another time frame (often six to eight weeks for things like premiums,
items for which you send in proofs of purchase and often a small
amount of money). The 30 days begin when you have all the necessary
order information and have received the customer’s check or credit
card authorization.
e If you won't be able to meet this deadline, you need to notify the
customer and offer a refund if the customer doesn’t want to wait until
the new delivery date.
e The FTC says that if you can’t ship when scheduled and don’t notify
the customer, you must cancel the order and refund the customer’s
money. Refunds must be given within seven business days after you
receive the refund request; credit card refunds, however, can be issued
within one billing cycle.
The best explanation for a back order (an order you can’t send when ex-
pected) is a legitimate production problem (preferably one that shows good
sales and quality product rather than inept management, of course.) Remem-
ber to stress the positive (better goods, arrival date) rather than the negative
(production problem, delay in arrival).
More back-order problems. The next example, two paragraphs from a back-
order response, fits the product in its informal tone and uses enough specific
detail to sound reasonable. The resale makes the volleyball sound official and
special.
Your water-resistant leather volleyball by Sideout is used worldwide. It is the official
Resale on the product. ball for the PVA (Pro Volleyball Association). Sinjun Smith, the #1-ranked beach
volleyball player, says it’s the best ball on the market.
318 Chapter Ten
XHIBIT 10-—9 Good Back-Order Letter

319
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information
Explanation for back order. Our last shipment of leather was not cured correctly, meaning it wouldn't repel water
the way it should. We did not accept this shipment, nor would we substitute lesser
Emphasis on delivery rather leathers, so we shut down production. A large stock of quality leather is on its way.
than delay.
As soon as we receive it, you can bet your ball will be on its way, to arrive by
November 1.
Notice that the explanation is positive and businesslike: Production of the
product was delayed to improve the good’s quality (a good reader benefit
reason for the delay).
You don’t have to explain every delay in great detail, especially if you can
tell the customer when the goods will arrive. The emphasis in a back order
should always be on when the goods will arrive rather than on how long the
delay will be.
The following back-order paragraph stresses resale on the product to rein-
force the reader’s desire for the article even if it will arrive a little later than
expected. Notice how the technical language assumes the reader already un-
derstands the product:
The increase in demand for this VCR is due to the high quality, namely the high-tech
tracking system, the post-same day recording system, and the multipurpose remote
Specific resale. control. Along with the high quality, the special holiday price cannot be beat. As you
are reading this, production is moving rapidly so that your VCR will be at your door by
December 17.

Missing Information If the delay is the customer’s fault— missing information, payment not in-
cluded, ordered from a catalog with former pricing—you need to get the
(Incomplete Order)
information tactfully and quickly. Remind the customer of the product’s good
features through resale, and downplay any delay as much as you can. It speeds
up the process to give the customer enough information in the letter so that
he or she doesn’t have to find the catalog to make the missing choice.
The letter in Exhibit 10—10 uses resale to remind the reader what a good
choice the product was and gives the choices omitted in the order so the
reader can provide the missing information easily and quickly. The product
comes alive for the reader because the writer uses psychological description,
which portrays the reader actually using the product. Contrast this approach
with technical specifications such as “The wall hanging measures 22 inches by
36 inches.” Clearly, the psychological description makes the product sound
more interesting and helps the reader picture herself using it.
Notice how the action paragraph at the end makes the action sound easy
(“just check”) and stresses the product’s arrival rather than its delay. The
action part of an effective message makes the action clear, makes it sound easy,
and motivates the reader to take the action right way.
Here is another example using good resale and psychological description to
encourage the reader to send in missing information quickly.
The little Tommy Toy Train you have ordered for your nephew comes in many
Emphasis on satisfying reader eye-catching colors. The red, blue, or green trains are just the right size for small
rather than on missing
information. hands to play with. So that we may send the correct train that you've so carefully
chosen, will you please circle the color of your choice on the enclosed reply card?
This letter included the missing information choices as an enclosure rather
than as part of the letter.
The next example takes care of the order problem (missing size) but
doesn’t include resale to remind the customer what a good product it is.

320 Chapter Ten

|Qxuir 10-10 Good Incomplete-Order Letter |

Owensboro
Manufacturing,
Inc.

January 17, 1994

Ms. Hillary Marks
1168 Tamarack Lane
Libertyville, IL 60048

Dear Ms. Marks:

A Barn Raising quilt and Country Kitchen tablecloth are

on their way to you; UPS should deliver them by January
24 so that you can continue your decorating project.

To help transform your home into a relaxing country

cabin, the Lakes and Streams wall hanging that you’ve
ordered comes in colors that coordinate with your Barn
Raising quilt and Country Kitchen tablecloth. To
guarantee your satisfaction, will you please specify
your color choice?

earthy browns
foresty greens
lished sunset pinks
snowy white and blue

Just check the color you prefer and return this form to
Action sounds easy
-“ ws; your wall hanging will be shipped as soon as we
hear from you.

Sincerely,

bee eeAnnie Petersen

Customer Service

2000 Selwyn Avenue

Charlotte, NC 28274
704 377 2500

tion 321
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Informa
 Because this writer misses the opportunity to help the reader really picture the
product, this letter is less effective than the other examples. The writer is also
unnecessarily vague, for example, using the word options to mean sizes and
accommodate instead of fit.
Your fresh-cut holly wreath is an excellent gift selection for your in-laws. We offer
Makes action easy and positive.
many options, which are sure to accommodate any space. Just circle your desired
size on the enclosed return card, and the holly wreath will be delivered to Boston on
the date you requested.
The last incomplete-order letter, Exhibit 10— 11, shows recognition that this is
a repeat customer (and also a large customer).The incomplete information is
taken care of smoothly even though it is complicated by two possible choices
of action and two choices of packaging. (The customer might have meant to
send just one choice to all her customers, or she might want to choose dif-
ferent gift packaging for different customers.) Notice how in the last paragraph
the writer sends this good customer a free gift of crackers. This gift doubles as
a sales promotion on a new product that could be added to each order, but the
writer does not come across as pushy. The gift will at the least please the
customer and at the most lead to future orders.

Substitutions A third type of order problem arises when you no longer carry the item or-
dered. In this case, if you carry no reasonable substitute item, you may be able
to retain the customer’s goodwill by referring him or her to a dealer who does
carry the item.
If you carry a product that will serve the customer’s purpose, you should try
to sell that item as a substitute. If you remember that the key to order problem
letters is keeping the order, you can see how to proceed here. Selling a sub-
stitute poses a few points of concern for a business writer:

e Substitute is a negative word; it sounds like something not as good as

the original. Therefore, don’t refer to the new item a substitute.
e If the substitute is costlier than the original, you may seem greedy.
e If the price of the substitute is higher than that of the original item,
stress its additional or superior features. If the price is lower,
emphasize the item’s good performance.
e You need to decide whether to send the new item(s) automatically or
wait until the customer actually orders it.

The last point requires some thought. Theoretically, if you ship unordered
goods, the customer can keep them without paying. Since this is a possibility,
however remote, you may choose to send only relatively low-priced items in
a substitution.
When asking for a specific order for the new item, be sure to sound positive
even though you will probably remind the reader that he or she can return the
item if not pleased with it. Also include this reminder if you send the substitute
on a trial basis.
Once you have established that you stock product B rather than product A,
the order problem letter becomes a sales letter on product B. To encourage
the customer to prefer product B, use its specific name often and the name of
product A as little as possible.

322 Chapter Ten

|Qxuir 10—11 Incomplete-Order Letter with Sales Promotion — |

J
Ze
KAISER
(|CHEESE
b © ©} PRODUCTS, INC.

October 24, 1995

Ms. Adele Guidoni

Adams Office Equipment
411 North Adams Avenue
Chicago, IL 60601

Dear Ms. Guidoni:

Thank you for your order again this year for

Christmas gift cheese packages. Hearing from old
friends like you is what makes our holiday season such
fun every year.

We will ship your order of 50 four-pound cheese

and sausage packages on November 30, as you have
instructed. These packages are sent in either

a basket (gift #4024 at $17.55 plus shipping)

or
a walnut bowl (gift #3771 at 21.45 plus
shipping).

So we can get these to your customers promptly,

just check which item you want on a copy of this letter
and return it. Or, if you wish to send baskets to some
customers and walnut bowls to others, send us another
copy of your list, indicating on it which gift each is
to receive. We will be able to meet your mailing date
if you have the information to us by November 20.

You will receive by express mail a box of our

wonderful new water crackers with a pound each of the
gouda cheese and salami that you have chosen. For only
$2.50 more per gift, you can add one of these boxes to
your gifts. Let us know if you’d like to add this for
your customers.

Sincerely,

Larry R. Kaiser

5800 BLUE LINE ROAD

LA CROSSE, WI 54603
(608) 758-2200

323
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information
QXHIBIT 10-12 Substitution Letter

=
SUN

324 Chapter Ten

 The last paragraph of the letter in Exhibit 10—12 would be different if Mr.
Clavick decided to fill the order. In that case, it would read:
We're shipping you 12 Walker Power+ staplers; they will work better for you and save
you money. And, as always, you can get a full refund if you are not satisfied. But we
think you'll find the Walker Power+ to be long-lasting, easy to use, and a great buy.

Many order problems actually involve combination orders, or orders with Orders with More Than One
more than one problem. In such a case, take a logical approach to the prob- P;ohlem
lems. First, find out whether any products can be sent right away. If so, this
news becomes your opening, and you don’t need to write a buffer. Then
discuss the other products in whatever order seems most logical— connect
related products, perhaps, or group products that need further information.
Be sure to sum up any action at the end: A refund? More money owed?
Charge to account? How much? Does the reader have to return anything,
such as an order form, information about which product is desired, a broken
item, a misprinted item, or an agreement to substitute a product? Check the
letter for transitions that make the information flow smoothly from product to
product.

In most indirect negative messages, a writer needs to be most concerned with Personnel Problems
the reader’s feelings about the negative response. That is why you should speak
as positively as you can and explain rather than give excuses. When the neg-
ative information involves people rather than things, this reader-centered at-
titude is all the more important. While in many cases you need to leave a paper
trail in the event the person will be fired later, it’s important to remain objec-
tive and tactful.
Remember our E-mail stories from Chapter 2? Clearly E-mail or voice mail
is not the best method to use to fire employees or give other people-related
bad news. People don’t react well to negative information about themselves, so
avoid being blunt.
If you had applied for a job, would you rather hear that “we had many highly
qualified candidates this year” (as in Exhibit 10-13) or that “you were less
qualified than other candidates”? This conventional turndown ends with a
commonly made promise to keep a résumé on file. This is probably the busi-
ness version of a social lie (“we must get together sometime” instead of “let’s
have lunch on Friday”). Most likely, the résumé will remain on file without
being matched to new openings. Even though the reader probably knows
that the chances of being considered for a future position are slim to none,

DEAR FORMER EMPLOYEE:

ALTHOUGH You HAVE NWVED ON, TM
SURE YoU MAINTAIN A DEEP
COMMITMENT To FASTRACK’S
FUTURE...

Reprinted with special permission of King

© 1989 by King Features Syndicate, Inc. World rights reserved,
Features Syndicate.

Ms. Trellis’ blunt approach will probably backfire.

325
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information
|@xmerr 10-13 Job Turndown Letter |

CRIMSON

COMPANY
"Forging ahead since 1923 "

May 10, 1994

Mr. Charles Ogino

2340 South Cedar Crest Boulevard
Allentown, PA 18120

Dear Mr. Ogino:

Thank you for your interest in Crimson Steel Company.

Yours was one of 100 responses to our advertisement for
a plant human resources assistant.

While your credentials are impressive, there were a

number of candidates whose backgrounds more nearly
match our needs for this position. With your
permission, we will keep your resume on file for other
openings for which you might be better suited.

Sincerely,

Hebe Uguen
Helen Aguon
Director of Human Resources

3218 Germantown Avenue

Bethlehem, PA 108015
(215) 758-3000

326 Chapter Ten

including a statement about putting the résumé on file is a gentler way to turn
down a job applicant.
When writing about current employees, be careful to be objective and
specific. Randi Toler Sachs, author of Productive Performance Appraisals, rite
recommends keeping a performance journal to help you remember details at
performance review time and writing objective, specific comments both for
employee feedback and for legal protection (a “paper trail”) in cases where
employees must be disciplined or let go. Here are some examples from this
helpful book:
Specifics
You're not living up to your potential. (vague cliché)
versus ;
I was sure you had enough experience in this area to handle this
assignment. Why do you think you’ve had trouble getting the work
done correctly?!
Positive Tone
It’s too bad you'll never succeed with your attitude. (negative)
versus
You have the ability to do well and succeed. You need to change the
behaviors that are standing in the way of your success. (Cite specific
examples. )* .
Focusing on Positive Future Rather Than Past Problems
After mentioning the employee’s low rating: “Let’s not dwell on the
past except to identify the problems and see how we can correct
them. From today on, we have a new goal to reach.”
Dealing with personnel problems requires the same tact and audience aware-
ness needed in handling product and service problems, with additional em-
phasis on people skills and potential legal pitfalls. In Chapter 16, “Communi-
cation in Managing and Supervising,” we discuss this topic in detail.

The words you choose affect how your reader or listener will feel about your HOW TO CONVEY
information. This aspect of business tone can help you convey negative infor- NEGATIVE
mation more successfully by avoiding blame, downplaying the negative, and
choosing positive ways to state ideas. INFORMATION

As we discussed in Chapter 1, one way to avoid sounding unnecessarily Passive versus Active Voice
negative is to use passive voice to describe problem areas rather than active
voice, which places responsibility more firmly. Look at the following pairs of
examples:
The guest checks have not been tallied weekly.
versus

Miss Smith, the bookkeeper, has not tallied the guest checks every week.

1Randi Toler Sachs, Productive Performance Appraisals (New York: American Management
Association, 1992), p. 25.
2Sachs, p. 77.
3Sachs, p. 73.

Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information 327

 Sales goals for the first and third quarters were not met.
versus

Ms. Campbell did not meet her sales goals for the first and third quarters.
The second version of each example places blame so strongly that it seems
almost mean spirited. The passive version, in contrast, states the problem
clearly without placing blame. You may have to use the active-voice version in
some cases, but consider whether you can use passive voice to soften the
blame somewhat.

Subordination versus Another way to downplay negative information is to emphasize the positive
Emphasis: Emphasize the side of things. Remember your tools of emphasis and subordination:
Positive

More words on the subject Fewer words

Active-voice verbs ~ Passive voice
Specific nouns General nouns
Includes pronouns, people Mentions things, ideas
| Bold print, lists, headings Straight narrative |

Be optimistic: Tell when the goods (not the order) will be delivered rather
than how long the delay will be; explain how much value there is for the price
instead of the fact that the price has gone up; and describe how the problem
can be solved instead of discussing the problem itself. For example, if you were
asked to discuss course registration at your crowded college, you would re-
ceive a better response if you outlined the problem and then discussed solu-
tions instead of going into great detail about how inconvenient and time
consuming the current procedure is.

Avoiding Negative Language In Chapter 11, “Writing to Persuade,” we discuss word choice at length. Using
words such as mistake, problem, error, mess, refuse, fault, reject, unfortu-
nately, or guilt will make the reader react negatively. Using positive language,
in contrast, should make the reader react positively, as you learned in Chapter
3. Think of times when someone said to you, “You always forget to. . . .”or
“You never remember to. . . . ” People rise to our expectations (or lower
themselves to the low level we assign them to).
Using positive words where possible makes a message more open to accep-
tance than using negative words. Be especially wary about words such as claim
(“You claim that your automobile was damaged in a collision on March 23”).
This may convey one idea to you (“you state that these are the facts”) and
another to your reader (“but I don’t believe you”).Denotation (the dictionary
definition) of claim is “to state as a fact or as one’s belief; assert.”* But the
connotation (emotional associations a person brings to the word) often adds
a feeling that the facts are one-sided, that the speaker has exaggerated or
slanted them.

“Webster's New World Dictionary, Third College Edition (New York: Simon & Schuster,
1988).

328 Chapter Ten

 Other seemingly harmless words include but you, and me. According to
negotiation expert William Ury, say yes, and rather than but, especially when
negotiating or trying to convince someone.” That way you can acknowledge
the other point of view and then add your ideas. (But sounds as though you are
disagreeing— which you are—and may make the other person think of coun-
terarguments rather than considering your idea.)
As in personnel problems, use we to show common corporate goals rather
than you. (“How can we save money on the company utility bill?” versus “You
always forget to turn the lights off”). We expresses teamwork better than does
you and I, which implies two opposing points of view.

Frequently you will need to send a message that combines positive and neg- HANDLING MIXED
ative material. Mention the positive items first rather than using a buffer. For
MESSAGES: SOME
example, in the case of an order response, first mention the items you can send
and then discuss the problem (in positive words, of course). Your underlying POSITIVE AND SOME
rule is to think of your reader: How can you best explain the potential or real NEGATIVE
problem to him or her and get agreement, even if tacit, that you are doing the
INFORMATION
right thing?
Because few business messages are entirely positive or negative, use com-
mon sense and apply sound communication principles to decide on a logical
and effective order for your material.

Some negative messages can be direct rather than indirect. We do not recom- DIRECT NEGATIVE
mend that you apologize in detail for daily business problems, for the most
MESSAGES
effective responses to those kinds of problems are the positive, problem-solv-
ing, and audience-centered responses discussed so far. However, some larger
business problems require a more direct response.
According to one expert, Clare Ansberry, The Wall Street Journal (“Forgive
or Forget: Firms Face Decision Whether to Apologize for Their Mistakes,”
November 24, 1987), companies with a strong interest in communications
may apologize directly to boost their credibility and show their concern for
customer service. Some notable examples include Lee Iacocca’s apology after
Chrysler executives disengaged odometers (1986), Coca-Cola’s confession
that removing the original Coke had been a mistake (1985), and Continental
Airlines’ apology for poor service following its rapid expansion in 1987.
In the case of a serious problem, like the Union Carbide plant gas leak in
Bhopal, India, the company established a relief fund for victims and sent the
CEO to India within days to express the firm’s concern. However, it did not
issue a public apology because of the enormity of the incident. A more recent
case occurred in 1993, when a number of people became ill and one child died
after eating Jack in the Box hamburgers contaminated with bacteria. Food-
maker, the parent company, established a relief fund; changed its buying,
cooking, and testing procedures; and published a public message that directly
addressed, but did not apologize for, the problem. Without a direct response
to this negative situation, media speculation would have made it hard for
Foodmaker to assure customers that this type of incident would not happen
again.

Books,
SWilliam Ury, Getting Past No: Negotiating with Difficult People (New York: Bantam
1991). ;
329
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information
 Direct negative messages are uncommon, but they can be valuable in de-
fusing serious situations. Note that such messages still go on to explain, just as
indirect ones do.
The Heinz Company example in Exhibit 10— 14 shows how a company can
explain a negative situation to employees so they have ammunition when
friends and neighbors ask why Heinz didn’t cooperate with the movie com-
pany filming Hoffa by allowing the producer to build a set on a parking lot for
2¥%2 months. The Pittsburgh company otherwise bore the brunt of an angry
press conference when the movie director of the film claimed Heinz was
uncooperative. According to the Heinz Public Communications office, this
memo was widely circulated and greatly appreciated by employees for ex-
plaining positively why the decision was made.
Checklist 10—1 lists reminders for creating effective negative messages.

330 Chapter Ten

|Q@xuir 10-14 Direct Negative Memo |

Heinz U.S.A. Division

ofH. J. Heinz Company

\ P.O. Box 57
Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania 15230-0057

Employee Communication
March 10, 1992

TO: HEINZ U.S.A. PITTSBURGH EMPLOYEES

FROM: BETH ADAMS

SUBJECT: FILMING OF "HOFFA"

You may have heard or read recently that Heinz U.S.A. turned down
a request to be used as a site for the filming of a scene in the
upcoming "Hoffa" movie that is being shot in Pittsburgh.

Our decision was not made casually. In fact, management,

representatives from Pittsburgh Factory and the HeinzSite project,
Local 325, Factory Personnel, Employee Services, Engingeering and
Communications met with the location manager, the Pittsburgh Film
Office, the producers and set designers several times over the past
6 weeks in order to fully consider their request from every
possible angle.

The bottom line, however, was that the producer's needs, spanning
a period of 2 to 2-1/2 months, would have jeopardized our tight
schedule for completing the factory restructuring project.

Included in the producer's proposal were the following (commencing

in February and continuing through the first week of April):

taking over and converting to a railroad yard about 150

parking spaces in the lots adjacent to and in front of the
Western Electric Building

constructing an elevator at street level to access the roof

of the Cereal Building on which would be built Jimmy Hoffa's
office and from which shooting of the "mob" scene would take
place

traffic and truck congestion from 18-wheelers and trailers

for the equipment, staff and personnel

bringing in 1000 "extras" for the nights of shooting

using space in Western Electric for storage and

construction

It was with regret that we turned down this opportunity,

particularly because it would have been an interesting and fun
experience for employees to observe and perhaps participate in.

331
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information
|@xmrr 10-14. Direct Negative Memo continued |

Nevertheless, on-time, on-budget completion of the Pittsburgh

Factory restructuring is of greater long-term value to our
employees and to the city of Pittsburgh than the shooting of this
filn.

Hopefully, this information will help employees understand our

reasoning and provide background and answers for questions from
friends and neighbors.

332 Chapter Ten

 Giving someone bad news may not be pleasant, but often it calls for giving just REVIEW
another objective message. Don’t be any more negative than you have to be,
and remember that this kind of message may create stronger feelings in your
reader than any other type. Do not apologize, but do explain. Handled cor-
rectly, negative business situations can be changed from problems into oppor-
‘ tunities to create customer goodwill.
Do:
Have empathy for your reader.
Look for what you can do for the reader.
Emphasize the positive.
Deemphasize or subordinate the negative.
Explain fully.
Treat the reader as an individual.
Use resale to reinforce the original purchase decision.
Keep your temper even if the customer is angry.
Be sincere; avoid clichés.
Don't:
Condescend to your reader.
Use negative language.
Emphasize the bad news.
Blame or argue with the reader.
Hide behind “policy.”
Ignore the individual behind the request.
Handling negative information indirectly is a useful skill for showing customers
and employees that their concerns are being considered even if the matters are
not being solved in the way they requested originally.

Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information 333

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
1. From your experience as a consumer, describe 6. Evaluate the following back-order explanation:
one or two examples of good or poor customer Our hand-carved back scratchers have been a hot-selling
service you have received from a company. How item all over the world. This item relieves the itching
can a company satisfy a customer at little or no sensation while giving you a deep massage. We have just
cost? hired 25 new wood carvers with 10 years’ or more
2. Discuss how a buffer beginning to an indirect experience each to ensure quality products. With this extra
negative message can be agreeable, noncommital, help for the season we are sure you will receive your back
scratcher by the end of November.
relevant, concise, and transitional. Use buffers
from the examples in this chapter to prove your 7. Add psychological description to the order
point. problem example about the wreath on page 322
3. How can you say no without really saying the to help the reader picture the product.
word? Use the examples in the chapter to back up 8. Using Exhibit 10—11 (Kaiser Cheese letter),
your points. explain the difference between resale and sales
4. Discuss the differences among an adjustment, an promotion material.
adjustment refusal, and an adjustment 9. Using Exhibit 10—12 (Lowell Business Center
compromise. Rewrite the Beamish Booksellers letter), explain the different ways to handle the
letter (Exhibit 10—8) as an adjustment approval action part of a substitute order problem.
or as an adjustment refusal. 10. Find and discuss several examples of active voice
5. Using the Explorer’s Outerwear letter (Exhibit and negative language to describe a problem.
10-9), develop a form letter that could serve as a Rewrite the examples using passive voice and
customer reply instead. Be sure to avoid the positive language to describe the problem more
pitfalls shown in the poor form postcard that effectively. (Example: “You forgot to turn off the
appears in the back-order section on page 317. lights” versus “The office lights were left on.”)

CASES
1. Unwelcome News: Telling a Parent Her Child single-cylinder deadbolt to reduce the potential
Can't Participate. Your church or other group for loss by theft.
is sponsoring a children’s musical this season e At least one 10-pound, ABC-type fire
(give it a name and a theme). You are director of extinguisher must be obtained and mounted on
youth activities. You notified parents that you each occupied floor. This will reduce the
would like children in grades 1—6 to participate potential for property damage by fire.
in the musical. At the first scheduled practice, a
kindergartner attended. You have talked it over You are really amazed by this report, since the 6-
with the other directors, and all agree that you pound ABC category fire extinguishers on each
can’t allow this child to participate without floor (including a new one on the lower level)
allowing others in her age group to participate have been adequate since you have owned the
also. Write a letter to the child’s mother building; you have proof that they have been
explaining why her child can’t participate in this serviced as required each year. You also wonder
year’s musical. about the new lock requirement. You sarcastically
think that you could hire a full-time security guard,
2. Refusal: Convincing an Insurance Company put barbed wire around the building, or require
You Are Right. You are the owner of a small each tenant and client to go through a metal
office building and have been insured by the same detector. Since tenants are legally responsible for
company for the past 15 years. Last month, a new their own “loss by theft” and knew the level of
underwriting inspector visited your building. security in the building when they signed their
Following the visit, you received a letter from leases, you can’t see how this new requirement
your insurance company telling you to make the applies to your building. If you added the security
following changes within 60 days or it will measures, you would probably have to raise the
discontinue your policy. rent. In a way, you are grateful for having possible
deficiencies pointed out, but fulfilling these new
The spring latch locks on the upstairs exit and requirements would mean extra work and expense
basement office must be upgraded to at least a that don’t seem justified.

334 Chapter Ten

 Write a letter to your insurance agent, Ms. cover and for 25 percent of the inside pages,
Christina Reynolds, pointing out why you should Krautner specified that you use some coated
not have to make the changes. You have always paper he had purchased from another vendor.
had a good business relationship with her and her (Coated paper is necessary for printing in the
agency and would rather not have to change handsome, dark-red, glossy ink that Equilibration
insurers at this point. uses for its raised logo and for the color portions
of the brochure.) He said, “I’ve had years of
3. Customer Refund Denial. As customer service experience designing sales materials and working
manager for a major widget manufacturer, you with printers. I know paper, and I know prices.
receive this letter from one of your best You know, you should think about getting your
customers: paper from this supplier too.”
Although you had not seen this brand of paper
Major Widget Users, Inc.
800 North Michigan Avenue before, you agreed to use it. However, Krautner
Chicago, Illinois 60601 did not receive as large a price break from you as
he expected. Although you discounted your price
June 17, 1994 because he was supplying the paper, you
Wild Widget Corporation explained that extra handling of the nonroutine
1234 Main Street supply added to your costs. The two of you
Cleveland, Ohio agreed on a price of $2.82 per copy for 5,000
copies. He sent you the cover stock and
Gentlemen: text-weight paper. You printed and delivered the
You guys have done it now. We have been using Antic brochures and billed Equilibration for $14,100.
Federal widgets for years, and you have never failed us A~ « later, you received a letter from the
like you did this time. president of Equilibration, Lawrence M. Irving,
The last batch of widgets we got from you were all bad. telling you that Equilibration was not going to pay
We tried to feed these things into our new automatic for the brochure: “We have no intention of
inserters, but they just wouldn't go. Our engineers spent sending these brochures to our clients. Your work
hours trying to figure out what was wrong and came up is completely unacceptable. Our logo and our
empty. It can’t be the inserters—they are state-of-the art, glossy ruby-red color is part of our firm’s image.
high-speed German Schnell inserters. You’ve made the raised logo look like dried
We want our money back. And you had better pay for blood— it’s a dull, disgusting brown—and on the
the 43 hours our engineers spent trying to make your
brochure pages, not only is the ink this repulsive
widgets work, or you'll hear from our lawyers. Plus, there's
alittle matter of a week's downtime on the equipment. color, but the ink has also spread. We can’t sell
Altogether, this adds up to $40,786.52. We expect to see precision instruments out of a brochure printed
your check by return mail. by obvious amateurs. We expect you to reprint
the 5,000 brochures, at no cost to us, to our
Sincerely,
satisfaction. Thanks to your incompetence, we are
dangerously close to our mail-out date. Have the
M. M. Major brochures on our dock within five working days.”
You phone Equilibration’s sales department,
You investigate and find out they were trying to but Mark Krautner is out of town and has been
insert ¥s” widgets and the Schnell inserters are for eight days. You phone the receiving
calibrated only for metric sizes. Thus, the fault is department and learn that although a signature
theirs. Write a letter to Ms. Major denying the showed on-time delivery, no one from sales
claim. Offer to air freight new widgets in the right ‘ picked up the brochures for a week. The cartons
size and to take back any remaining ¥s’ widgets for sat on the dock (roofed and chain-link fenced)
credit. Your company is willing to pay freight both during the hottest week of the summer before
ways. anyone opened or inspected them. You know
your own paper and ink, and your work was not
. Compromise Adjustment: Telling a Customer
at fault.
No While Offering a Solution. You own and
You would like to keep Equilibration as a
manage Prestige Printing Company, amedium-size
client, which requires the goodwill of both
printing business. Two weeks ago, your firm
Krautner and Irving. You might consider offering
printed 5,000 copies of a sales brochure for
to redo the job at cost, since you still have the
Equilibration, Inc., a manufacturer of weighing
master pages and cover for the job, but you
and measuring devices and supplies. You dealt
would specify using your own paper. (If
with Mark Krautner, sales vice president. For the

tion 335
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Informa
 Equilibration goes elsewhere, the pages will have the travel department had a credit card number to charge it
to be reshot; that cost, as well as the company’s to. The response: “A lot of travel agents make that mistake.
tight schedule, is on your side.) On the job for There's nothing | can do. There’s no one else you can talk
them you made $.38 per copy, but you won't to. Those are the rules.”
collect it if the bill isn’t paid.
Clearly this rental company has a problem communicating its
. Response to Rental Car Overcharge “tules” to the employees and agents it works with! It makes
Complaint. You are vice president for a lot of money on these “mistakes,” raising my—and
everyone’s—cost of doing business. | know that some
customer service at We’re Number 1 Car Rental
forward-thinking travel industry leaders such as National Car
Company. The president of your company has Rental and the Ritz-Carlton Hotels empower their employees
sent you an angry letter he received from a to make decisions costing a certain amount on the spot. This
customer who claimed to have been overcharged. total quality management (TQM) technique seems to be an
The customer, Barbara Bendella, said, “Surely your especially good one for a service business such as the
company is tired of having employees ask for travel industry, where satisfying customers means return
stress-related disability because of all the business.'
customers screaming at them at the rental Write a letter to Barbara Bendella telling her that
counter!” Ms. Bendella attached the following you are not going to give her a refund of the
New York State consumer fraud complaint to her claimed overcharge. Remember, she is the travel
letter: editor for a major travel magazine, so you must
| am the editor of a major travel publication, and needed to maintain her goodwill. Although you cannot offer
rent a car in New York City. | called We're Number 1 Car her a refund, you can give her a 10 percent
Rental, a major car rental firm, and was quoted a $43.99 discount on her next rental.
guaranteed corporate rate—and given a confirmation . Combination Order Letter. As a salesperson
number. When | received my rental contract at the airport ' for Data Processing Distribution, Inc., you have
counter, |found the rate tucked into the top of the right hand received an order from Data Depot, one of your
corner with a lot of other numbers—$77. Upon questioning
retailer customers, for a variety of products. They
the clerk, | got one of those “I’m just doing my job” replies;
New York City has special “residential rates” to compensate ordered 10 cases of 5" high-density diskettes at
for higher New York State liability requirements for rental $166.45 per case; 24 copies of Microware
firms. Planner, a spreadsheet program, at $124 each; 12
toner cartridges for the Printomatic 4 laser printer
| am very angry—a confirmed rate shouldn't change at the at $62.34 each; and 18 Digitronics model A7 left-
counter! The clerk didn’t tell me about the new rate, but just handed, three-button mice at $16.22 each. You
handed me a contract to sign! After a discussion that grew can ship only the diskettes within 24 hours, your
louder and louder, |got to speak to the supervisor, who said, normal turnaround time. The Microware Planner
“Those are the rules. There's nothing we can do. There’s no
software comes with either 3/2” or 54" diskettes;
one else you can speak to.”
you need to know how many of each the
Because | didn’t get the name of the 800-number clerk who customer needs. You are out of stock of the toner
processed my reservation, | have no proof that |wasn't told cartridges but expect them to be back in stock on
about the higher resident rate. After 90 minutes of arguing June 27, four weeks from today. You do not carry
with the supervisor and the clerk, | missed my appointment, the Digitronics mice and never have. However,
had a headache, and promised never to rent from that firm you do carry the competitive Electromouse line;
again. | even told the supervisor that | wrote for a travel its left-handed three-button mouse sells at
publication, and the response was: “I don't care if you write wholesale for $17.35 each.
about it, those are the rules. We can't expect our Write a letter to Winston Whitehead, owner of
800-number operators to know every rule for every state.”
Data Depot, explaining the problems with the
I'd like to forget this incident as a one-time episode, but order. Persuade him to switch to the
heard from one of my department heads that the same Electromouse. (Remember that he may be able to
company pulled something similar when the department charge a higher price for the Electromouse than
head went to Albuquerque to a professional meeting. The the Digitronics mouse, thus making a higher
car rental reservation was made six months in advance by profit.)
the company’s travel department. - Unwelcome News: Changing the Parking
System. Bellavista, Inc., plans to change its
At the counter, the contract hada price twice as high as the
parking arrangements. (Be aware that parking, or
confirmed rate. This time, the reason was that the travel
agent had not reconfirmed within 30 days of the trip and had
not prepaid with a credit card. The department head argued ‘Partly based on Laurie Berger, “Empowerment? Hah!”
at the time that the rate was confirmed, and furthermore that Corporate Travel, January 1993, p. 4.
336 Chapter Ten
 the lack of it, is a sore point with employees all tangible to make them feel better, but perhaps
over the country, so any change will be looked at you can talk about intangible benefits of working
as a potentially negative one.) Parking has become for this firm.
a problem as the firm has grown. A second lot is . Unwelcome News: Convincing Employees
to be opened, but it will be a two-block walk Change Is Good. Bellavista, Inc., has had to
from the plant. The old lot next to the building trim expenses. It has spun off one of its former
will remain, but the 10 executives get the best units, which is now an independently run small
spots; 30 spaces will be reserved for visitors; and organization called NewDay Services. The new
12 spaces will be for meritorious employees organization will provide some services to
(employee-of-the-month in 12 departments). Bellavista as well as to other client organizations
There weren’t nearly enough spaces to start with. and will lease 25 percent of Bellavista’s building
Some people have parked on the streets, but as part of the arrangement. Jobs have not been
nearby residents have been complaining. The new lost; NewDay was receptive to retaining
lot is greatly needed. : Bellavista’s workers.
Your job is to convey the news that most NewDay is well capitalized and intends to
employees will be walking two blocks, but at least expand rather aggressively. NewDay and Bellavista
there will be parking spaces for them. Help them are discussing the possibility of NewDay’s leasing
deal with this change. Tell them what to do, how more of Bellavista’s physical plant. Of the original
it will work, what the deal will be on employee- 100,000 square feet,. NewDay uses 25,000, but
of-the-month, and so on. This memo should Bellavista’s remaining employees have not had to
probably run about one single-spaced page. The move.
TO line should say, TO: Employees of Bellavista Now they probably will, however. Bellavista
Note: As in many of the cases in this book, the has decided to lease another 10,000 square feet to
information in this case sketches the scene to give NewDay Services. Draft a memo to all employees
you, the writer, a feel for the situation. Don’t give conveying the fact that Bellavista will be
the employees all this information (they know it), operating in 10,000 fewer square feet. Think
and do explain clearly and positively. Think what about the personnel issues involved here (you
the company can do: Shuttle bus? A different may want to do some reading on office
parking place after dark? What about in bad arrangement, modern filing methods, and
weather? employee motivation). How can space be used
more efficiently with the least loss of convenience
. Unwelcome News: Canceling the Company and prestige (people expect a certain amount and
Picnic. You work in employee relations. Until kind of workspace)? Increase use of electronic
three years ago, your company sponsored an over paper files? Create an open office concept,
annual picnic, with cookout food and games for with cubicles instead of private offices? Which
employees and families. Three years ago, two new people, and how many, will have to move and/or
competitors within the industry and a recession in give up some of their space? How will this be
the overall economy pinched the company’s decided? Will the decision be perceived as fair?
budget so hard that it had to eliminate the picnic. What else will employees dislike about the news?
The situation was as bad, or worse, the following Try to present this news in the least negative
two years. However, although no one in authority way possible. Can you “sweeten” the news at all?
actually said so, the informal communication Are there any ways the firm can give employees
network spread the word that there might be a omething to compensate them (that won’t cost
picnic this year. eas
But it can’t happen. The finance department
and the president have been trying to avoid a 5 10. Memo to the File on Employee Tardiness.
percent layoff, and have succeeded thus far, but
Fred Williams, supervisor of the loading dock,
the problems persist. comes to you, the human resources manager, and
You have the task of drafting (probably for the tells you that Tom Fender, one of the employees
president’s eventual signature) a memo explaining there, has been late for work “almost every day
for the past month.” Williams wants you to
tactfully why there won't be a picnic again this
reprimand Fender. You talk to the payroll
year. You will need to create a realistic rationale
for the decision and take into account the department, which confirms that Fender was late
disappointment employees will feel. Don’t make by 15 to 45 minutes on 14 of the 22 working
anyone mad. Don’t make the situation sound any days last month. Company policy requires that
worse than it already is, but don’t sound like a you give the employee a written reprimand for
wimp either. You can’t offer employees anything tardiness during a private meeting with him or
337
Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information
 her and that a copy of the reprimand go into the provide support for a termination for cause
employee’s file. should that become necessary, and, at the same
Write a memo reprimanding Tom Fender. time, encourage Fender to continue his otherwise
Remember: You want to cure the tardiness . good job performance.
problem, leave a record in the file that will

SERVICE WITHOUT A SMILE CAN BE DEADLY

eading LO— 1! Jane Applegate

When a salesclerk ignores you or refuses to accept a return Locksley developed her customer service techniques
of merchandise, how many people do you tell? while working for 20 years in the savings and loan industry.
Customer service experts say the average unhappy cus- After hiring mystery shoppers of all ages, to visit stores,
tomer complains to about half a dozen friends, neighbors banks and other businesses, she presents the owners with a
and colleagues about poor service. Imagine the impact that detailed report. She says she expects the information to be
10 unhappy customers could have on your earnings. shared with employees.
“For a small business that can’t afford other kinds of pro- Kay Hollenbeck, a “mystery shopper” and manager at the
motion, word of mouth is a life and death factor,’ said Locksley Group, said one of the fastest ways to lose busi-
William Davidow, co-author of “Total Customer Service,” ness is for a salesclerk to be talking on the telephone, see a
published by Harper & Row. customer standing there and then turn his or her back on
Davidow, a Menlo Park, Calif., venture capitalist, said the customer. Another sure turnoff is for a salesperson to
small-business owners should ask their best customers to start helping a customer and then get distracted and never
describe exactly what kind of service they expect. Then ask return.
the customers if they recommend your firm to others. And, Even the best training programs and promises of cash
if not, why not? rewards won't be effective unless your employees feel a
In recent years, too many companies have focused on sense of ownership and pride in the business, according to
profit and competition, leaving customers to fend for them- Locksley. Everyone who works for you should be given the
selves. But American consumers, impressed by the high power to make decisions needed to please your customers.
quality and good service provided by many Japanese and “We were concerned that even with all the thousands of
European companies, are demanding better service today. dollars spent on our training program, when the boss is
Even such giants as IBM are paying heed: To provide gone, the standards drop,” said Jack Ryan, whose parents
greater convenience for his rural customers, an IBM sales Bob and Jean Ryan opened their first women’s apparel store
representative in North Carolina created a portable show- in 1954. Today, there are three Jean Ryan stores employing
room—the “Solution Mobile” —by filling a mobile home about 30 full- and part-time workers in Orange County.
with computer equipment and visiting customers at their “We are living in a service-oriented society,” said Ryan.
homes and businesses. “With too many competitors you have to offer better ser-
But no matter what size your business is, you should take vice.”
a close look at how you treat customers and clients. Locksley’s shoppers visit Ryan’s stores at different times
“Customer service expectations have to be set by the top of the day and week. Frequently, they make a purchase or
management of a company,” said Ellen Forman, president return an item.
of Courtesy Counts. Her Potomac, Md., company reports “We try to use her service as a positive tool,” said Ryan.
on employee performance and attitude by sending repre- He said if an employee is presented with a negative report,
sentatives to visit stores across the country. they usually attribute it to being too busy with other cus-
Forman, who founded the company 10 years ago, said tomers.
the message from the business owner has to be loud, clear John Irving, senior vice president at Premier Bank in
and consistent. Northridge, pays about $450 a month for Locksley’s ser-
“The president might say, ‘Customer service is the most vices. For that fee, Locksley reports on three visits and
important thing for us, so do it, ” said Forman. “But the three phone calls to Premier’s three bank branches. Irving
next person down the line might say, ‘Count the inventory’ said it is money well spent because “an outside opinion has
and the next, ‘Clean up the store.’ ” a tremendous value.”
Elaine Locksley, founder of the Locksley Group in Pacific Once you figure out what customers expect and where
Palisades, said customer service gives companies a measur- you are falling short, quickly establish ways to improve
able edge over the competition. Locksley sends shoppers
into large and small businesses to monitor their service and Source: Jane Applegate, “Service Without a Smile Can Be
provide customer service training programs, if necessary. Deadly,” Los Angeles Times, June 15, 1990, pp. D3, D7.

338 Chapter Ten

your service. But Davidow said written policies and pro- e Establish clear and simple service policies to
grams won’t work if you don’t have the infrastructure in match customers’ expectations.
place to help your employees. For example, having legions
e Give authority to people at every level so they
of employees trained to answer the phone properly won’t
feel empowered to provide good service.
matter if you don’t have enough phone lines to serve cus-
tomers. e Eliminate all red tape involved in merchandise
If you can’t afford to pay professional shoppers to mon- returns.
itor the service you provide, ask a few friends or relatives e Set clear customer service goals for your
who are not known to your employees to check on the employees and make sure that everyone
service. Knowing what goes on when you are not around is understands them.
vital to the success of your business. Especially since cus-
tomer service experts estimate that it costs about 10 times
e Provide specific training and information so
more to bring in one new customer than to keep an old
employees know exactly what to do in every
one.
situation.
e Make employees accountable for their actions.
e Write specific job descriptions for every employee
and offer incentives for promotion so people
don’t feel stuck in a dead-end job.
|Improving Customer Service |
e Publicly reward and recognize good service.
e If you can’t hire an outside firm, ask your friends
e Ask your best customers to honestly tell you or neighbors to visit your business and report on
what kind of service they expect from your the service they received.
company.

DO YOU HAVE THE RIGHT ATTITUDE

eading 10—2| TOWARDS CLIENTS?
David W. Cottle

Most people are persuaded more by attitude than by logic. 2. Willing and Unable
This is because most people are strongly influenced by But what happens when you get a request for something
their emotions, and emotions are contagious. Complainers you cannot do? You simply cannot deliver what the client
will tend to adopt the same emotional attitude that you wants.
have. If you get angry, they'll get angry. If they’re angry
when they call but you are friendly, they'll tend to get Examples:
friendly, too. e A client asks you to come to a meeting on short notice
Let’s look at the difference a negative or positive attitude when you have another appointment.
can make. Specifically, let’s look at the difference as per- e A client has an emergency, and your secretary doesn’t
ceived by the client between willingness to solve a prob- know where you are to get a message to you.
lem and ability to solve a problem. e An insolvent client wants a business loan; you’re willing
to help but unable to do so.
1. Willing and Able From the client’s viewpoint, the next best thing to “will-
Clients obviously like to deal with people who are both ing and able” is to be at least willing to help even if you are
willing and able to solve their problem. You handle any unable. Having “your heart in the right place” is worth
complaint or client request with speed and care. No prob- points, even if you can’t perform. This is an example of the
lem. manner in which you deliver a service overcoming tempo-
When handling a complaint, assure clients you are help- rary lapses in your ability to provide a satisfactory service
ing them willingly, not grudgingly. Say things like: “Thanks outcome.
for calling this to my attention,” or “I’m glad I found out
about this situation; this way I can take steps to make sure Source: David W. Cottle, “How to Turn Complaints into
it doesn’t happen to other clients, too. Thanks for telling Increased Client Loyalty,” The Practical Accountant 25, no. 6
me.” (Qune 1992), p. 29.

Indirect Messages: Handling Negative and Sensitive Information 339

 In such cases, all you can do is sympathize. But don’t Have you ever taken a telephone call from a second cli-
underestimate the value of sympathy to a client. I once had ent when you were still in a meeting with the first client?
a client who sold a partnership interest with a negative tax Doing this is like letting the client who telephoned “cut in
basis. The client almost gave it away and had to pay tax on line” in front of the client who is in your office. Has your
the negative basis. He complained loud and long about the receptionist kept a client waiting to be announced while
unfairness of his having to pay tax on a phantom gain when the receptionist finished what was obviously a personal
he had not received any money. I couldn’t help him, so I telephone call?
sympathized. Once he grasped the situation and felt my The only hope people have when confronted by an “able
sympathy, he became a loyal client again. but unwilling” situation is if they can just convince the
service provider to be willing to help, then they will be
Note: Don’t tell clients what you cannot do; tell them
serviced.
what you can do. If they want you to do something You may believe that your clients would never run into
beyond your power, don’t let their attention remain an “able but unwilling” situation in your firm. You may
on your failure to help. If there is anything, no matter believe that your clients would never perceive you as being
how small, you can do, offer to do it. For example:
unwilling to help them. But let’s look back at my client who
“Sally, ’'m sorry I can’t meet with you at 2:00 this
sold the partnership interest and owed tax on the negative
afternoon. How about 5:30? Or we could meet at 7:00
basis. At first, he thought I was able to report no gain on the
tomorrow morning for breakfast.”
sale but was unwilling to do so. This also affected his eval-
uation of my competence as an accountant. First, I had to
3. Able but Unwilling
carefully explain the “why” so the client could see that
People are extremely frustrated by service people who are
both he and I had no choice. In other words, I had to
able to help (or who seem to be able to help) but are
convince the client of my inability to report the sale at no
unwilling. For example: A major corporation employee
gain. Then the client could accept that I was willing to help
who was leaving town on business got his paycheck ahead
but unable to do so.
of time. He asked his bank to cash the postdated payroll
check. Legally, the bank couldn’t do it, but the teller—
instead of explaining the legal restrictions—merely re- 4. Unwilling and Unable
fused to cash the check. The customer had the check; the The least desirable accountant is perceived as both unwill-
bank had the money. The customer perceived that the bank ing and unable to provide a service to the client. The atti-
was able but unwilling to help him when in fact the bank tude seems to say, “I can’t help you, but even if I could, I
was unable to solve his problem. What could have been a wouldn’t.” Diligently avoid hiring such employees, and if
positive experience with the bank (or at least a neutral you find one, rapidly ensure that they become a former
one) turned into a negative experience. The bank got a employee. Make sure your clients understand that you are
failing grade on the customer’s “invisible report card” on always willing to help them, even when you are unable to
the quality of their service. do so.

340 Chapter Ten

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Pfriting to Persuade
This chapter covers perhaps the most challenging types of business messages,
those that must influence or change what the receiver thinks or does. Business
makes heavy use of persuasion. Individuals, departments, and organizations are
interdependent. They need to get one another to take actions, make changes, and
cooperate.
Both inside and outside organizations, businesspeople frequently need to
influence others. For instance, a project manager might tell a team member,
“Purchasing has been sitting on our proposal since March 2. Call them and get
some action out of them without making them mad.” Or a manager might have the
task of showing the city council why a rezoning that her company wants is also
good for the city.
Whether you need to persuade people on an idea like teamwork or cooperation
or a product or service, you will consider ways in which what you offer will benefit
your recipients—and you will “sell” those benefits. People take action because they
believe it will be in their best interest to do so. They consider the “what’s-in-it-for-
me” factor (WIIFM).

343
 VicOsmond —
Froject Supportk
PlannerZ Bk

: stays wih he eean

extra resources and sweete

PERSUASION Persuasion is a conscious effort by an individual to modify or change the

opinions, attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of another individual or group through
DEFINED the transmission of a message. No distinct line separates informational mes-
Most business messages are sages from persuasive ones, however. Many messages do both. To illustrate, we
mainly informative or mainly
persuasive, but few are only one
might place individual examples of different message types on a continuum, as
or the other. shown in Exhibit 11-1.
To persuade or inform effectively, business communicators must monitor
their intentions and purposes regarding the reader. They must not accidentally
persuade when the task is to inform. When other businesspeople need objec-
tive facts, communicators must be able to provide them free of personal bias.
Yet few human communications are entirely free of all persuasiveness. For
instance, when the writer of an informative report works to demonstrate his
credibility, he is influencing an opinion of the reader. Nearly all informational
messages contain at least minimal persuasion. Conversely, most persuasive
messages contain a great deal of information.

Elements of Persuasion Persuaders must consider their receivers, themselves as senders, the situation,
the ethics involved, specific strategies and techniques, and the structure of the
message.
When attempting to persuade in business communication, writers analyze
their audience closely. Then they select, order, and word the elements of their
message to encourage the desired responses from that audience. On the basis
of this analysis, they appeal to the audience’s reason and feelings. They say
nothing untrue. They begin with familiar statements the audience agrees with
and gradually add new material that will move the audience toward the “new”
agreement. Exhibit 11—2 is a fairly simple persuasive memo. Marginal notes
direct your attention to several persuasive elements.

344, Chapter Eleven

|Q@xuir 11-1 Information-Persuasion Continuum |

Subjective and Emotional Content Emphasis Mainly Persuasive

Tends to Increase in Importance
A a pro-safety slogan
1
| |
|
| |
| |
a team-building memo
| '
| | :
| a product-launch sales meeting
|
| a collection message
| |
a sales presentation
|
a position paper
|
a proposal
|
| 1
a justification report
| |

|
| a bad-news letter
| 1

| |
| a good-news letter
|
| a routine memo
| |
many business reports
. 4 i

|
| some business reports
| reports of scientific inquiries
Vv i 1 '

Objective and Rational Content Vv

Tends toIncreaseinImportance | Emphasis Mai nly Informational

Human nature gives rise to some characteristics of particular interest to those Receivers of Persuasive
who study persuasion. Receivers of messages Messages
e Are influenced by emotion and reason.
e Judge the reliability of the sender.
e
e Dislike dissonance (mixed feelings, ambivalenc).
e Are persuaded to varying degrees.
e Respond to reinforcement.

Writing to Persuade 345

|QxuHBiT 11-2 Simple Persuasive Memo |

Val-U Capital Warehouse, Inc.

Memorandum

To: Courtney Moto, Store Manager

From: Will North, Asst. Operations Manager

Date: March 3, 19xx

Subject: Security of Fine Jewelry Bay

During our current remodel we have seen two major proposals on how
best to secure the Fine Jewelry bay. One idea is to place contacts on
reinforced doors and the other is to place safes under the selling counters. yy for

The Fine Jewelry bay, in its free-standing form, is a concern because of

both our employees’ safety and the security of the merchandise. By
placing safes under the counter, we do a better job of ensuring both. The
safes, as opposed to the contacts and reinforced doors, are much more
difficult to break into and thus more cost effective. Mots's WHOM

According to the security manager's proposal, contacts have not proven Rath aden He
very effective in other stores. The contacts and reinforced doors can be ; 20 ofsafes
broken into in less than a minute, and a complete burglary could be Aenean 4
carried out before an armed response could even arrive. Safes, in contrast, ’
while about 22 percent more costly initially, have proven to be es hea s
considerably more effective in deterring theft. Adding safes to our Wordohoice e
existing security would make a potential burglary much more time deterring theft me
consuming and thus less appealing. ae ane

Having to carry the jewelry to and from the main safe at opening and
closing leaves our associates very vulnerable. With safes under the
counters, we will be able to store the merchandise in the bay overnight,
thereby eliminating that risk.

Since we must take action on this matter by fiscal year end, I would
appreciate your approval for the purchase of the safes, both for the
security of our merchandise and, more important, for the safety of our
associates.

346 Chapter Eleven

 e Dislike holding opinions different from those of others whom they hold
in esteem.
e Operate within a specific frame of reference.
Let’s examine these characteristics one at a time. As you read, look at Exhibit
11—3, a request for a favor, to see how the writer has carefully considered his
reader.

‘People are influenced by emotion as well as by reason. Everyone is influenced Emotion and Reason
by feelings to some extent, and some are influenced heavily. Consider this list
of emotional “sets” a persuader might key into:

Self-esteem Feelings of inadequacy

Shyness Irritation
Love of risk Sense of duty
Fear of loss Protectiveness toward others
Uneasiness Boredom
Love of excitement Vanity
Hero worship Envy
Greed Commitment to principles
Personal responsibility Fear of looking foolish
Feeling virtuous Feeling generous
Enjoyment of winning

Hundreds of other kinds of emotions move people.

In appealing to these and other emotionis, a persuasive writer should usually Most emotional appeals in
business persuasion should be
do so subtly. A shade of difference in a word’s connotation may tap into an subtle.
emotion successfully where a blatant appeal to that emotion would fail.
A successful persuader is careful not to underestimate the complexities of
the receiver’s attitudes and beliefs. Both communicator and receiver generally
have more than one reason for feeling the way they do. Some of the reasons are
consciously known; some are dim and sometimes distorted memories, often
deeply rooted in the past and built up from many different experiences. In
some cases, a person has forgotten the reasons behind his or her beliefs or
attitudes, but those reasons are influential just the same.

Receivers judge the reliability of senders. They might doubt even a true mes- Sender Reliability
sage if it comes from someone with low credibility. Business communicators
must take care that no aspect of their communication suggests they are not
believable. For instance, bad appearance of a written communication, exag-
geration, lack of evidence, or lack of organization can suggest unreliability.
How communicators behave day to day also affects their credibility in an
organization and makes what they say and write more believable or less so.

People dislike being undecided or confused about events they perceive as Dissonance
meaningful to them. This ambivalent state is called dissonance or lack of
Dissonance means having mixed
closure. People are eager to resolve problems and make decisions, proceed- or unresolved thoughts or
ing on the basis of the best information they have available to them. Both feelings about a matter of
emotion and reason enter into their decisions. importance.

Writing to Persuade 347

|Qxuit 11-3 Request for a Favor |

Associated Student Organizations

College of Business, Wichita State University, Wichita, KS 67208

May 3, 19xx

Ms. Patricia A. Shesky

Vice President, Personnel and Administration
Otoe Manufacturing Corporation
11400 Plains Parkway
Wichita, KS 67211

Dear Ms. Shesky:

With the manufacturing sector clearly reviving, you may be interested in

an idea regarding the supply of trained staff.

The business college at State has placed interns with four other large
Wichita firms (Barnes & Baxter, Columbine Chemical, T&l Inc., and
Farbenroth) since 1986. The opportunity to create an internship program
at Otoe would strengthen our program and offer Otoe many benefits.

Interns are an excellent source of committed workers. Grateful for the

chance to gain career experience and exposure to knowledgeable
individuals, they are eager to perform well for you. For minimum wage,
employer organizations receive informed problem-solvers with fresh
skills to put to work. The interns know that a desirable grade in finance or
marketing depends on their ability to fulfill your expectations. You will
see an intense motivation to learn, absorb, and contribute.

Because students pass a rigorous screening to qualify for internships, you

will see only strong applicants.

Statistics show that 87 percent of the firms with internships hire some of
their interns as regular employees upon graduation. The turnover rate of
employees who are former interns is substantially lower than of other
employees, as shown in several studies I'd be glad to send you. In addition,
training costs when interns are hired are much less.

The left column of the enclosed sheet lists 36 important tasks other firms
have assigned to interns. The middle column shows cost savings achieved.
Why not check which tasks your staffers might be able to assign to interns?
The right-hand column has space for you to estimate your cost savings.

348 Chapter Eleven

|QXHIBIT 11-3 continued |

Patricia A. Shesky May 3, 19xx

Exposune for
commurlty,
suppolisan The College of Business publishes a quarterly newsletter with space
added benef. devoted regularly to the firms that support us. This positive exposure
Therequest jon COUld only add to your strong reputation for community citizenship.
the
so Would you consider creating three to five internships at OMC for top business
neader-centered finance and marketing majors, Ms. Shesky? We have developed materials that
will greatly reduce the paperwork for you.

If you would like the research studies | mentioned, please call JfSheshy
316-461-7731. | will follow up next week to answer any questions you requeststhe ‘
may have. Thank you for considering internships, a genuine win-win Mudies, she
arrangement.
reinforces her
g interest,
makes teasien Sincerely,

me Up Hybor
oe ae Mykenos
help President, Associated Student Organizations
project
reliability and Enclosure

pe: M. P. Katz, Ill, Faculty Advisor

Writing to Persuade 349

Degrees of Persuasion People are persuaded to varying degrees. A communication might make a great
deal of difference to one person but much less difference to another. The
communication might be more or less effective for the same person on dif-
ferent days, depending on the person’s outlook, mood, and other experiences
each day. A person might be strongly persuaded the first day she or he hears
a message but forget and slip back to the original opinion later. If a receiver’s
original opinion is firmly set, little persuasion, or none at all, may result.
A sender needs to know the degree of agreement needed. For example,
persuasion can achieve a person’s silent internal agreement more easily than
the person’s spoken or written support in front of other people. Similarly, such
verbal support is easier to achieve than action (hence the popular phrase “Put
your money where your mouth is”). Once a person has openly committed
himself before others, however, he is less likely to revert to his original opinion
than if his agreement is unspoken. A person who has committed herself by
action as well as by speech or writing is still less likely to revert.

Reinforcement Typically a person’s words or actions reinforce his or her agreement with a
Reinforcement makes newly persuasive message. People do not like to appear inconsistent. Reinforcement
acquired attitudes or beliefs makes the change in a person firmer and more permanent. Once people have
firmer. made a decision, they tend to notice or create more reasons why it was a good
decision and to ignore reasons that do not confirm their decision.
Persuasive writers use reinforcement in many ways. For one, they try to
emphasize facts and messages they want readers to agree with and to minimize
facts and messages they want readers to ignore. They also try to move their
readers toward a decision and to confirm the decision once the readers have
made it.
Forms of reward and punishment can move a person toward agreement and
reinforce her agreement once she has given it. The persuader can tell the
receiver “what’s in it for her” if she decides rightly and the negative conse-
quences likely if she does not. “When you agree to help out at the Special
Olympics, you’re buying into a special kind of warmth” offers an intangible but
valuable reward. Consider the opposite message: “For a day these kids’ dis-
abilities disappear. For a day they’re just kids having fun. They’re counting on
you. Are you going to let them down?” This message promises a psychic
punishment for the receiver: The children’s disappointment won't feel good to
the person who let them down. Maybe the receiver will agree to help and thus
avoid this guilty feeling.
Finally, a persuader can praise a receiver for having the right attitude. A
persuader can sometimes even offer some tangible reward.

Reference Groups Human beings often share opinions, attitudes, and beliefs with reference
Reference groups or persons are groups, that is, with others whom they admire or respect and wish to resem-
others whom an individual ble. For example, many people who belong to fitness clubs emphasize looking
holds in esteem, wishes to
resemble, and tends to imitate.
good and following fashion. A new member might rely heavily on longer-term
members’ opinions about what is and is not fashionable. He will probably be
open to persuasive messages about clothing, hair care, entertainment, and even
politics if the messages come from sources associated with or resembling
fitness buffs.

Frame of Reference The success of a persuasive message may depend on the receiver’s frame of
reference, that is, on the receiver’s mood, state of mind, and mental associ-
350 Chapter Eleven
ations with the subject. It’s helpful to a business writer to know the frame of
reference in which the message will be received.
A person might have different frames of reference prevailing at different
times and in different situations. For example, consider the work force in a
high-tech industry where decreased demand has led to layoffs. Suppose a
recruiter for a job retraining program phones an employee of Megabyte Inc.
just after Megabyte’s quarterly report has shown a 1.8 percent rise in orders.
The worker might not show much interest. Suppose, however, that the same
recruiter calls the employee after the morning paper has announced more
layoffs at Megabyte. Under these bad-news circumstances, the worker might be
open to a job retraining pitch.
Often a receiver’s frame of reference can be adjusted by a message. A
sender can word a message to suggest a given frame of reference to a receiver.
Words can create a mood, recall memories, or put a message in a different
perspective.
Knowing the receiver's frame of reference can sometimes tell a writer what
to stress and what to avoid. For instance, the banking and savings and loan
industries have been hard-pressed recently. To increase market share, manag-
ers of Commercial Federal Bank might launch a campaign to increase custom-
ers’ perceptions of ComFed’s friendliness. Tellers and other public-contact
employees will carry out the campaign. How might they best be motivated?
Where many banks are merging or failing, employees would probably respond
less favorably to persuasion based on bonuses or awards than they would to
persuasion based on saving their jobs.
These examples show that in persuasion, readers’ perceptions of facts de-
termine their decisions. When facts cannot be changed, problems can some-
times be solved by changing people’s attitudes toward the facts.

Like the receiver, the sender of every persuasive message is a rational and Senders of Persuasive
emotional human being with many different, and sometimes conflicting, mo- Messages
tivations. To persuade effectively, a sender must be self-aware but receiver
oriented.
The best advice to all business communicators is know yourself. Preparing
either to inform or to persuade, you analyze your intended receiver's frame of
reference. Be aware of your own frame of reference as well so you can make
your own emotions work for you—suggesting the right word connotation, for
example—rather than against you.
The best persuaders see and understand clearly all the facts and argu-
ments— those that support their position and those that oppose it. If they lack
objectivity, they may treat both kinds of facts inappropriately. They might, for
instance, assume that what seems true to them will also seem true to the
audience and underdevelop the arguments that support their position. Or they
might assume that the ideas opposing their position will seem no more im-
portant to the audience than to themselves and thus ignore or argue insuffi-
ciently against those ideas.
The successful persuasive writer states things as they will be meaningful to
the receiver, not as they are meaningful to the sender. A person unaware of his
own feelings on a subject will have difficulty getting far enough outside those
feelings to influence another person.
The next piece of advice is know your task. Deliberately inform or delib-
erately persuade, but do not intend to do one and accidentally do the other.
Writing to Persuade 351
 The sender of a message must be perceived as credible by the receiver, or
the message will be rejected. First, the writer needs to be credible in his or her
organization. Control of a message’s tone also affects credibility, particularly
when writers address persons who do not know them. If a persuasive letter
strikes receivers as sly, evasive, exaggerated, crafty, or secretive, for example,
they are unlikely to believe the writer. Therefore, the tone must be courteous,
sincere, and businesslike.
Keeping the “you” attitude at the mind’s forefront helps a writer maintain an
appropriate tone. The writer constantly needs to ask, “How would this sen-
‘

The “you” attitude is especially tence strike me if I were in the reader’s place?” A persuasive message must
important in persuasion. never seem to scold, preach, push, lecture, beg, threaten, whine, or flatter.
Rather, it should invite the reader to’ think along with the writer as the writer
pursues a reasonable, easy-to-follow, reader-centered discourse.
To be perceived as credible, the sender must meet the receiver's expecta-
tions. As you already learned, businesspeople expect good standard English,
correct spelling, professional appearance, clarity, courtesy, conciseness, and
good organization. They also expect the writer’s words and actions to be
consistent. They do not want to be set up for one kind of message and given
another.
Reader analysis should suggest similarities between writer and reader.
When the writer can create the impression that they are much alike or have a
Persuasion stresses commonality common interest, an underlying message can be “I’m like you. I understand
between sender and receiver. what you need.” Readers who believe the writer thinks the way they think will
be more likely to follow the writer’s leads and arguments than will readers who
believe they are very different.

The Situation Surrounding Situations requiring persuasion are nearly always complex. Most issues have
the Persuasion many sides, and, as you have learned, communicators have many reasons for
feeling as they do. Several situational factors can help communicators frame
persuasion well.

TheIssue Itself Sometimes the nature of the issue you are writing about will let you infer the
reader’s state of mind. For example, if the reader recently had a bad experience
with your firm, you may have to work with her residual anger as well as your
persuasive goal. If the reader is a lending officer at a commercial bank, your
business proposal is not the only one he has to consider. If this lender likes
your proposal but controls only limited funds and stands to make more money
from several other contenders, his dissonance level is probably high.

Power and Status Levels of Status and power levels regulate persuaders’ word choice as well as choice of
Sender and Receiver strategies and techniques. Writers persuading people of higher.rank take a
deferential tone and emphasize strong reader benefits. Persuading people on
Senders must take power and the same level, writers treat their readers as equals and might refer to mutual
status differences into account. benefits as well as strong reader benefits.
When writers have higher status and more power than their receivers, they
often simply direct receivers’ activities. Influencing the routine work behavior
of subordinates, for instance, is straightforward. Organizations run on an un-
derlying assumption that subordinates agree to do their work as superiors
direct (within reason) or else leave the organization. Few managers want
subordinates to leave; rather, they want them to stay and do their jobs well.
The kinds of persuasion that accompany direct orders, however, will differ
greatly from those used on audiences who have no obligation to listen. A
352 Chapter Eleven
deferential tone could cause subordinates to view superiors as weak. Still, even
when people know they have to follow orders, productivity is generally higher
when they want to do what they have to do. Thus, managers do well to be
courteous and businesslike about directing, use appropriate motivation tech-
niques, and use negative message content only when necessary.
In unequal power relationships, of course, the power and status differential
is only one variable in choosing persuasive techniques.

Another situational element the writer needs to consider is the circumstances The Receiver’s Immediate
in which the reader will receive the message. Will she be alone or among other Environment
people? In a pleasant or an unpleasant environment? Under high stress or low
stress? In a distracting or a distraction-free environment?
These factors determine the amount and kind of attention a reader can give
a message, as well as the reader’s attitude in approaching it. If the message will
be read during the busiest time of the reader’s day, many interruptions may
prevent the reader’s giving it more than brief and partial attention. Such cir-
cumstances present the writer with special problems and increase the chance Time is a constant pressure for
that the communication will fail. To minimize such problems, you can some- th persuaders and their
receivers.
times
:

e Time the arrival of a communication so that it will be given sufficient

attention. For example, public relations writers customarily time press
releases to arrive at newspapers at low-pressure times of the week.
e Suggest that the recipient read your message not the moment it arrives
but when he has a quiet minute or two.
e Word the message compellingly to hold the reader’s attention despite
other distractions.
But you must hold the receiver’s attention. As you will see later in this chapter,
a persuasive message depends on order and completeness more than many
informational messages do. A persuasive message with parts missing may lose
its effectiveness, whether the gaps are due to the writer’s carelessness or to the
reader’s inattention.
Time constraints create pressure and problems for all business writers, but
especially for persuasive writers. How long can you take to analyze, write, and
revise? The boss asks you for a thorough treatment, and he wants it yesterday!
How long will the busy reader keep reading? You must keep the reader’s
attention all the way down to the move to action, or the persuasion will have
little effect.

Skilled persuaders possess considerable power over others. They can win trust Ethics and Persuasion
and move others to do as they wish. Probably no message is free of the
potential for abuse. Still, persuasive messages raise questions about ethics
sooner than informational messages do because, on the average, persuasive
messages ask for more, on a less full and rational basis, than do informational
messages. To what extent may people manipulate others within the bounds of odui
a
t\

ethics? The answer is not simple.

Recall the discussion of truth in Chapter Five and of the filter in Chapter
is a completely objective
One. Truth is hard to find, and most of the time people act on their own Of No one
others’ filtered perceptions and interpretations. People are sometimes scared, _ perceiver.
sometimes angry, sometimes playful. They exaggerate. They stretch the truth.
Sometimes their listeners recognize this, and sometimes they do not. The point
Writing to Persuade 353
 is that people deal fairly comfortably with versions of reality that vary from one
person to another.
“Do no harm” is one good guiding phrase, but neither it nor any other
maxim will cover all situations. Each persuader must examine his or her own
ethical standards and locate the line that he or she will not cross. Law, morality,
and social pressure help establish ethical boundaries, but individuals find them-
selves working with issues and in situations where these forces are insufficient
guides. Several ideas, discussed here, can help you formulate your own ethical
“measuring sticks” for the complexities of business persuasion.

Different Activities Have Many business activities have their own sets of rules, and persuasion proceeds
Different Rules That in these various contexts. Negotiating, for instance, is gamelike, whether two
workers are angling for the desk nearer the window or two conglomerates are
Persuaders Must Learn
bargaining over the sale of a subsidiary. In recreation, we are used to game
and Play By strategies that involve purposeful misleading and bluffing, as negotiating some-
Persuaders must recognize the times does. For instance, we applaud team athletes who fake one move to
rules of a situation or activity distract the opponents from the move they really intend to make.
and adhere to them. Negotiators, like athletes and their fans, understand that the rules of the
activity involve risk. Ethical negotiators play by the rules but build their skills.
A beginner might do poorly against even an ethical opponent because the
beginner has not yet mastered the tactics. In the nature of negotiations, win-
win outcomes are ideal but not usual. Usually one party gets the better of the
other. Sometimes one party gets everything. People enter these negotiations
willingly, however, and agree to the rules of the activity in the hope of gaining
from the exchange.
Another important example of a gamelike business activity with well-un-
derstood rules is the employment interview. No one should lie in an interview,
but only a fool would list all his or her weaknesses when asked. The inter-
viewer would deem such an applicant hopelessly naive and unlikely to repre-
sent the organization well. The implicit rules say that both parties will repre-
sent their positive points strongly and conceal or deemphasize their negative
ones.
Most everyday buying and selling is simple: “I give you this if you pay me
that.” If people do not want to buy, they do not have to. Some high-pressure
selling, however, uses tactics that are ethically questionable. Consider also the
sales pitches that are carefully scripted to
e Conceal the nature and degree of the indebtedness.
e Conceal the fact that a sale is being made and money will be owed.
e Pretend to cure terminal illness or hopeless loneliness.
e Sell something worthless by playing on ignorance, guilt, or fear for
one’s loved ones.
We will always have such persuaders as the telephone boiler room scammers
who trap the elderly into buying useless “commemorative coins” as invest-
ments; the door-to-door, no-name-encyclopedia sellers who sell a $500 time
contract to welfare recipients with no food in the cupboard; the fakes who sell
“cures” to AIDS patients; and countless others. These “games” are not under-
stood or agreed to by those who are victimized. They are unethical.

All Messages Are Selective Chapter One reminded you that no message ever says everything about any-
thing. Communicators encode messages by selecting and combining symbols
from a limitless array of possibilities.
354 Chapter Eleven
 We need to select and encode fairly, given the situation. To inform ethically,
we convey as much information as is needed for specific receivers’ under-
standing. When we persuade ethically, being careful to do no harm, we create
our messages using selected true information and emotional appeals that will
be meaningful to specific receivers.

Lying is wrong. Having said that, we acknowledge that “Tell him I’m not home” Persuaders Should Not
is not the same size wrong as the lie that destroys a person’s life. Also relevant Falsify
are the differences in perception from one person to another. Two people
often report quite differently an incident that both witnessed, but both are
telling truth as they see it.
Lying is one means of persuading unethically. The cleverest unethical per-
suaders, however, manage to avoid outright lies but still cause their victims to
believe something untrue. If you have studied critical thinking, you have en-
countered terms like cardstacking, leading questions, and guilt by associa-
tion—all different techniques for conveying untruth without saying it.

Remember too that after reading a persuasive message, the recipient still Receiver Has Free Choice
makes a free choice. A persuader can only persuade. If a persuader is able to
control, then coercion, not persuasion, is occurring.
We have an “open system.” Every day we are exposed to conflicting opin-
ions and to many sides of issues. Every person is free to disagree with other
people, with the government, and with any institution. Receivers of persuasive
communications are used to hearing persuasion and evaluating it for them-
selves.

Finally, receivers accept a persuasive message when and if they see the mes- Effective Persuasion Fulfills
sage as meeting a need. If it does not meet their need, they reject it. Persuasion Receiver’s Need
is universally useful. We are all consumers as well as providers of persuasion. .
Every day receivers evaluate
We need others’ arguments and evidence because we are all busy. We can- many competing— even
not—and do not want to—discover and reason out everything for ourselves. conflicting— persuasive
We look for helpful shortcuts in making up our minds. messages and judge their worth
and ability to fulfill receivers’
People who read persuasive messages read them because they see the topic WIIFM.
made meaningful for them. If the message offers them something they want
(WIIFM), they are willing to listen or to read. If they can infer a trustworthy
sender who meets a need, they tend to accept the message.
A strong motive for persuading ethically is our need for the ethical persua-
sive messages of others. No reader wants to be abused. Persuasion is a powerful
set of skills, to be handled, like all power, responsibly.

Persuaders learn various techniques and strategies. In this section we will Strategies and Techniques
mention and give examples of several of these. You will be able to relate some
of the techniques and strategies to what we have said about the receiver, the
sender, and the situation. ;

Liking. The use of liking is also called the use of ingratiation or friend-
ship. Persuaders might communicate in their most pleasant, charming way,
sometimes referring outright to their feelings of affinity. For instance:
We've been friends a long time. We've gone through a lot and seen each other
through the tough times. That’s why I'm coming to you first with this idea.
Writing to Persuade 355
 Approached in this winsome way, the recipient might be moved to be a “nice
guy” in return.
Altruism. An appeal to altruism is an appeal to people’s generosity. People
are capable of behaving selflessly if their basic decency and warmheartedness
are tapped. Some charitable appeals are based on this aspect alone. Unless an
individual is angry or turned off, sometimes an appeal to altruism can suffice.
This example shows an appeal to altruism:
I'm sorry you're leaving us, but I’m really glad you have such a good opportunity.
You've done a great job for us, especially considering the chaos you inherited from the
last supervisor. You don’t have to do this, but |wonder if you’d consider writing up the
four most important procedures you devised. You've said you wanted to make lasting
improvements where you work. If you'd write those procedures, the difference you've
made would continue for years to come.
Scarcity. Dandelions are beautiful if you really look at them. If they were hard
to grow we would be nurturing them, not attacking them with trowel and
herbicide. People desire what is hard to get. Marketers know that if they price
Even artificially created scarcity certain products too low—even if costs permit a low price—people will
can motivate people to want refuse to buy them. Thus, persuaders often use the reality or the appearance of
what is scarce.
scarcity to motivate. Here are examples:
This model will be unavailable after the first of the year.
We have just four of these left.
Orders have been high. You don’t want to risk stockouts.
We're not even offering the SX16 to most of our clients.
The fewer people who can afford (earn, win, find) something, the more we
want to have it ourselves.
Altercasting gets individuals to Positive and negative altercasting. Altercasting means inviting individuals to
see themselves playing roles perceive themselves differently in a particular way, either better than they are
they admire and wish to
resemble or dislike and try to (positive altercasting) or worse than they are (negative altercasting). The first
avoid. example here shows positive altercasting, the second negative:
You're an unassuming kind of person, Leon. Maybe you don’t think of yourself as a.
person who can make or break a program. You are, though. Your help on this
project... . :
Sara, the people in your work group don’t seem to be doing their share. This group's
productivity is at the bottom of our ranking. I’ve about given up on the rest of them—|
don't have any functional authority over them. But you know, most of us don’t want to
think you're the same as they are.
If the persuader can get these people to cast themselves in a role he or she likes
better than what they are at present, they might change their behavior.
Positive and negative esteem. All people care, to varying degrees, what oth-
ers think of them. If a persuader can make us believe that doing as she or he
wants will gain us the favorable attention of others, we just might do it. Word-
ing in the first example suggests positive esteem; in the second, negative
esteem:
Your friends will be impressed when you. .. .
Wearing a cheap watch is going to lose you some sales appointments. This is an
important purchase you're making.
356 Chapter Eleven
Selling makes heavy use of people’s anxiety about the opinions of others. So
does team building.

Positive and negative expertise. Offering the educated opinion of selected

experts is often persuasive. The first example uses positive expertise and the
second negative expertise:
Eight of the top ten stock-watch newsletters say that Brindisi stock mutual fund is likely
to earn an annual average of 19 percent from 1993 to 1998.
Six thousand research scientists support this position paper saying CFCs harm the
ozone layer. Our firm must install this device to filter and convert fumes, and we need
to change our manufacturing process as soon as is feasible.
True, experts often disagree violently with other experts, but persuaders do
not have to represent all sides if the sources they select are indeed competent
and credible. Yeats ago, some advertisers came under federal scrutiny for
using “experts” who were really actors dressed as doctors, researchers, and
other specialists and for showing fake testing evidence. This practice was
unethical, and the government now prohibits this kind of advertising.

Reward and punishment, promise and threat. People can be rewarded or

punished for behaving in a given way. Some rewards, like raises and job perks,
are tangible. Persuaders can also give praise, compliments, public recognition,
and more interesting work to do. Persuaders can punish with embarrassment,
loss, dislike, and many other negatives, and they can threaten these things as
well.
Some threats and promises can be shown to grow out ofa situation. If
persuaders can show the persuadee how to change the situation, the individual
can avoid the threat and obtain the benefit:
| know we have to push our delivery drivers hard to generate fast service. It's our
competitive edge. Still, it’s pure luck that we haven't had any worse problems than a
couple of fender-benders. We should seriously consider airbags in the vans before we
get hit with a workers’ comp claim—or worse. Maybea disability lawsuit.
Using “the situation” as the aversive element can keep the persuader from
seeming to be the “bad guy”: “It’s out of my hands. It’s up to you now.”

Learning. People like to learn. They often respond favorably to approaches

like “Did you know. . . ?” All messages are partial and selective. “Did you
know” messages can be selected as well to inform and educate hearers about
the aspects of a subject that work to the persuader’s benefit. For instance, when
businesses recruit applicants for a job, they offer selected information. They
talk about opportunity for advancement but omit mention of the co-worker
who annoyed the last jobholder into quitting. (The new hire might get along
fine with this co-worker.)
Persuaders must not say things that are false. But they can select and em-
phasize statements in favor of their position and downplay statements against
their position.

Reciprocity and indebtedness. People remember debts, and they want to be Reciprocity is a powerful
technique because it appeals to
people’s need to feel fair and
balanced.
Remember last month when |stayed late to help you get that 500-piece mailing out?
You could sure help me out now if you'd. . . .
Writing to Persuade 357
 Several years ago, members of a donation-seeking organization stationed them-
selves in airports.and pressed a very small gift, a flower, upon each passerby.
Then they followed the person and talked about donations to their cause.
When the person tried to leave, they pursued. If the person tried to give back
the flower, they said, “No, it’s a present—really!” and continued to press for a
contribution. Often people made a donation. Even though they did not want
the flower and did not support the cause, they ad the flower and felt bound
to pay something back. The force of indebtedness is very strong.
This is an extreme and possibly unethical example. Still, people do favors for
others who have done them favors or given them something. Until the debt is
paid, people feel dissonance.

Consistency. Although we all defend our right to change our minds, persuad-
ers can still make us feel stupid by implying that we are inconsistent. This
persuader is using the consistency technique:
Ms. Gillespie, you've been a strong supporter of the firm’s investing in job training all
along; and this seminar in Aspen is an excellent opportunity for me to hone sales and
presentation skills.
Ralph Waldo Emerson said, “A foolish consistency is the hobgoblin of little
minds,” but persuaders can often lead people even to a foolish consistency.
Once people “buy into” an idea, they will sometimes let others lead them
where they should not rationally go:
Remember we talked about your working on Christmas if | could get you
Thanksgiving, New Year's Eve, and New Year's Day off?
Yes, | remember.
Remember you said Christmas wasn't going to be a big deal thisoo because all
your family is going to be away?
Yeah, really, it’s no big deal.
I'm really sorry, but | can’t get you those days off. You'll still work on Christmas,
though, won't you? Because after all, your family still isn’t going to be here. And you
can take some other days off. . . .
The persuader gives the consistency technique a try. The other person can
always say no.

Easy compliance. Receivers of persuasive messages often cite reasons why

they cannot comply. Persuaders should create ways to make the desired action
easy. Often they can neutralize excuses and remove obstacles. For instance,
“Call 1-818-JAY-CEEE for free transportation to this important community
event” might greatly increase customer turnout for a merchants’ street fair.
Relative size of request. Persuaders sometimes make an extreme opening
request, intending to make concessions. The persuadee, who may not have
intended to spend anything at all, feels relief from the initial shock when the
cost comes down. He might feel like paying the lowered price. The technique
is exemplified in this dialog:
Can we buy this designer wall covering for the reception area?
Of course not!
Well, can we at least paint in there? It would cost much less.
Oh, | guess so.

358 Chapter Eleven

 DADS ARE

© 1991 by King Features Syndicate, Inc. World rights reserved. Reprinted with special permission of King
Features Syndicate.

Although persuasive techniques and strategies are well known even to the very
young, this cartoon reminds us that they don’t always work.

Persuaders can also add small things to big things. If a persuadee already
agrees to a large request, the persuader can sometimes attach one or more
smaller requests because they seem minor alongside the big one:
We're getting the new metal desks, credenzas, and horizontal files. Could we consider
getting new wastebaskets and desk sets too?
Word choice. In strictly informational writing and speaking, you generally
stay with low-connotation words—words without strong emotional associa- Rereading the coverage of word
tions. In persuasive writing and speaking, because people generally make a choice in Chapter Three can
help you in word choice
decision based at least in part on how they feel, sometimes words with strong decisions in persuasive
connotations work better than the other kind. messages. Connotation is
However, while highly flavored words will move people more, it is harder especially relevant.
to control the direction and distance they go. Using emotion-laden words can
work for you, but analyze your reader with great care before choosing the
words. Too emotional a word or the wrong kind of word can misfire and move
a reader a great deal—in a direction you don’t want. For example, many
businesspeople respond better to a request for “an early response” than to a
request for “a quick decision.” Quick seems to suggest that the response is to
be made without a chance to think things over. Early has no such connotation.
If people sense that they are being rushed into something, they won't do it.
As a second example, look at two versions of part of an adverse personnel
evaluation, given orally and in private:
Jeff, we expect you to seek psychiatric treatment immediately. Your behavior lately is
pushy and belligerent. If you don’t knuckle under, you know, we can fire you.
Jeff, we strongly advise you to obtain some counseling soon. Your behavior lately
seems too assertive. If we can’t help you to improve your attitude, you might have to
be let go. :

Both versions contain words with some emotional connotation. The second
version, although milder in emotional connotation, will have a more predict-
able effect. The first one will either persuade thoroughly or backfire altogether.
The hearer might hurry out and get the counseling, or he might start a lawsuit
against the company.
Offering alternatives. People will often go along with you when you assume
they will do what you want and you give them a choice of ways to do it. For
example, a persuader might spend 10 minutes explaining to the receiver why
her help is needed on a new project and then say, “Would you rather work

Writing to Persuade 359

 THE FAR SIDE By GARY LARSON
os

Stil] no money, huh >

Well let's see if
Rudy and his wiffle bat
can help encourage yo

= 98. FarWorks Ing -Dessizutes Dy U*rtrsa Frese Synocale

Ineffective tools of persuasion

FAR SIDE copyright 1987 FARWORKS, INC. Reprinted with permission of
UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE. All rights reserved.

Reciprocity would work better: ‘In return for our not

killing you, you give us all your money. Deal?” (It
wouldn’t be funny, but it would work.)

with Carter on program planning or with Lauren on documentation?” The

receiver is fairly likely to choose one of these responsibilities, either of which
the persuader likes, rather than choose the unspoken and very real third
option: “No, I don’t want to help on this project.”
Here is part of a recruitment letter from a vocational tech school to grad-
uating high school seniors:
You're just out of school and looking at your options. You've probably seen the limited
choices available to people without postsecondary education. The military is
downsizing; the job market is depressed. XYZ Technical College is here to help.
Choose computer programming. Or dental hygiene. Consider being a medical
assistant. XYZ has nearly 50 other programs that will offer you comfortable earnings.
Another way a persuader can use alternatives is by setting up a good one
and one or more bad ones. From the receiver’s point of view, they may be
about equally attractive. The persuader, though, presents attractively the one
he wants chosen and presents unattractively the ones he doesn’t want chosen.
For example:
Under present circumstances, we lose every way. Employees call in sick to stay home
with a sick family member. Or employees leave the sick person alone and sit here in
the office distracted with worry and do substandard work. We lose talent if we fire
360 Chapter Eleven
 people with dependents; we lose talent if we avoid hiring people with dependents. If
we subsidize dependent care, we can hire people for their talent and count on getting
the benefit of that talent.
Participation and visualization. Sometimes persuasive writers can get readers
to perform an activity or at least to think through a process with them. When
readers do this, especially if it involves actual motion, they become more Participation and visualization
absorbed in the activity than if it were merely described to them. Participation involve the reader more closely
in the ideas and behaviors the
reinforces whatever enjoyment or interest they feel. persuader is urging.
Have you noticed how often sales letters include an order card requiring
activity on the reader’s part? Sometimes, for instance, the reader has to punch
out a round cardboard token that says yes and put it into a slot on the order
card. Sellers use these devices because they reinforce the appeal.
In an issue of Digest Week is a loose cardstock ad. A thoughtful-looking
spokeswoman asks, “Is your relationship in trouble? Take this simple 10-point
quiz.” The reader can mark yes or no boxes to questions about typical dis-
agreements dating couples have. After the quiz, designed to make the reader a
little uneasy, comes a bold-type paragraph:
How does your relationship compare to the average American's? In the May issue,
psychologist Dr. June Jacobs discusses three magic ways to keep the glow alive.
Subscribe now to make sure you don’t miss her fascinating analysis of romance in the
USA.
Easy subscription instructions follow, with option to pay later. The card folds
shut; the opposite side is addressed to Digest Week ’s subscription office; and
return postage is paid. The reader of the February issue marked the quiz,
became interested, had a pen in hand, filled in her name and address, and
became a subscriber.
Senders of other persuasive messages can use the same principles. Let’s say
a business writer has to persuade a group of executives to modify a business’s
building entrance to improve access for people using wheelchairs. The writer
might urge the executives to imagine themselves on the sidewalk looking up
the three steps to the building’s front door—and realize that, because they
can’t get up those steps, they can’t even apply for a job they could perform
competently.
“Yes.” The “yes” technique is related to audience participation. If the per-
suader has been doing a good job, and if the reader has been going along
agreeably, sometimes the persuader will use a series of questions he’s pretty
sure the reader will answer with yes. The last of the four or five questions is the
point on which the persuader wants agreement.
Here is an example. A foundation for providing care to homeless small
children sends a letter asking for donations. Near the end is this sequence:
Daily, we see hunger and pain looking at us from a child’s eyes. Can you imagine
these tiny children and their great need? Can you envision the pain of parents when
we have to tell them we just can’t care for any more? Don't you think a child ought to
have a real chance? Then won't you help us today? Even if you contribute only what
you'd spend dining out, you can save a child’s future—maybe even a life.
Use this technique sparingly and cautiously. A series of questions like these
tends to carry high emotion. And as we’ve mentioned before, high emotion can
backfire.
Persuaders choose carefully among these techniques as they structure and
develop persuasive messages. Receivers will not be persuaded solely on the
Writing to Persuade 361
 basis of participation, altruism, reciprocity, or scarcity. Other content ele-
ments, both rational and emotional, will fill out a structural plan selected to
suit the need. The next section discusses structural options.

Structuring a Written Having analyzed the sender (himself), the communication situation, and the
Persuasive Message receiver, the persuader structures the message. The message grows out of all
the other elements.
Most of our discussion here will concern written and single-effort ot “one-
shot” persuasive communications, since they are common in everyday busi-
ness communication. Note, though, that many persuasive efforts are done over
time— months or even years—and involve many separate communications in
succession.

Persuasive Structure Based Where a persuader has to build a case, the most common structure arranges
arguments (reasons, pieces of evidence) according to how strong they are.
on Rational Arguments
Although the many different strategies and techniques just covered do find
place in such messages, building a sound rational basis is essential.
The following outline shows an effective sequence. The opener introduces
the subject, using ideas that both reader and writer know and agree on and
establishing common ground.
e Opener
e Strong “pro” argument(s)
e Weaker “pro” argument(s)
e Citing and refuting one or more opposing arguments
e Strong “pro” argument(s)
e Summary
e Move to action

Primacy emphasizes because an The number of arguments in each division can vary, but their placement
idea is placed first. Recency should not vary much. The placement of the strongest arguments first and last
emphasizes because an idea is
the last one a reader makes use of the principles of primacy and recency. Audience members
encounters. remember best what they hear or read first (prime position) and what they
hear or read last (most recently). The less important ideas are placed in the
middle, where an audience’s attention tends to lessen.
The deemphasized middle section is also the place for mentioning and
refuting some of the opposing arguments. The ideal counterarguments to bring
up are those that permit strong and convincing refutation. The persuader
chooses several such arguments and shows as clearly as possible how they are
weaker or less important than the reader might think. Sometimes the argu-
ments “against” can be turned into (weak) arguments “for.”
A sound refutation of any arguments will demonstrate that the opposing
position has its weaknesses. Very strong arguments against the persuader’s
position, however, are best omitted. If the persuader brings up a strong op-
posing argument but does not attack it effectively, he or she will do the
opposition a favor.
Exhibit 11—4 shows an example of a memo report that must build a case.
Marginal notes point to the structural elements of this memo, as well as to
other elements of persuasion.

The Motivated Sequence Many persuasive messages— which are usually shorter than the memorandum
in Exhibit 11—4— emphasize case building less and emotional needs more. A
362 Chapter Eleven
|QOxuir 11-4 Memo Report That Builds a Case |

MEMORANDUM

To: Basil Cairn, Vice President, Chair, Strategic Planning Committee

From: Louis Bellinger, Vice President, Production

Date: October 20, 19xx

Subject: Meeting Expected Production Needs

The anticipated 35 percent increase in sales over the next two years will
indeed be an impressive accomplishment from our sales staff. To fill the
orders they take, we will of course have to increase production and increase it
beyond our present capacity. The company's historical production rates and
capabilities, coupled with an in-depth analysis, show a need for capital outlay.
Modifying some of our current machinery and purchasing some new
equipment will enable production to meet the increased demand that our
sales force will generate.

Option: Purchase and Upgrade of Equipment

As you can see from the enclosed report from Amato Equipment Co., by
buying upgrades to our existing molding machines and three new molding
machines, we will increase our capacity by about 75 percent and at the same
time reduce our cost per unit by 5.7 percent. Our internal analysis, also
enclosed, shows that the alternative of adding a third shift will increase
production by only 36 percent, owing to the lower productivity we have
historically obtained on graveyard shifts. With shift premiums our cost per
unit is actually higher for the night shift despite not having to charge any
additional fixed equipment costs to the shift.

The molders that we are now running were purchased in 1984. While the
basic machines are still sound, they need to be rebuilt to bring them back to
original specs and to have modern controls added to them. This rebuilding
will reduce maintenance costs and down time, which, as you can see from the
maintenance log summary that is enclosed, have been rising over the last
three years. :

Option: Adding a Third Shift

While adding a third shift would cover our capacity needs if our equipment
stays in working order, our costs would be higher than with the new
equipment for several reasons.

First, with shift premiums, lower productivity, and higher accident rates, our
burdened unit labor cost would rise by over 60 percent. Since labor is 43
percent of our total variable cost, this means an increase of 26 percent in total
unit variable costs. There is no way that spreading the fixed costs of the
equipment over the additional production of the third shift can compensate
for this. :

Writing to Persuade 363

|Q@XxuIBIT 11-4 continued |

Second, we now use the time that a third shift would operate for maintenance
on the machinery. Because it is so old, we need this down time to keep the
machines running during the working shifts. If we go to a third shift, we will
have to try to keep the equipment running all the time. When the machines
do go down, we will have to deal not only with repair costs, but also with the
cost of lost production and idle workers.

Third, the existing equipment is difficult to keep on spec because of its age
and the quality of the controls available when it was installed. We are losing
a substantial amount of material to scrap because of defective output. This
problem will worsen if we can't use the third shift time for maintenance.

Cost Analysis

New machinery:

Cost of rebuilding current equipment $275,400

Purchase of 3 new molders 552,500
Stock of parts for new molders 47,000
Total 874,900

Annual labor cost reduction from new

equipment ’ 228,000

Third shift:

Annual labor cost, burdened 417,000

Thus, by an investment of $874,900, we will generate a net savings in labor

alone of $417,000 plus $228,000, or $645,000. This gives us a payback period
of about 16 months, well within our standard of 24 months. In addition, we
will be well positioned to handle even larger increases in sales.

We have a fixed bid from Amato for the modifications. P.J. Jackson in
purchasing has gone over the contracts and is satisfied that they are in line
with our purchasing standards. Amato has tentatively agreed to oversee the
adjustment, installation, and initial operation of added parts and equipment
at no charge. Amato has also offered to provide us with training technicians
for 30 days at no charge.

This is a key project to put into our capital budget for next year. I'll be happy
to meet with the Strategic Planning Committee to discuss the opportunities
offered by this plan and to answer any questions anyone may have.

364 Chapter Eleven

plan for such messages is often called the motivated sequence. It’s especially
useful in persuading a reader initially uninterested in the subject, the writer, or
any part of the situation. This sequence also works when the reader is aware
of the situation but not expecting messages about it. The motivated sequence
has five steps: attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, and action:

e Attention: An attention-getting opener hooks the receiver’s interest and

gets her to start to read.
e Need: The writer works to establish and develop the reader’s need for
his plan, idea, service, or product.
e Satisfaction: The writer demonstrates that his plan, idea, service, or
product will satisfy the receiver’s need.
e Visualization: the writer encourages the reader to visualize herself
having solved the problem, enjoying the product, or putting the service
to use.
e Action: The writer moves the reader to whatever action he has in
mind— authorizing an action, for example, or placing an order.
Exhibit 11—5, a memo that offers a staffing suggestion, uses the motivated
sequence. Examine the other persuasive elements in this memo too.
Checklist 11—1 for persuasive messages is found on page 372.

The AIDA pattern (attention, interest, desire, action) resembles the motivated The AIDA Sequence
sequence in several ways. AIDA underlies the sales letters you will look at next.

Working for or perhaps owning a small business, you may need to write spe- Specialized Persuasive
cialized persuasive letters promoting direct-mail sales. Mail-order firms’ sales Writing: Selling by Mail
are in the billions annually. Effective letters drive many of these sales.

You have probably given your name, address, and other useful information to Specialized Prospect Lists
many potential sellers without knowing it. Whenever you send in a refund
coupon, order from a catalog, sign up for a drawing, drop your business card
list with
in a jar for a premium, or even enroll in school, your name goes on a
others who have done the same thing. These lists are bought and sold.
Computer capabilities permit list brokers to perform specialized sorting and
income,
accurate updating. Lists can be sorted for almost any variable: age,
even religion, approxim ate net
address, educational level, and sometimes
’
worth, and other information about which people feel somewhat sensitive.
There-
Direct-mail selling costs per prospect contacted are relatively high.
to justify their expense. Sales
fore, sales letters must generate enough orders
“shotgun” approach ) will get Sales letters go to carefully
letters sent to an undifferentiated audience (the selected categories of recipients.
buy sorted lists from list
few sales. Thus, sellers of goods and services eagerly
of the business- to-busine ss
brokers, which they can find in the yellow pages
product or service (the
telephone book. With an accurate list tailored to their
orders. For most
“rifle” approach) sellers can harvest a profitable percentage of
is profitable .
products and services, an order rate of about 10 percent
discard sales messages
However, 10 percent is hard to get. Recipients often
mail. What a
unread. As recipients, we find ourselves resistant: “More junk

sorting, and exchange of such

1Some people believe computerized accumulation, storage,
They are also concerned about
data amounts to a systematic, nationwide invasion of privacy.
possible misuse of this informat ion.
Writing to Persuade 365
 QXHIBIT 11-5 Memo Using the Motivated Sequence

MEMORANDUM

To: Ms. Nancy Soames, Vice President, Branch Manager

From: Steven Sixtus, Customer Service Representative
Date: April 27, 19xx
Subject: Internal Hiring of Employees

One heart bypass case, one transferred spouse, and one retirement have left
our branch short three staff, with only the retirement vacancy foreseen.

I can see the added burden on you to find new employees quickly; you've had
to delegate and oversee the work formerly done by the new-accounts people
and the secretary. This extra work has added a lot of pressure to your job.

I noticed external ads for these positions in this morning's Courier. I'd
like to strongly suggest moving some already qualified and deserving
employees in our own branch into these positions, instead of hiring from
outside our branch or company.
Baklvedad wens

There are at least four employees in our branch who are already qualified
for these positions. All are bilingual, all can type at least 40 wpm, and
all are excellent salespeople. Some of them even have had previous new-
© Luown nesownes accounts and secretarial experience. They all work hard, are energetic,
at opposed to more exhibit skill with customers, and have been with our branch for more than
th b , two years. Their previous work reviews, which you have on file, would show
you good evidence of their strengths. Given the chance, they'd do well,
° opportunity because and it's a chance I know they'd appreciate.
of competitor's Layoffs
® saving recmitment Lower Cost to Find Tellers

Since we hired two new tellers; we wouldn't be understaffed if we filled

from the teller staff. Teller positions are also easier to staff than new
accounts and the secretarial position, so it wouldn't take long to find new
tellers. I know that a competitor, Merchants Bank, is currently trying to
eliminate full-time teller positions. Their cuts offer us the perfect
chance to move two full-time tellers to the open positions and hire part-
time staff in their place. This step would reduce benefit costs.

With the $um-$um-S$ummertime promotion coming, consider the relief you'd

feel at having this unplanned personnel shortage solved. Your time and
energy could be freed up for the manifold and demanding work of managing a
branch in this competitive industry.

We're having a hard time filling these open new-accounts and secretarial
positions. Good workers are hard to find. Why not fill these open jobs
with people you already know to be capable, hard workers?

366 Chapter Eleven

drag.” “Don’t waste my time.” “IfIwanted it, I'd go buy it.” “Now what are you
trying to get from me?” “What’s the catch?”
For this reason, every aspect of a sales letter, from the exterior of the
envelope all the way to the end of the letter and its enclosures, must be
tailored to the reader. To succeed, the persuasion must meet and fulfill the
receiver’s need.
As we discuss the persuasive sales letter medium, we will sometimes refer
to an effective sales letter package from Highlights for Children, shown in
Exhibits 11—6 and 11—7 (pages 369 and 371).

Once in a while, a seller writes a sales letter for one single reader with a lot of Analyzing the Intended
money to invest or spend. In most cases, though, the same sales letter is Reader
written to many people, all the people on one of the lists just discussed. Their
being on this list means that they are alike in one or more ways important to
the seller. The seller prepares a mailing tailored to people with the charac-
teristics that put them on that particular list.
For example, the sales staff of the educational periodical Highlights for
Children can easily locate and buy a list of moderate-to-high-income grand-
parents under 60. The sellers can assume that these people are fairly likely to
e Possess disposable income.
e Have one or more grandchildren of an age appropriate to the product.
e Want their grandchildren to “have advantages.”
e Be more interested in childhood learning than they had time to be
when their own children were small.
e Feel some guilt about not spending more time on their own children’s
childhood learning.
e Wish to seem thoughtful and deliberate about gift giving.
e Want their grandchildren to love them.

Besides these “grandparental” factors, people on this list share other charac-
teristics a persuader can appeal to. For instance, like most other consumers,
they probably respond to rational proofs as well as to emotional tugs, enjoy a
bargain, understand a problem-and-solution presentation, choose an easy over
a hard solution, feel indebtedness, and enjoy a colorful and attractive presen-
tation.

Sellers must know everything about what they sell. They cannot say everything Understanding the Produc t or

about it to any one audience, but they must be able to select material intelli- Service
gently for a given prospect. They must believe in their product or service and
consider it a good value to sell it convincingly. To sell its strengths, they must
know its strengths; to compensate for its weaknesses (nothing can be all things Readers of sales letters could
spend their money on
to all people), they must know how it stacks up against its competition. They thousands of other purchases.
must foresee and answer questions and objections. A successful sales letter makes
The seller of Highlights can offer many attractive reasons why grandparents readers want this product or
service more—and order it.
should subscribe for their grandkids. We will give examples in the section “An
Effective Sales Letter Package” on pages 369-371.

Other possible purchases compete for a prospect’s attention and money. Differentiating the Product or
Clearly sellers cannot compare and contrast their wares with all those possi- Service
bilities. Buyers’ attention, always short, will evaporate if a sales letter grows
overlong without motivating them to continue.
Writing to Persuade 367 ©
 In the time they have, sellers must show their product to be the most
desirable of its kind for these readers. Usually they choose and fully develop a
central selling point—a single main differentiating advantage— and summa-
rize other advantages.

Organizing the Letter On page 365, we mentioned the AIDA pattern. Attention, interest, desire, and
action are the four main parts of a sales letter. The attention step must “hook”
the readers’ attention; the rest of the letter must maintain it. Attention must
proceed to interest and then to a desire to buy. The seller attempts to be
simultaneously brief and thorough as he or she builds readers’ conviction that
they want the benefits offered. The action step occurs at or near the ending.
Here the seller invites the readers to order the product or service. The action
should be easy—as nearly effortless as possible.
Readers have to part with some money, and most will not be eager to do so.
In mentioning price, sellers emphasize the benefits and deemphasize the cost,
often using one or more of these means:
e Put the price in an enclosure rather than in the letter itself.
e If you put the price in the letter, “bury” it in a relatively long
paragraph about 80 percent of the way through the letter.
e Give the price only in small weekly or monthly units, not as a lump
sum.
e Show the price to be less than the price of something else the prospect
would buy without thinking much about it.
If the price is the main selling point, of course, the seller features it promi-
nently.
At the action step, sometimes sellers offer an extra benefit for ordering
immediately or by a certain date. After the signature block, a “P.S.” can contain
still another inducement to purchase. In fact, although a P.S. is supposedly an
afterthought, its final position emphasizes its content.

Choosing Language Sellers can use all their creativity in choosing language. Although sales letters
should sound businesslike, their language can also be personal, sensory, vivid,
imaginative, clever, memorable, and witty, in any combination.
Are you selling an additive that helps clean an automobile engine? Learning
all about your product will let you talk about whatever benefits your data will
support: smooth operation, perhaps, or clean combustion, freedom from wear,
pollution abatement, engine efficiency, and faster pickup.
Are you selling soft-soled knit slippers to wear around the house? Create
warm and cold word pictures: nippy mornings, hot coffee, the newspaper, and
To sell a product or service, an the warm slippers. Use language to sell comfort. Getting readers to imagine
effective sales letter sells
benefits and feelings of themselves already enjoying the product can be very effective. It feels good,
satisfaction. and people like to buy a good feeling.
Be careful not to overstate. Do not try to move readers farther than they are
willing to go. Describe the product or service in terms readers will respond to.
Don’t be afraid to key into positive emotions. Similarly, do not overlook
negative emotions such as anxiety, worry, or guilt. The Highlights letter uses
these negative emotions subtly and effectively. All these emotions are natural,
and people buy many things to meet emotional needs. As you address emo-
tions, bear your ethical responsibility in mind: Do no harm, and offer value for
value.

368 Chapter Eleven

Q@xuir 11-6 An Attractive Sales Letter Mailing

Trifold
Promotion
Piece

One
Last
"Sell"

here's your chance to give

Letter exciting variety of reading and fun
them Highlights

Envelope

Ordering must seem virtually effortless. The less action the writer must obtain, Kase of Ordering
the better. A simple, friendly-looking order card is easy to mark. Multiple
options for payment (check, credit card number, bill later) allow buyers to put
off thinking about payment. A postpaid return envelope saves them the time If ordering takes much effort,
readers won't do it. Make
and expense of finding an envelope and sticking on first-class postage. Often ordering easy.
sellers restate the main benefits again as they are moving the buyers to action.

Highlights for Children has been published for decades. Part of its success is AN EFFECTIVE SALES
due to product quality. Another part is due to effective sales messages. Exhibit LETTER PACKAGE
11-6 gives the complete Highlights sales package.

Writing to Persuade 369

 The mailing was sent in early fall for holiday season sales. On the reverse
side of the envelope is a sleigh in green and red against a deep blue sky. In the
sleigh is a large, transparent, gift box shape through which you can see attrac-
tive pictures. An instruction says, “Pull open here,” and the top of the envelope
zips off cleanly. Inside the envelope are

e The promised 40 stickers (basic cute stuff—hippo, teddy bear, ball,

birthday cake). Of course, you want to give them to a child—what a
shame to waste them! This “freebie” makes you feel just slightly
indebted.
e A color trifold showing typical art from the magazine and some lengthy
promotional copy.
e An order blank with a sticker that you have to move from one place to
another (it makes you want to play with it).
e A postpaid return envelope.
e A very effective sales letter.
e A small additional letter folded shut and saying on the outside, “Not
sure? Read this.”

The letter is shown in Exhibit 11—7. The opener says to give the free stickers
to a child, then moves immediately to another present readers might want to
give that child—AHighlights.
The letter develops numerous benefits: learning advantages, good reading
habits, and 11 issues for 11 separate fun occasions so that the child will be
reminded of the giver 11 times a year. The central selling point, however,
offers the magazine as a means of encouraging curiosity and creative learning.
You want to be the enabler for this child. You don’t want to be the one who
has stifled a child’s curiosity, as words like these remind you:

All of a sudden, children are grown. And then what? Where have they gone, what's
happened to the lost opportunities to help make minds more attuned to intellectual
achievement and awareness of lasting values? The direction children take is
determined very early in life—and you have the privilege of helping to forge mature,
responsible citizens.

Emotional appeal does not edge out rational appeal. Five national civic orga-
nizations have endorsed the magazine. Three million parents and teachers have
subscribed. And the “Not sure? Read this” enclosure contains more rational
content.
Price is given not in the letter but in an enclosure. Also, the total subscrip-
tion price is not given; rather, the enclosure gives the price per issue, which
is just under $2. Finally, the P.S. says to remember those nice stickers—no
obligation, of course (but you do have them, and you have not paid any-
thing. . .).
The letter’s length, at four pages, is not rare for sales messages, which are
longer, on the average, than other kinds of business letters. If those gtandpar-
ents on the prospect list are also subscribers to one or more magazines—
which is something the sellers can specify when they order their names list—
they are presumably willing to read a long letter if its content interests them.
The Highlights letter was written by highly skilled sales writers, but every-
thing in it reflects the same principles covered in this chapter. It persuades

370 Chapter Eleven

 XHIBIT 11—7 An Effective Sales Letter

everything they do not know or understand. Even babies want

to learn by touching everything. And you must say "NO!" to a
hot stove, of course. With the pressures of today’s fast-paced
world, even some well-meaning adults say "NOI" to a child’s
curfosity.
. F "Why?" children ask. Perhaps over and over again.
ue . :
Deso SEZ
35 ROL Bo: ' W _ But they really want to know,
a And Highlights*can help ...
soon eee
Help you provide your favorite youngsters with active,
constructive learning, prepared by deeply concerned and
experienced teachers and child psychologists ...
t of bright, colorful stickers is sure to
have an image or two that appeals to every child you know -- just Help you solve the annual holiday problem, in a day of
like Highlights for Childrer® Please share these stickers with transitory values, by giving the fun-filled gift that
the children you love, with our compliments. lasts all year long ...
And here’s your chance to give your favorite youngsters an Help you prove -- even to preschoolers -- that reading
exciting variety of reading and fun every month this year, Give is fun and worthwhile, too ...
them Highlights.
Help you teach the values you yourself hold dear:
Just send the sticker marked "Yes" to us. self-confidence, manners, thoughtfulness ,

Place {t on the enclosed special holiday gift form; All of iden, childre: grown,
£111 {n the names and addresses of your favorite
youngsters -- and you'll be giving them far more than And then what? Where have they gone, what's happened to
a charming, enduring, year-round present. the lost opportunities to help make minds more attuned to
intellectual achievement and awareness of lasting values? The
You'll be giving them a head start in life. direction children take is determined very early in life -- and
a you have the privilege of helping to forge mature, responsible
You'll help them develop reading habits and attitudes citizens,
toward learning that will benefit them as long as they live
- and aid their steps toward intellectual maturity while Perhaps it’s best said in the words of Highlights’ Chairman
providing fun along the way. (a former school principal, by the way):
A miracle? "Having done one thing well, children do all things better,”

No. HIGHLIGHTS FOR CHILDREN -- a concept, a plan, You know {t's true, because you've probably lived through
proven method that gives children Fun with a Purpose’, Please the experience yourself, The problem, often, is to get children
let me explain: to do a thing well, to eppreciate that they have, and then to
want to repeat the experience,
All children enjoy learning, until some adult stops the
fun. Children’s minds question, examine, become curious about

gift of Highlights takes care of a whole family of children.

A bargain by any standard.
As the enclosed brochure shows, fun-filled issues of Think about {¢ now, won't you? So many gifts are given
Highlights’can help -- regardless of « child’s age, from to children in haste or last-minute desperation. So few last
preschool to preteen. beyond the moment, much less the season.
* * * You have the chance to do better. Just think about your
favorite youngsters, then say YES to Highlights.
If you believe your favorite youngsters deserve Highlights’
helping hand, the enclosed shopping list provides the ansver. They ... and you ... will be glad you did.
Say "Yes" (by sticking the proper sticker into place) and
you'll be activating a series of happy surpris Sincerely yours,
1. A gift announcement that you can sign as you wish
will be provided with each subscription you order
-- if you order early. (We will send you an
acknowledgment/invoice confirming your order.) Elmer C. Meider, Jr.
If your order is not received early enough, we'll President
send an announcement to the children in your name.
rls
The first issue of HIGHLIGHTS FOR CHILDREN vill
follow shortly, jammed with fun and learning for 8. The charming collection of stickers represents the fun,
all children -- interesting, fun-to-know, useful variety, and value you'll find in every issue of
information, Highlights. There is, of course, no obligation on your
part. It's our gift to you, in hope that you'll decide
Then, throughout the whole year, your favorite to say YES and give Highlights to a young friend or two.
children will be reminded of you as a fresh, new
issue of Highlights arrives -- addr é e as
child, Sean i ae The ayeldic azost hence cinldrens mages
PATROTIS
* +
Some additional facts about the magazine may provide
reasonable reassurance, and they’re contained in the
accompanying brochure. You may wish to look it over now.
As far as I know, there‘s no better gift for the price.
Frankly, I don’t believe we could have achieved 3,000,000
enthusiastic parent and teacher subscribers if there vere.
You need not pay for your gift subscriptions until after
the holiday season, if you prefer. Remember, too, that one

ethically and effectively. It targets the right audience, shows full understanding
of the product’s merits, differentiates its product from competition for the
prospect’s gift-giving dollars, uses typical inductive structure, uses vivid, mo-
tivating, commonsense language, rationally demonstrates value, and makes the
action simple and fun to take.
A checklist for sales letters is found on page 372.

Writing to Persuade 371

REVIEW Persuasion is a conscious effort by one individual to modify or change the
opinions, attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors of another individual or group through
the transmission of a message. Although messages are mainly informative or
mainly persuasive, many messages contain some combination of these two
purposes. Psychological characteristics of both sender and receiver require
special consideration in persuasion. Emotion and reason must be carefully
balanced for receiver, sender, and situation.
Because persuasive messages are selective and (carefully)emotional, send-
ers must persuade ethically. Senders must also select intelligently from among
the many available persuasive techniques and strategies to create the desired
response in readers.

Chapter Eleven
 Because structure is indirect, all message elements must keep the reader
reading all the way to the move to action.
Sales messages, a subset of persuasive communication, move billions of
dollars’ worth of goods and services yearly. Most sales letters go to persons on
specialized lists that permit writers to tailor sales appeals closely to groups of
similar recipients. Most sales letters are structured using the AIDA formula
_ (attention, desire, interest, and action), with price generally deemphasized in
favor of reader benefits.

Writing to Persuade 373

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
1. Explain this statement: “Many business messages becoming number one. Remember, the dollar bills the
both inform and persuade.” Give and discuss an customers get from tellers in banks are the same. What will
example of a message that does both. differ are the tellers.
2: Define dissonance. Think of an example of a Marty, | look forward to serving you and our branch
message that created a state of dissonance in you. customers. | believe we have a very optimistic future.
3. Give a business example in which the appeal to . Comment on language and reader’s WIIFM in the
consistency would be persuasive. following message, written by a different teller to
4. Give business examples in which reinforcement is a different manager. How would you improve the
used to make persuasion more permanent. message? Are there more positive ways to make
3. What are your reference groups? What are those some of the same points?
of your parents? Of your supervisor at work? As you know, our bank is in trouble. As customer service
6. Think of a subject of continuing concern to you. manager, | know you will be concerned with the recent
(Examples might be grades, bills, your health or customer service surveys. Based on these surveys, | have
diet, the scarcity of discretionary money, taxes— found that our customer service rating has declined steadily
whatever you have to think about over the long since the removal of the tellers’ chairs. Because most of
our tellers work eight-hour shifts on their feet, they can
term.) Probably you do not always have the same
become grouchy toward the end of the day. Having the
frame of reference for this subject. What kinds of chance to rest their feet during the day, our tellers would
events or situations would change your frame of convey afriendlier attitude toward our customers. As a
reference? How could a persuader use or modify result, your branch goal of a higher customer service rating
that frame of reference to prepare you for a would be met and surpassed.
message about this subject? We both understand the original recommendation to
. Discuss, in terms of power and status levels of remove the chairs. The reason, of course, was to
sender and receiver, the following message (body discourage unproductive behavior on the part of the tellers.
only) written from a teller to a branch manager. Alternatively, happier tellers would boost their productivity
How would you improve it? level. So I’m sure you can see the benefit of a higher
productivity level; higher productivity means faster lines and
It is no secret that superior customer service is the satisfied customers.
backbone ofa financially secure and successfully operated
branch. My philosophy is that success is not built upon the Mr. DeVille, | know bringing back the chairs will have only
size of the account or the number of accounts, but on the positive results on our customer service performance
strength of the relationship. We can open a record number rating. After all, providing superior customer service is our
of accounts in one day, but the next day an equal number job. Please endorse this proposal.
may close their accounts. . What examples of unethical persuasion have you
We can capture an entire segment of market share if we observed? Be prepared to discuss these examples
just remember to keep the customers’ best interests in in class.
mind. If we, the staff members of Barker Hills Branch, 10. Refer to the section of the chapter on strategies
pursue and preserve the fundamental principle of offering and techniques beginning on page 355. Look at
courteous and respectable service to our customers, the sales messages and letters to the editor in your
rewards are limitless. What are we waiting for? Let's newspaper and see how many examples of these
implement a new customer service program for our staff
different techniques and strategies you can find.
members and let them understand the scope we stand to
achieve. Bring them to discuss in class.
11. Some editorial writers and political columnists in
| propose a sales generator table, with information on home
newspapers and news magazines may structure
equity loans, consumer investment opportunities, business
cards of all platform representatives, and suggestion box. their pieces as described on page 362. Try to find
We need posters in the break room to ensure that no one one that follows this structure reasonably closely
forgets our objectives in this campaign. An employee-of- (it won't be perfect). Clip or photocopy the
the-month program will provide incentive for modeling and piece, mark the various sections (strong “pro”
exemplifying superior customer service. arguments, refutation, and so on) and hand it in
to your instructor.
|assure you that by spearheading this program, our branch
will gain a higher volume of business. Good customer 12. If you or members of your family receive sales
service creates positive visibility before our customers, messages in the mail, consider where the sender
“survey” shoppers, and upper management. High ratings probably obtained your names and addresses.
from these people will translate into higher rankings in our What other lists are you or they on? Church
division. We have everything to gain and nothing to lose in membership? Business Week subscribers? For any
374 Chapter Eleven
 one such list, write out the characteristics a seller 14. Buyers of goods and services naturally respond to
could infer that people on that list probably share. rational appeals such as good value for price.
13. Brainstorm on paper all the vivid, sensory What other kinds of sales appeals have you seen
language that might help you sell (a) a vibrantly your friends or family respond to? Be as specific
colored, sueded (sometimes called “sand- as you can. Why do you think those particular
washed”) silk shirt; (b) a set of speakers that appeals work for these individuals?
would give maximum purity of sound for a CD 15. Read all the sales letter cases beginning on page
player; (c) a one-pound box of the finest-quality 376. For each letter, develop a strong attention-
chocolates. getting first sentence. Be creative.

CASES
Cases for Persuasive Writing Lambkin’s is laid out fairly spaciously and is all on
Integrate selected content from this chapter as you write one level; thus, modifications will cost Lambkin’s
persuasive messages in response to these cases. Different less than most of its competitors.
techniques will be appropriate for different cases. Carefully Do you think the mass media would consider
analyze the reader (his or her position, interests, status, and a feature on the first day-care center to adapt?
needs), the persuasive situation, and your own position, Think of other reasons that would help you
interests, status, and needs. sell this idea in a memo to your boss, David
Williford.
1. A Drive-up Window for Captain Kidder’s.
You are a shift manager for Captain Kidder’s, a 3. A Business Student Organization That Needs
fast-food restaurant specializing in fish and seafood a Break. You and three friends saved a virtually
sandwiches and dinners. You have strongly defunct student organization in your business
supported the efforts of Hank Kiddermeister, the major. You are president, and they are officers
owner-manager, to deliver first-rate food, service, too. All four of you have slaved to bring the club
and friendliness. You wish to sustain these back to life. Last May you obtained $250 in seed
features, but you believe market share won't - money from Student Governance (SG), an elected
increase any further until Kidder’s installs a drive- board responsible for allocating funds from
through lane and offers window service. You student fees. All but $50 is scheduled to be repaid
believe many customers pass you by because, in October, after fall membership dues come in.
Now, in October, you want to postpone repaying
unlike some of your competitors, you do not offer
it until you get your membership up to a point
this extra convenience.
Write a persuasive memo to Kiddermeister. where it supports the group’s activities. You
began with 4 members and now have 40; you
Build a case. In preparing, explore in your own
believe you will break 100 if you can keep the
mind what advantages a drive-in window offers
activities going and publicize them. To do this
besides convenience and fast service. What
you need to keep all your money until March.
disadvantages would a drive-up window avoid
~ Estimate your cost figures. Then build your
for both customers and your restaurant?
case in a persuasive message to Mary Clare
2. Lambkin’s: Day Care for Kids with Macias, President of SG. Develop SG’s and
Disabilities. You are a teacher-caregiver at Macias’s WIIFM. Consider the purposes of
Lambkin’s, one of several competing day-care student organizations.
centers in a fairly affluent suburb. You know of
several families with kids who have disabilities. 4. A Demo to Promote Service. You are an
These families can afford child care but cannot assistant manager at All-Terrain Sports, a sporting
find providers able to give access to their special- goods store preparing for ski season. You believe
needs children. The Americans with Disabilities setting up a demo of the expensive ski-tuning
Act will eventually require all day-care centers to machine your store bought during the summer
adapt their premises to offer access to those with will draw heavy service business and hasten
disabilities. Compliance will be slow for most payback on the cost of the machine. You will
centers, though, and enforcement will lag. You need to field objections. The demo area reduces
see an opportunity here. If Lambkin’s takes the sales floor space. New carpeting has just been
lead in adapting its premises and publicizes its purchased. The machine runs on 220 volts; you
readiness to serve families with special needs, it would have to extend 220 service from the floor
could gain some loyal long-term customers. above through the ceiling down to this area.

Writing to Persuade 375

 Will the demo increase sales as well as service 8. No Streaks, No Fooling. Sell a window-
revenue? How and why? Write a memo to cleaning service emphasizing quality. Competitors
persuade Helen Schussboom, the store owner. have undercut your price, but they have not
You will need facts, figures, appeals, and rational obtained the market share they hoped for because
arguments. of few repeat customers. Their mistake is an
. The First Message in a Multimessage Series. opportunity for you. Find out the price of such
Is there a cause in which you strongly believe? services in your area before you begin. When
Consider the people who dislike the cause. Write defining quality, consider neat employees, prompt
a message in which you ask them not to change service, reliability, special scheduling, and other
their minds but merely to understand why some expectations in addition to clean windows.
people do believe in the cause. Your message . A Foolproof Tire Gauge. Sell a tire gauge with
would be the first step in a series of possible a lighted, digital readout. The product might be
messages, the last of which might actually induce especially attractive to people who know car
them to change their minds. Think in terms of maintenance is essential but have little mechanical
that ultimate goal, but do not attempt to reach it ability or tolerance for grime. The price is $22.
in your message. Your job is to create dissonarice 10. Everything But the Food and the Ants. Sell a
and to generate some empathy. Be sure to move picnic basket and utensil set. You have bought
outside your own feelings in writing this message. plain wicker clasp baskets and sturdy, brightly
. Help Yourself! Develop your own problem colored plates and glasses at an import store.
for a persuasive message. Think of someone in Your employees have lined the baskets and
your business or professional life whose support hemmed matching fabric to make a picnic
would help you solve a particular business or tablecloth and napkins. Through your writing,
professional problem. Write a persuasive letter or help the prospects see how exciting and fun the
memo in which you work to get that person’s whole picnic layout looks. Do they have a choice
support. Analyze the person’s needs and attitudes of color or fabric pattern? At $29.95, the set is a
carefully. With tact and subtlety, structure the eat value. Sell the fun of a picnic.
message to make the person receptive to your 11. Expandable Tote Bag. Sell an expandable
request. Use (selectively) some of the persuasive tote bag for traveling, priced at $34.99. The
strategies discussed in this chapter. Do not be material is the supertough, woven, taffetalike vinyl
obvious about it, and be sure the strategies serve fabric that bookbags and knapsacks are made of.
your persuasive goal—you are not being asked to At its smallest, the bag is about 10 inches high, 16
use the strategies for their own sake. inches long, and 7 inches deep. Unzipping one
zipper adds 7 inches of height. Unzipping the
other zipper adds another 7 inches. Fully
Cases for Written Sales Messages expanded, the bag is 24 inches high. Design in
From your own or your instructor’s choice among the fol- : more features as desired: Type of closure?
lowing cases, create a hard-to-resist sales letter. Invent a Wheels? Handle? Detachable shoulder strap?
name for each product or service (the case title is not Describe all features. Decide on colors. If you
necessarily a suitable name). Decide on a target audience, emphasize convenience, explain exactly what that
unless one is specified. For products, think about how you means in terms of this product.
will treat and charge for shipping and handling. What ques-
12. Honey, I Blew Up the New VCR. You have
tions will you have to answer? What barriers must be over-
never met a videocassette recorder (VCR) you
come? What will gain attention, interest, desire, and action?
couldn't programi. Sell your services. Assume you
Sell benefits. Probe the audience’s WIIFM. Make action easy
have obtained a list of purchasers of top-of-the-
to take.
line VCRs—the ones with dozens of features, 35-
7. A Hands-Free Flashlight. Sell a flashlight with page owner’s manuals full of small print and
a magnetic, adjustable swivel holder. People using complex diagrams, and the capacity for reducing
flashlights usually need both hands for the task their new owners to gibbering idiots, especially if
but have to use one to hold the light. Think about the owners also have cable TV and three remote-
different tasks in which a nearby metal surface control handsets. Decide what you will charge,
would hold the light and for which the user and whether by the hour or by the job. Sell peace
would need both hands. Sell benefits, using, for of mind, troublefree use of the new gadget, and
instance, visualization and participation. You can enjoyment of all the TV programs the users want
retail the holder and a good-quality flashlight for to record. Don’t make users feel stupid. Consider
$15.99. Think about flashlight details: battery size, offering low-cost add-ons: (1) one free callback
dimensions, materials. visit to reset the device after a power outage

376 Chapter Eleven

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Sob Search
Selling yourself, your education, and your experience are valuable skills to
learn and practice while you are still in school. In this chapter, you will
learn how to apply the research, organizing, and persuading strategies
discussed so far to help you get a job based on your education and
experience. These strategies apply whether you are currently employed,
attending school full time, or in a two- or four-year school.
We will cover how to gather information on prospective employers and
on yourself, how to organize details on your background into an effective
resume, and how to create an accompanying cover letter or application
letter to sell your skills to an employer and land an interview. We will also
discuss how to keep a record of job contacts and results of interviews.
Because keeping records is easiest if started early, we will suggest some
organizing methods and forms for structuring and remembering the mass of
information you will collect.
 Your job search will be much more effective if you do it correctly from the
start. In this chapter and the next, you will learn how to have the best chance
of getting the job you want.

ORGANIZING YOUR To find a job that suits your qualifications, you'll first need to collect informa-
tion on yourself, on companies, and on jobs. As you begin to go to interviews,
JOB SEARCH you will need to keep records of whom you met, what you were asked, and
what action will come next. To help you, alk this information must be orga-
nized in a logical way.
As a Starting point in your job search, you need to decide whether to
assemble the information you will collect on your background, on industries
and companies, and on specific jobs in a looseleaf notebook with dividers, a set
of file folders, or on your computer. (At some point you will need to store
prospective employers’ names and addresses on your computer, but many
people begin with written notes to sort through the information first.)
One way to organize the information you collect is in a notebook with five
sections to cover your research from self-assessment through interviews. The
headings for the sections might be as follows: (1) Skills/Interests, (2) Working
Résumé, (3) Career Information, (4) Company Research, and (5) Interviews/

380 Chapter Twelve

 Job fairs are a good way to look over a number of companies quickly,
gather information on prospective employers, and get cards of people you
wish to contact later.

Company Visits.’ However you choose to organize your information, experts

from outplacement services (which help former employees find new jobs
when a company downsizes, among other services) agree that you need to
assemble information both on yourself and your qualifications and on pro-
spective employers. Once you have listed skills, accomplishments, goals, and
interests, you have the raw material with which to create an effective résumé
and prepare for a strong interview performance.

In your notebook section or computer file on skills and interests, make lists of DECIDING ON A
what you can do. Following are some category ideas to get you started, but you
CAREER:
will probably think of more. Think of what you have learned in school, in
volunteer work, in your jobs, and through personal interests. Then list your SELF-ANALYSIS
skills.

One way to list your skills is in terms of organizational functions, as in the

following:
e Technical skills (computer programming, engineering drafting,
communicating, financial analysis, writing, speaking): skills used alone
in which you have developed proficiency.
e Managerial skills (organizing a team project, planning a budget,
convincing others to take action, helping others learn how to work
together on a project): skills used to manage other people or projects.
e Marketing skills (advertising, promotional writing and speaking,
customer service, selling, market research, pricing): skills used to sell
products and services.

Daryl L. Kerr, “A Resource Tool for Improving the Effectiveness of the Job Search: The Job
Strategy Notebook,” The ABC Bulletin 54, no. 3 (September 1991), pp. 4-14.

Job Search 381

 e Information systems skills (telecommunication networks, office
automation, E-mail systems, information management): skills used to
organize and transmit information.
You can see how to make similar lists of your skills in accounting and finance,
human resources, and production and operations.

List 2: Abilities Different people use their skills in different ways. Think of five or ten adjectives
that describe you, then think of an example that shows the adjective is accu-
rate. These examples can show positive or negative traits. Following is a list to
get you started. List other adjectives that apply to you, and write examples that
show the adjectives describe you accurately.

Energetic I find time to finish my schoolwork, hold a

part-time job, and exercise every day.
Accurate
Good sense of humor
Good with figures
Good with my hands
Careful
Aggressive
Extroverted
Introverted
Responsible
Persevering
Prompt
Cooperative
Imaginative
Self-disciplined
Competitive

List 3: Accomplishments Now begin putting your skills and abilities together to make a list of accom-
plishments you can draw from when you create your résumé and prepare for
your interviews. Think of results, and use strong action verbs:
e Trained new staff.
e Increased sales by 8 percent.
e Planned computer changeover to local area network.
This exercise will help you write a strong résumé that emphasizes what you
can do for an employer.

List 4; Ideal Job Before you begin looking at prospective employers, consider your ideal job.
What characteristics would it have? Do you prefer outdoor or indoor work?
Would you be doing physical work, mental work, or both? Would you be
working alone or as part of a team? Would you rather work with people or with
ideas? Would you rather work independently or be supervised? What kind of
boss do you want? What size of town would you like to live in? Would you
rather have regular or flexible hours?
Although you may not land your dream job right away, you are ahead of the
game if you know what you want. Sarah Caldwell, one of the first renowned
female orchestra conductors, has said, “The best thing in life is to find a job you
382 Chapter Twelve
 “It’s the old story. I was in the middle of a successful acting career
when I was bitten by the accounting bug.”
Drawing by Leo Cullom; © 1992 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.

Most people don’t make as dramatic a switch in careers as this man.

love and get someone to pay you to do it.” You may change your mind over
your working lifetime, but both you and your employer will be happier if you
find work you enjoy doing.

Find out about prospective employers while you are still in school—don’t GATHERING
wait until the semester in which you actually start interviewing. As you decide
on your major and on the work you would like to do, think about what kind
INFORMATION ON
of company you want to work for and begin to learn about how companies in PROSPECTIVE
your chosen field differ. EMPLOYERS
John LaFevre, corporate recruiter and author of an excellent job search
guide, defines vocational maturity as “having clearly defined goals, realistic
expectations, and a specific idea of how you can contribute to a company’s
profitability.” To achieve vocational maturity, gather information on indus-
tries and specific companies’ needs as well as on your skills and preferences.
Then find out where these two sets of information overlap.

One of your first stops when gathering information about companies should be Your Campus
your on-campus placement office or career-planning center. This office can Career-Planning Office
provide information such as majors that the company hires, number of em-
ployees, work locations, products, and so on. The College Placement Annual,
published by the College Placement Council, organizes this information by
major or discipline and also by geographic region.
Many companies that are recruiting leave brochures and sometimes video-
tapes describing the company to supplement the published annual placement

2John LaFevre, How You Really Get Hired, 3rd ed. (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: ARCO/Prentice-
Hall, 1992), p. 61.

Job Search 383

 guides. For example, Andersen Consulting’s videotape, Transitions, shows a
number of recently hired employees discussing what working for a large con-
sulting firm is like: the challenge, variety, and travel; how training and evalu-
ation are done; the importance of teamwork; and how the firm fosters an
individual’s ability to succeed.
Usually placement offices also have a library of career--planning sources,
offer interest tests such as the Strong Interest Inventory and the Myers-Briggs
Type Indicator, and may have computerized career-choosing software to
match your interests to possible jobs, as well as résumé preparation. software.
Placement offices also can provide help through internships and cooperative
education programs. Become acquainted with this office early in your college
years so that you can take full advantage of its services.
As you get closer to graduation, the placement office will probably offer you
workshops in interviewing (some offer videotaping to help improve interview-
ing skills), help you prepare your résumé, and make your prepared file avail-
able to prospective employers in areas such as education. Also, this office
usually has lists of job openings in adjacent states as well as in the local area.
If you wish to move to another city, you can do some research on the area’s
employers at the placement office. Most placement offices provide a file service
(for a fee) to send your résumé and letters of reference to requesting firms.
Of course, you can find most of the information available from the place-
ment office from other sources—but remember that the services of your
school’s placement office are included in your student fees. We discuss career
planning and placement office services in more detail in Chapter Thirteen.

Library Sources Just as you can find library information on companies for school reports, you
can do library research on companies as prospective employers and on cities
where you might like to work. Your college library will have company listings,
annual reports, and analyses in publications such as Standard and Poor’s Reg-
ister of Corporations, Directors, and Executives; Corporate Technology Di-
rectory; Dun and Bradstreet Reference Book of Corporate Managements;
Moody’s Industry Review; and yellow pages for other cities. You can also find
current information in the business press, including Business Week, Forbes,
Fortune, Barron’s, and The Wall Street Journal. These sources are a good
beginning for your industry and company profile research. For an industry, find
out the following:
e Is the industry growing or maturing? |
e Are sales increasing or decreasing?
e Who are the major competitors?
e Where are the main firms within the industry located?
e Are the companies generally expanding or downsizing?
e What is the future of this industry?
For a company you might like to work for, research the following:
e Company address and phone number.
e Who is in charge of the company?
e Who heads the functional area where you would work?
e What does the company produce, and what is its share of the industry’s
market?
e Who are the company’s customers?
384 Chapter Twelve
 e In what cities is the company located?
e Who are the company’s competitors?
e What were last year’s sales?
e What is the trend of the last five years’ sales?
e What is the trend of the last five years’ profits?
e What is the return on investment (ROI) for the past five years?
e How many employees does the company have?
Do more thorough research on companies you would really like to work for,
because knowing about the firm’s past and future will help you develop an
effective résumé, letter, and interview plan for that company.
Spend some time looking at the classified ads in a big-city Sunday newspa-
per. Don’t limit yourself to the ones you are qualified for; also look for jobs that
sound interesting to you. Keep afile of these companies for a while and see if
some common themes emerge. You will at least become more familiar with
kinds of jobs available, what they are called, and what education and experi-
ence they require. As interview time gets closer, scan at least two daily or
weekly business sources for up-to-the-minute information about the compa-
nies with which you will interview.

Career fairs offer opportunities to talk informally with college recruiters, Information from Recruiters
schedule interviews, and get names of people to contact about jobs later. Even
if you are not yet ready to interview, stop by and talk to recruiters about what
their companies are seeking. You may find out about summer work opportu-
nities or other ways to get your foot in the door at a company that interests
you.
Many large companies offer summer internships to give students hands-on
experience in their technical fields. These internships are usually advertised
through the placement office and department chairs, among other places.
Summer work such as this gives a student a chance to try out a work environ-
ment and gives a company an opportunity to look over the student as a
prospective employee.

Learn about the student organizations in your field, especially those that have Professional Associations
a parent chapter of working professionals with whom you can meet for dinner
sometime during the term. Professional organizations such as the American
Marketing Association, the Data Processing Management Association, and oth-
ers (there is one for nearly every major) will help you learn about the field and
the people in it. They are also a good source of job leads.
Some professional associations also have career nights for students, practice
interview sessions, and résumé workshops. Take advantage of this assistance,
because it will make you a better job prospect. The practicing professionals
you will meet in these organizations are one source of networking contacts
who can help you with career information.

According to author Geraldine Henze, networking means “letting everyone Networking

you can think of know that you are looking for a job.”* Henze suggests listing
all contacts you can think of and then systematically contacting them. List
fellow students; faculty; friends, relatives, and neighbors; business associates;

p. 99.
3Geraldine Henze, Winning Career Moves, (Homewood, Ill: Business One Irwin),
Job Search 385
 and professionals such as lawyers, doctors, and accountants. As you talk to your
contacts, you can find out whether they know of jobs that match your quali-
fications, as well as other jobs that might interest you.

Information Interviews Information interviews are one way to use networking contacts. When you
establish contact with someone, make it clear whether you are seeking infor-
mation or a job interview. As a student, the purpose of much of your network-
ing will be to gather information about companies, employment trends, and
what people do at their jobs. Don’t presume that a conversation will lead to a
job; your contact is doing you a favor just by spending time with you. Find out
the following:
e What training is necessary for the job?
e What are the job responsibilities?
e What career advancement opportunities are available?
e What is the salary range?
e If the person had to do it over, what would he or she do the same?
Differently?
e Whom else do you suggest I talk to about this kind of job?
Write a thank-you note to the person you interviewed for information just as
you will to persons who grant you job interviews.

The Hidden Job Market Networking is an important means of finding out about job availability because
many jobs exist in. the hidden job market, which consists of unadvertised
and as yet unannounced jobs. Drake Beam Morin, one of the largest outplace-
ment firms, tracks jobs found by its clients: 50 to 80 percent of jobs are found
by targeting appropriate firms through research or by networking. Simply
mailing standard letters to a list of firms nets 5 to 20 percent of jobs, whereas
answering ads nets only 5 to 10 percent. In other words, the hidden job market
is much larger than the advertised job market.
In your business reading or while watching business news on television, be
alert for promotions (can you replace this person? be on the promoted per-
son’s new staff?), business openings or expansions, new products that might
need support staff, new buildings, and increased advertising. These business
change indicators may provide an employment idea on which you can fol-
low up.

ASSEMBLING Nearly every time you meet someone who could offer you a job or knows of
a job available at his or her firm or elsewhere, one of the first things you will
INFORMATION ON be asked for is your résumé. A good résumé— one that reflects your strengths
YOURSELF and minimizes your potential weaknesses—will help you get the interview
and thus improve your chances of getting the job. Because a résumé is a
screening device, develop one that screens you in, not out.
Deciding what to put in your résumé and how to lay it out will be easier if
you havealifetime record already prepared—and keep it updated. This data-
base will also come in handy when you fill out applications for jobs, graduate
school, awards, and so on. Collect the information in a way that is easy to
update, beginning a new page for each new category.

Maintaining Your Database No matter what information you need about yourself for a résumé or job
application, you will be able to assemble it, given enough time. If you keep
386 Chapter Twelve
track of names, places, dates, courses, and so on now, you will be able to
assemble it more quickly. Then you can spend the extra time preparing for the
interview, writing the admissions office essay about why you should get into a
particular graduate school, or writing to obtain official transcripts.
Always have one copy of your official transcript on hand to verify details of
your education. Because having a transcript sent takes time, especially around
graduation (many students need one then, and the admissions and records
office may become overloaded), having one copy of your own allows you to
make copies to give to prospective employers if they need a temporary copy
right away.
Different kinds of jobs will require different personal information. Some
government jobs, for example, use a 171, a form that asks you to list all
employers and instructors and then asks for references “who do not appear
elsewhere on this form”— people who do not know you on a professional or
school basis. Think about people you could use for such a reference.
If you go to law school or try to get a security clearance, you may be asked
to list “all addresses at which you have ever received mail.” If you are a typical
student, who changes dorms and apartments at least once a year, this can
present a problem. If your family has moved often because of military or other
job requirements, you will have quite a list of addresses. So start now if you
haven’t done so already, and keep track of your addresses and other details in
case you need them later.
One way to collect this personal information is in a looseleaf notebook. You
can have a section for personal data such as addresses and other sections for
job experience, education, activities, honors, and references. If you start a new
page for each category, you can keep updating the information as you add to
your life experiences. In a file or envelope at the back of your notebook (or
separately, if you keep most of the records in a computer file), keep copies of
academic transcripts, awards, letters of recommendation, old résumés, and
copies of applications.
You can also store all your information in your computer, but be sure to
keep backup copies in case you lose the data somehow. A number of software
programs can help you collect the information you need. Some of these pro- ed
grams can also help you prepare your résumé. We discuss these programs
more fully in Chapter Thirteen.

Of course, you will want to keep a complete record of your job experiences. Experience and Past
Write down (or enter into your computer file) the title of the job, company’s Successes
name, address, and phone number, name of your supervisor, job duties you
performed, salary at the beginning and the end of the job, why you changed
jobs, and anything else you need to remember. Jobs
Only some of this information will appear on your résumé, but a job appli-
cation may ask for additional information. The most important reason to write
everything down, however, is that no matter what you think now, you won't
remember all these details later. Any time you have to spend looking for this
information later is time you could spend preparing for your interview.
Keep track annually of the percentage of college expenses that you earned.
Employers often assume that a working student understands the value of ed-
ucation better than a student whose parents paid all college expenses. To earn
this respect, keep track of earnings, scholarships won, and loans or grants
obtained to finance your education. List volunteer work and internships in this
Job Search 387
 section if you learned business skills such as organizing projects, giving and
receiving instructions, meeting deadlines, and fund-raising.

Past Successes In a separate section, keep track of your work successes. Why did you like a
particular job? Did you win any awards? Were you left in charge when the
supervisor was absent? Did you train other employees? Were you promoted?
As you add material here, you may begin to see a pattern among these job
attributes. You will also feel more positive about your experience. Even a
low-level job teaches you responsibility, and you can see from your experience
what you have learned along the way. Collecting such information will remind
you of past successes and help you focus on your strong points— and you can
take this renewed self-esteem with you to your interviews.
Richard Nelson Bolles’ What Color Is Your Parachute? has useful exercises
to help you pinpoint the kinds of things you like to do.* If you make lists of
positive projects in which you have been involved, a pattern may emerge that
will help you choose a job that matches your skills and life values. Your
self-assessment lists of skills, attributes, and accomplishments can help you find
successful projects to add to this section of your file.
Your career-planning office may have some exercises to help you identify
your life values and match them to jobs that would interest you. Skill Sorts and
Value Sorts (Career Research and Testing, 2005 Hamilton Avenue, Suite 250,
San Jose, CA 95125, 408-559-4945) and Deal Me In (Career Systems, Inc.,
1000 Vermont Avenue NW, Suite 1000, P.O. Box 34744, Washington, DC
20043, 1-800-283-8839) give you a chance to find out what you /ike to do
(over what you can do) and what industries will best allow you to apply this
knowledge.”

Educational Highlights Your basic education section should list the schools you have attended (in-
cluding grade school, if possible; you might need this information for a detailed
application later). Give the name, address, and phone number of each school
and dates attended.
Schools and Courses In this section, list courses you took at each school attended, beginning with
high school if you wish. At least list the unusual courses you took in high
school (the courses other than those everyone getting a diploma had to take)
and any courses that apply to your career plans (Math? Communication?
Graphic design?). Be sure to list course number, title, and instructor as well as
units of credit and grade, because you may need this level of detail when filling
out an application later. Don’t use just course numbers to identify courses, as
you'll need a course title for the numbers to make sense if you need to use
them on an application or in your cover letter. You can insert a copy of your
transcript here if it contains complete information. Also list short courses,
certificates received for training completed, and other education and training.
Keep this section up to date, since later on it may be hard to remember when
you took a course or what your score or rating was.

‘Richard N. Bolles, What Color Is Your Parachute? (Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1991).

°For more information on these board games, see Maureen McNulty, “Getting to Know You,”
Business Edge, October 1992, p. 12, or the Stanford Business School Magazine, 1991.

388 Chapter Twelve

Next, in a new section, list your favorite courses (and why they were favorites, Favorite Subjects, Best
as though an interviewer were asking you), the titles of your best papers (with Papers, and Awards
dates), and any academic awards you received (with dates). Again you may
begin to see a pattern that pinpoints your strengths.

In this section of the database, keep track of activities in which you have Activities and Honors
engaged in school, in church or temple, or in civic organizations. List dates,
offices held, projects supervised, and awards won. Not all this information will
necessarily appear in your résumé, but it will give you thorough personal
information to choose from when preparing your résumé and may help you
see patterns among your strengths.

Keep an ongoing list of references to choose from when constructing your References
résumé and preparing for interviews. Write down the name, title, address
(including ZIP code), and phone number of each reference. Try to accumulate
several job references, some professors (at least one in.your major field), and
a personal friend or a friend’s parent who can give you a businesslike reference.
Choose references who
e Have high personal credibility.
e Know you and your abilities well.
e Are willing to write a letter on your behalf or to refer you through a
phone call.
If former employers or other persons or organizations give you letters of
reference, keep them in the file. Most employment experts recommend invit-
ing employers to contact references, rather than taking your letters to an
interview or mailing them with your résumé.
Since job applicants have a legal right to inspect any records gathered and
kept about them, few letters of reference say anything negative. Therefore,
employers do not expect to find out a candidate’s weaknesses through letters.
Although employers place less importance on letters of reference than they
used to, references are still a useful category of information to collect in your
—
job portfolio or notebook. When asked for references, having the information
already collected will give you time to concentra te on research about the job
in question.

You will be able to prepare an effective résumé if you think of it as a sales PREPARING A
brochure on yourself rather than a list of dates and jobs. A résumé needs to be RESUME TO SELL
truthful (both for ethical reasons and because many companies check up on
information), but it is usually not a complete record of everything you have
YOURSELF
ever done. Save the complete lists for your applications.
dates,
One form of résumé is called a data sheet; it includes only lists of
ons. Since this is not
names of schools, jobs, and employers, with no descripti
a selling document, use it only if a prospective employer limits you to lists.
you
This type of document might be helpful when filling out applications. If
mail it to someone, add details about your qualifica tions and other strong
points in your application letter.
Once you have collected all the information about yourself to date (and
minute
resolved to keep it up to date so you won't have to scramble at the last
ready to begin
to collect information when an ideal job comes up), you are

Job Search 389

 sorting out the information you want to use in your résumé. Remember: This
is your sales brochure on yourself, so you can choose what appears on it.
Emphasize your strengths and downplay your weaker areas. Résumés are
screened to sort out the best candidates (and remove as many less qualified
ones as possible), so you want yours to stand out. But do it truthfully.

Résumé Ethics When the economy is poor, some people inflate accomplishments on a résumé
in the hope of gaining an interview. As a result, more companies are checking

ea up on information such as degrees and companies worked for. People have

been caught putting down Harvard Business School with no dates, hoping the
recruiter will assume a Harvard degree, when in fact the person merely at-
tended an executive education seminar for a few weeks.
Companies that might accept your being a few credits short of a degree
even if college graduates are preferred will refuse to hire you if you lie on your
application. Most applications contain a statement you must sign that swears
the information on the application is correct. If an employer finds out later that
certain information is not true, even if the information itself is not damaging,
you can be fired. In 1992, the superintendent of the San Jose Unified School
District was forced to resign because he had claimed a fake Ph.D. from Stanford
years before.
Be aware that interviewers often ask detailed questions to verify statements
on résumés about projects worked on and other claims. Certainly your résumé
is a picture of your accomplishments rather than your weaknesses, but make
it a picture you can support easily if questioned.

Résumé Emphasis Using the principles of emphasis you learned in earlier chapters, highlight key
points on your résumé so that the interviewer will easily see your strongest
qualifications for the job available. Plan your résumé information as you sort it
out so that you don’t include inconsistencies that you will have to explain in
the interview. And remember to present all of your positive points truthfully.
Word processing programs allow you to create different versions of your
résumé for different jobs. For example, you may want to emphasize your
background in finance in one résumé and your publishing experience in an-
other. Try out different layouts of your material, evaluating which version best
uses the available space. Exhibits 12-1, 12—2, and 12-3 present different
versions of the same résumé. As you study them, note how emphasis on
information varies according to how the material is laid out:

e Headings placed at the left give emphasis.

e Centered headings may take up more space.
e Dates placed at the left are emphasized.
e Dates placed at the end of a line are subordinated.
e Bold print emphasizes, as do capital letters.
e Bullets emphasize accomplishments.
e White space is important for reading ease.
The first version (Exhibit 12-1) puts headings at the left and does not
emphasize with bold type. The second version (Exhibit 12-2) centers head-
ings and the name and address block, giving greater visual emphasis and more
internal white space (because of the narrower left margin on lines). The third
version (Exhibit 12—3) shows varied type sizes and a “typeset” as opposed to
390 Chapter Twelve
|QMXHIBIT 12-1 Résumé with Headings at Left |

J. J. ELMORE
650 East Denny Way
Seattle, Washington 98122
(206) 555-7734
OBJECTIVE To work as a broker, leading to a management
position.

EDUCATION
9/88-present University of Washington
B. S. in Business Finance, August, 1993
Minor in English composition
Significant course work in banking, securities,
and corporate finance

WORK EXPERIENCE
4/90-present Analyst, Academic Resources, University of ©
Washington
e Enter faculty budget information via computer
terminal
Generate budget and accounting reports
Research, organize, and create statistical reports
Prepare and review special projects for the
Associate Vice President

8/89-4/90 Student Analyst, Academic Resources, University of

Washington
e Enter faculty budget information via computer
terminal
e Review and complete budget and personnel forms

ADDITIONAL SKILLS
e Experienced user of on-line database systems and
personal computers, including Macintosh, DOS, and
Windows environments.
Expert user of spreadsheet software, including
Excel, 1-2-3, and Quattro Pro. Have developed
models for statistical analysis, present value
forecasting, and securities pricing.

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES
Fall 92 Secretary, Finance & Investment Society (F & I).
Managed monthly luncheons
Arranged guest speakers
Represented F & I at Financial Analyst luncheon

Fall 91 Social Director, F & I

Organized annual awards banquet
Supervised committee chairs for marketing,
reservations, and financing

Job Search 391

|Q@xuHBirT 12—2 Résumé with Headings Centered |

J. J. ELMORE
650 East Denny Way
Seattle, Washington 98122
(206) 555-7734

OBJECTIVE

To work as a broker, leading to a management position.

EDUCATION

9/88- University of Washington

Present B. S. in Business Finance, August, 1993
Minor in English composition
Significant course work in banking, securities, and
corporate finance

WORK EXPERIENCE

8/89- Academic Resources, University of Washington

Present ‘

4/90- Analyst
Present e Enter faculty budget information via computer terminal
e Generate budget and accounting reports
e Research, organize, and create statistical reports
e Prepare and review special projects for the Associate
Vice President

8/89-4/90 Student Analyst

e Enter faculty budget information via computer terminal
e Review and complete budget and personnel forms

ADDITIONAL SKILLS

Experienced user of on-line database systems and

personal computers, including Macintosh, DOS, and
Windows environments. ‘
Expert user of spreadsheet software, including Excel,
1-2-3, and Quattro Pro. Have developed models for
statistical analysis, present value forecasting, and
securities pricing.

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

Fall 92 Secretary, Finance & Investment Society (F & I)

Managed monthly luncheons .
Arranged guest speakers
Represented F & I at Financial Analyst luncheon

Fall 91 Social Director, F & I

Organized annual awards banquet
Supervised committee chairs for marketing, reservations,
and financing

392 Chapter Twelve

|Qxuir 12-3 Résumé with Typeset Appearance |

J. J. Elmore
650 East Denny Way
Seattle, Washington 98122
(206)555-7734

OBJECTIVE

To work as a broker, leading to a management position.

EDUCATION

9/88-present University of Washington

B. S. in Business Finance, August, 1993
Smaller type Minor in English composition
giveslayout Significant course work in banking, securities, and corporate finance

WORK EXPERIENCE

8/89-present Academic Resources, University of Washington

4/90-present
e Enter. faculty budget information via computer terminal
e Generate budget and accounting reports
e Research, organize, and create statistical reports
6 Prepare and review special projects for the Associate Vice President

8/89-4/90 Student Analyst

Enter faculty budget information via computer terminal
Review and complete budget and personnel forms

ADDITIONAL SKILLS

Experienced user of on-line database systems and personal computers, including

Macintosh, DOS, and Windows environments.
Expert user of spreadsheet software, including Excel, 1-2-3, and Quattro Pro. Have
developed models for statistical analysis, present value forecasting, and securities
pricing.

PROFESSIONAL ACTIVITIES

Secretary, Finance & Investment Society (F & I)

Managed monthly luncheons
Arranged guest speakers
Represented F & I at Financial Analyst luncheon

Social Director, F & !

Organized annual awards banquet
Supervised committee chairs for marketing, reservations, and financing

Job Search 393

 a typewritten layout for a very professional look. The ability to use smaller type
(available in computer software) gives you more white space and additional
layout flexibility.
All three versions of this résumé stress education and related work experi-
ence. The writer also gives helpful details about computer experience and
professional activities in a finance organization.

Conventional Information The usual categories found in résumés are (1) job objective, (2) education, (3)
experience, (4) activities, and (5) references. However, you need not present
Categories
these categories in the order given here. If your experience will sell your skills
to an employer better than your degree will, put experience before education
on your résumé.
If you have a great deal of experience to report, you may run out of room
on the page for references, omitting them altogether. Many interviewers will
ask for references, however, so take a page of references to the interview, on
the same letterhead used for your résumé. References are expected from a
recent graduate. Résumés of more experienced persons often omit references,
but an applicant provides them before a job offer is made.
Try for a full, well-laid-out, one-page résumé. If you have a great deal of
important information, use two full pages, perhaps printed back to back. If you
staple or clip two pages together, use a second page heading (shown below)
in case the pages are accidentally separated.
Gregory J. Iverson
Page 2
Plan a good sales brochure on yourself—emphasize positive points, make
layout effective, and proofread so it looks professional.
Present items using parallel construction. For example, use all noun phrases
or all verb phrases in a section; don’t use full sentences or periods at the ends
of lines. You may need periods in some sections to divide ideas, however, or
at the end of your objective.
You may prefer to get your résumé typeset rather than produce it yourself.
The most effective way to do this is to produce an original containing the
information, with some suggestions on layout; take it to a résumé service for
suggestions and typesetting; and then proofread the final version before mak-
ing copies. Be aware that some résumé services produce résumés that look
alike regardless of differences in experience and education; this cookie-cutter
look may not convey the impression you desire, of an employee who can do
original work.
A résumé service can charge you up to $300, which may include revisions
later as you add information. Richard K. Irish, author of Go Hire Yourself an
Employer, points out a potential drawback of this type of résumé: An employer
can tell when a résumé service has put your information into its mold. “A
résumé is a personal reflection, a self-portrait. Hiring a stranger to write up
your biography guarantees a loss of personality.”°
Some items traditionally included in résumés are now out of favor. Pictures
used to be included, sometimes even printed on the résumé. Today, due to
equal opportunity regulations, companies no longer include pictures even in
current employee files. Including a picture might get your résumé rejected on

©Robert McGarvey, “Search and Employ,” US Air, November 24, 1989, p. 28.

394 Chapter Twelve

that ground alone, since the employer is not supposed to choose candidates
based on race. Personal information such as height, weight, marital status, and
number of children is no longer included, because it is not relevant to the job.
Willingness to relocate might still be mentioned, although most firms assume
this.
A wealth of information on résumés exists. Read all you can, and then
produce the best résumé for you. We will give you some common alternatives
in our examples, but only you can choose thé best approach for your own life
material.
‘

Most experts on job search recommend that, after putting your name, ad- Job Objective
dress(es) and phone number(s) at the top of the page, with your name in all
caps or bolder print to stand out from everything else on the page, you begin
your résumé with a job objective. This brief statement—usually not a com-
plete sentence—emphasizes what you can do for the company. Instead of
giving an objective, you could title this section Qualifications and include a
two- or three-sentence summary of how you qualify for the position.
In writing your job objective, your goal is to narrow down what you want
to do (to help the recruiter) but keep enough options open to show what you
can do (to help yourself). Describe some combination of what you are looking
for and what the company needs. Here are a few examples:
From a person looking for a job several years after his first college job:
Purchasing or contract management position in a growing organization with
opportunity for advancement.
From a person looking for a job as soon as she receives her degree:
Staff accountant within a CPA firm that offers opportunity for continued career
growth, including qualification for CPA licensing.
From a person looking for a less specific job in his field:
The accounting profession, with an emphasis in tax or auditing.
From a person wishing to move up in her field once she gets her
degree:
Managing Court Reporter, in charge of administrative and personnel duties
related to court reporters.
| From a marketing major with lots of related experience:
Member of a growing sales force, leading to a management-trainee position.
From a finance major looking for a summer job in his field:
Intern/trainee for a marketable securities brokerage firm.
From an experienced manager who just received her MBA:
Communication and public relations program management offering consulting
projects for the Pacific Rim.
Finding the right balance between narrow but not too limited is the key to
writing an effective job objective. Remember that a résumé is a screening
device: Don’t write such a limited objective that it screens you out of other
jobs for which you are qualified. Write a narrow objective showing vocational
maturity (you know what you want to do) and knowledge of company needs.
Job Search 395
 Emphasize what you can do for the company. Avoid self-centered-sounding
clichés about “challenging and fulfilling” work that make the reader guess
which job you might be able to fill.
Here are some tips on writing your job objective:

e It should not be a complete sentence, but you can add summarizing

sentences about your background.
e It should include a key word about your area, such as marketing,
management, accounting, communication, etc.
e It should be short and somewhat specific. (You may need more than
one résumé to apply for different types of jobs, as we mentioned
earlier.)
e It should emphasize what you can do for the company.
As you look for more advanced jobs later, you may wish to include the objec-
tive in your cover letter and begin your résumé with a qualifications sum-
mary. This approach allows you to tailor the objective to the specific job
opening and use the résumé for factual support. A summary can be five or six
lines long and should briefly list specialty area(s), type of business, years of
experience, and relevant business characteristics. For example, suppose your
objective is
Purchasing or contract management position in a growing organization.
Then your summary can read as follows:
Hard-working, professional purchasing and contract manager, with particular skills in
construction, government, and retail purchasing. Creativity and ingenuity have won
local and national recognition for my organization.
Since this type of summary emphasizes experience, it may be less appropriate
for a recent graduate’s use than for later career job searches.

Education In the education section, put the name of your school, major, and graduation
date. You can also put in your minor, mention special courses you took (but
don’t list all the courses that everyone with that major takes), mention your
GPA if it is 3.0 or higher (discussed shortly), and list your community college
or other schools attended.
Choose your material wisely here; you may need the extra space for your
experience section. Remember to include material that will “sell” you, such as
a degree in an appropriate field, academic awards that show your promise, or
work with notable professors in your field. For example, if you want to go into
circuit design, you won’t mention your standard electrical engineering
courses. But you will cite your VLSI and circuit logic courses, which apply
more closely to the job you seek. Similarly, ifyou are a finance major, mention
specialized courses such as financial institution management, investments, and
portfolio management rather than basic finance courses. Show how you are
especially qualified and thus stand out from the other finance majors in your
graduating class.
As mentioned earlier, list your GPA if it is 3.0 or higher, but omit it if lower.
If your field requires a listed GPA (as accounting does), list the best one of your
overall, upper division, or major GPAs and label the GPA if it is not your overall
GPA. If your school does not use a 4.0 scale, explain the GPA system it uses.

396 Chapter Twelve

 If you will receive a four-year degree, you might list your associate of arts
(AA) degree to show the area you have studied if you plan to apply for jobs in
that field. If you went to a renowned high school or prep school, you might
mention that fact, again to show prior ties to the area in which you wish to
work. Awards listed should show academic or leadership skills and should be
as current as possible. For example, being a senior academic star is more
important than having been homecoming princess your freshman year.
In addition to your degree(s), you can mention additional training that
makes you an attractive job candidate, such as a real estate license, computer
training, or language fluency and training. For jobs in conservative fields, you
might not want to mention your private pilot’s license or scuba-diving certif-
icates. Save such details for more relevant jobs, or put them in the Activities
section if you are sure that these somewhat risky activities won’t screen you
out of an interview invitation.
Decide whether you want to emphasize dates (you have no significant gaps
in your educational history) or subordinate dates (the degree is more impor-
tant than when you received it). Placing dates (month and year) in the left
margin emphasizes them; placing dates at the end of a line subordinates them.
Here is one way to present educational information (emphasizing dates):
EDUCATION
May 1993 Bachelor of Arts
Recreational Therapy
University of North Carolina—Chapel Hill
May 1991 Associate Degree
Liberal Arts
St. Mary's Junior College, Raleigh, NC

Here is another way that takes up three fewer lines and subordinates the dates:

EDUCATION B.A. in Recreational Therapy, May 1993

University of North Carolina—Chapel Hill
A.A. in Liberal Arts, May 1991
St. Mary’s Junior College, Raleigh, NC

If you need to show extra training in this section, here is one approach (make
sure the course titles are self-explanatory):

EDUCATION
B.S.B.A., National College, Rapid City, SD, 1983
Management of Defense Acquisition Contracts, 1987
In the top 5 in a class of 40
Quantitative Techniques of Cost and
Price Analysis, 1990

Here is another:

Leith’s School of Food and Wine, London, England

Graduate of Introductory Course, 1992
e
Alternatively, you can put dates in the margin to emphasize them (inclusiv
s, but they do take up
dates are more specific and preferred by many recruiter
more space). Emphasize that you have received a degree in four or five years.
fact.
If you have had gaps in your education or experience, subordinate that

Job Search 397

 1/82-6/84 Latin American Institute, New York City
Bilingual Secretarial Program
in Spanish and English
If you list your GPA, remember to mention which system your school uses if
not a 4.0 system. Also mention which courses the GPA is for, if not a// your
courses. Do not be too narrow here, though “GPA in Upper Division Account-
ing Courses” may imply that you had to search for good grades to mention.
Here is one way to list a GPA:
Accounting and Business GPA 3.7

Experience For a traditional résumé, your experience section will list your work expert-
ence in reverse chronological order (most recent first). Once again, you may
put dates in the margin area or with the job description. You will need to make
a design-related decision about whether to emphasize the job titles or the
companies you worked for and list them accordingly. In describing your job
duties, think in terms of doing. Usé strong action verbs such as designed,
developed, oversaw, operated, or supplied rather than worked as or respon-
sible for.
Here is a partial list of action words:

administered developed introduced ran

advanced directed invented recruited
analyzed discovered judged regulated
applied employed launched reshaped
approved enlarged led resolved
arranged established managed restored
assigned evaluated negotiated revised
awarded executed opened scheduled
began expanded operated served
commanded extended ordered settled
conceived governed organized shaped
conducted guided originated solved
controlled handled oversaw stabilized
coordinated headed planned started
corrected implemented prepared steered
created improved presented straightened (out)
decided inaugurated produced superintended
delegated increased progressed supervised
designed initiated published systematized
determined installed raised trained

Following are some examples of Experience sections that worked for their
candidates. The first is for a sales position:
FOOD SERVER, Fish Merchant, Edmond, Washington 8-90/6-93
Promoted food and wine specialties in a top-rated, high-volume seafood restaurant
that emphasizes customer service and employee teamwork. Oriented and trained new
employees.
The people skills learned in restaurant and bar work are useful ones to mention
for many jobs, whether or not in sales, as nearly all jobs involve getting along
with a variety of people.
The next example is for a brokerage job:
398 Chapter Twelve
 LOGISTICS/ Managed logistics and materiel functions for work center of large
MATERIEL responsibility under extremely stressful situations. Coordinated
MANAGEMENT logistics requirements with high-level personnel from other
facilities. Controlled calibration requirements for life support
systems equipment and maintained quality assurance control.
U. S. Navy 1986-93
Here is an example for a marketing job: _
July 1991/June 1993 GTE EDUCATION SERVICES, INC. Irving, TX
Marketing Manager
Marketed online information services in consumer education. Coordinated and
implemented advertising, public relations, direct marketing, telemarketing and
trade show functions for start-up company. Supervised two employees.
Reported to general manager.
e Developed national print campaign that generated over 1,000 qualified leads
over three months.
e Assisted director of marketing in developing and implementing cross-product
marketing plans.
e Supervised the development of all sales collateral.
e Developed free online database that increased network use by 6% over five
months.
e Created new identity for existing trade show booth and collateral materials
that established a stronger ‘“call-to-action.”
Notice how this example very specifically measures and quantifies the appli-
cant’s performance. This is a technique to consider to emphasize those jobs in
which you had greatest responsibility.
Here is a description of an early job with fewer responsibilities (or one less
relevant to the job being applied for):
9-87/9-90 Optometric Assistant
North Raleigh Eye Care Associates
Raleigh, NC
Reception, sales, eyeglasses fitting, patient testing for glaucoma, blood
pressure.
The following example describes someone who owned his own business:
EXPERIENCE Owner/Operator, Sign Masters, Milwaukee, WI
Sold after three years
e Established successful small business still in operation
e Devised and maintained accounting system
e Negotiated contracts with commercial and governmental entities
e Prepared plans/drawings and obtained permits from City
Planning Commission
e Generated sales
e Hired and supervised personnel
Here are two examples of volunteer experience showing responsibility:
1989 Food Bank of Northwest North Carolina
Junior League of Winston-Salem
Monitored agencies handling and distributing excess commodities to
impoverished.
Job Search 399
 1992-93 ADMINISTRATIVE ASSISTANT FOR COMMUNICATION
-Associated Students/UCLA
Developed, coordinated, and implemented banquets, reunions, political
forums, committees for a $5 million student corporation.
Now let’s look at a couple of less effective experience sections. In the first
example, the person has had experience but doesn’t give enough details to
allow the employer to evaluate the jobs:
Work Experience:
Bad example—no details. 1990 to present __ staff accountant, American First Bank
1989-90 teller, Home Savings and Loan
1988-89 waiter, Bahia Hotel
In the next example, the applicant tells too much—by including current
salary—to be able to negotiate later:
Professional Asset Securities, Inc.
Operations/Money Desk: 1-87 to 5-91
Maintaining business relations with financial institutions issuing CD rates
through our firm. Quoting rate surveys and summing up current market trends.
Bad example— mentions salary. Transacting daily brokering operations. Maintaining account histories. Matching
needs of clients and institutions. Reviving business with institutions that have
been inactive. Ending pay: $2,500/month.
Don’t include salary in a résumé! Save that kind of negotiating information for
the interview.

Activities and Honors You may fill the remainder of your résumé page (or second page, if you have
a long work history) with an account of your activities and club work. Some-
times activities are a deciding factor in a hiring decision.
When evaluating the summary of activities you compiled earlier, look par-
ticularly for times when you held office, organized projects, or otherwise
learned how to manage people. Some interviewers look for a history of lead-
ership skills or for experience working in teams. You could mention group
class projects in your education section if you don’t have enough team expe-
riences to warrant listing them in a separate activities section.
The amount of space to use here depends on how important the activity was
and on how much space you have available. Add action verbs, and explain
projects completed and offices held. Make whatever activities you use carry
significant impact, but don’t overstate your case.

FRANK & ERNEST® by Bob Thaves

I HARDLY THINK THAT “MAKING

PERSonwEL Ey COFFEE AND DOUGHNUTS
z~os COME OUT EVEN ON
BREAKS" AND “ORGANIZING
a anne THE BASEBALL
POOL” QUALIFIES
AS “ORGANIZATION
AND LEADERSHIP
ABILITY.”
°* © 1992 by NEA. Inc.Te\AVES 9-2

FRANK & ERNEST reprinted by permission of NEA, Inc.

Do be positive, but don’t exaggerate on your résumé.

400 Chapter Twelve
 Here is an activity section for an active person who had little space left on
the résumé:
ACTIVITIES AND President, University Honors Program, 1990
ORGANIZATIONS _ Vice President, Business Student Council, 1991
Member, Finance and Investment Society 1988-92
Board Member, Finance Board, Associated Students
Student Representative, Parents’ Advisory Board
The following applicant had fewer activities but more space to fill:
ACTIVITIES AND Beta Alpha Psi, Active member, 1993
ORGANIZATIONS Nominated Director of Special Events, 1993
National Association of Accountants
Active member, 1993
Toastmasters, Active member, 1993
Tutor, Introductory and intermediate accounting, 1992-1993
Here is someone who had only limited space left but used it well:
AFFILIATIONS AND ACTIVITIES
Member: American Marketing Association, Computer Graphics User Group, Corpus
Christi Toastmasters
Working knowledge of Lotus 1-2-3, WordPerfect, and Harvard Graphics
Avoid mentioning activities not relevant to your job objective. Mentioning
religious or social organizations is risky. Although you can give information
about ethnicity or religion that interviewers are not allowed to ask, you may
inadvertently give a reason for screening you out of an interview. Instead,
emphasize what you can do for the company through what you have learned
from your activities, such as public speaking and group leadership.

If you have room, add references at the end of your résumé, at least when References
applying for your first job. However, experts advise omitting references alto-
gether if you are applying for a job while still employed. In this case, of course,
the reason for omitting references is to prevent the possibility that your cur-
rent employer will be notified that you are looking for a job before you want
him or her to be notified.
If you have enough space, you can put two references at the bottom of the
page in mailing address form:
REFERENCES
Ms. Connie Rogers, Vice President Mr. Bill Goldsmith,
University Savings Association President
1160 Dairy Ashford Horizon Financial
Houston, TX 77079 4928 Rancho Grande
(713) 596-4911 Olney, TX 76374
(817) 564-5033
You should also prepare a separate reference page to take to interviews. A full
page will give you room for both work and school references in case the
interviewer asks for them. Include work and school references rather than
personal references, since the employers who contact them will usually do so
to verify your work experience or classroom preparation for the job you seek.
Job Search 401
 If you have to choose between including references, which are a neutral
form of job information, and stretching your activities to fill space, use the
references. No one ever looked at a résumé and said, “How unusual, there are
references here.” Fill a few inches with references rather than listing activities
and personal data unrelated to your job objective.
Because you will naturally choose references who will speak well of you,
the prospective employer may not contact them because he or she expects a
positive report. However, if any question about your qualifications arises, a
reference may be able to clear it up easily. Federal government recruiters may
be most likely to check references; they often use a mailed form to do so.
However, always give a phone number for a reference if you can, since many
prospective employers who use the references will call rather than write.
In selecting your references, choose people who know your qualifications
well, ask permission to use their names, and send each person a copy of your
résumé, preferably with a cover letter outlining the types of jobs you are
applying for and the skills you have to offer companies. Rather than choosing
a well-known professor who taught you in a large-section class, choose a
professor who can comment specifically on your work.
As mentioned earlier, when you apply for jobs after your first job out of
college, you will often choose not to use references. First, you don’t want your
current employer contacted until you are sure you have a better offer. Second,
by then you will have more interesting and relevant material to fill the page on
your résumé without including references.

Importance of Layout and More than any other piece of business correspondence, a résumé needs to
Appearance look good. This is your sales brochure on yourself, and you want those pro-
spective employers to buy your skills. Try different layouts to make your
information fit the available space attractively. Emphasize your strong points
through appropriate headings, itemizing, and use of bold and capital letters.
Finally, proofread for a perfect final copy.
You can center your headings on the page or put them at the left margin.
Centered headings may take upalittle more space, so that’s a good choice if
you think you may not have enough to fill the page. Headings at the left margin
may leave you more room for job details, but you will need to consider where
to put dates of past activities.
To save space, use phrases rather than whole sentences. Avoid periods at
the ends of lines if the information makes sense without them. An obvious
exception would be lists of work accomplishments for which you are not using
bullets and separate lines to set off each listed item. In this situation, use
periods to separate the items.
Look again at the earlier examples for a variety of layouts and ways to use
emphasis.

Sample Formats The résumé in Exhibit 12—4 stresses the writer’s education and honors over
her work experience, but it details with bullets the aspects of her experience
most clearly related to her job objective in accounting. Her experience in
supervision, inventory, and communication will be useful in her chosen field.
The two-page résumé in Exhibit 12—5 emphasizes excellent related job
experience (note how the writer details changing responsibilities over five
years with one company) and downplays the fact that the applicant changed
colleges and has some gaps in his work/school history. Here is someone who
took awhile to find himself but knows how to present his current strengths
402 Chapter Twelve
|@xmerr 12-4 Résumé Emphasizing Education |

KAREN LOHMILLER
7200 Saranac Court
Columbus, Ohio 43217
(614)555-9117

OBJECTIVE Position in a public accounting firm involving auditing and tax work, with
potential for advancement into management position.

EDUCATION Qhio State University, Columbus, Ohio

Three semesters with major in accounting; graduation in December 1994;
current GPA of 3.61.

Lake County College, Mundelein, Illinois

Two years of general education courses with emphasis in mathematics.

Ohio State University Dean’s List, College of Business (Spring ’93, Fall
93)

BankOhio Award in Mathematics

Life Member, Ohio Scholarship Federation

OUTSIDE ACTIVITIES Member, National Association of Accountants, Ohio State

University Chapter

WORK EXPERIENCE
7/82-1/83 Lazarus Department Store, Columbus, Ohio
Assistant Manager, China and, subsequently, Fashion Accessories
Supervise sales staff of up to 17 persons
Communicate with buyers
Resolve customer service issues
Manage inventory controls

3/89-5/92 Marshall Field, Lake Forest, Illinois

Promoted from part-time sales to full-time assistant Department Manager,
Housewares
Supervise and schedule sales staff of 12 persons
Conduct departmental physical inventory
Implement price revisions

9/88-5/82 Network Planning, North Chicago, Illinois

Part-time office manager
Manage accounts receivable and payable

Job Search 403

|@xurr 12-5 Two-Page Résumé |

GREGORY J. IVERSON
6675 Norman Boulevard
Park Ridge, Illinois 60068
(708) 555-6382

OBJECTIVE Management position in operations, inventory control, or

data processing.

Emphasizes
work EXPERIENCE
1988-1993 MARSHALL FIELD & COMPANY
Woodfield Store, Schaumburg, Illinois

1992-93 Merchandise Handling Manager

Supervised loading dock and six customer

service/gift wrap stations
Scheduled 40 employees
Managed all shipping and receiving, return to vendor
claims, special event setups, department floor
moves, and home deliveries

Inventory Control Auditor

Originated position of branch inventory control

auditor for entire chain
Reviewed all paperwork for incoming or outgoing
merchandise
Conducted monthly inventories in high shortage
departments
Audited transaction documents, filing systems, POS
till audits, and inventory taking procedures
Taught journal procedures to Assistant Department
Managers and new Area Managers
Developed practice sample set of transaction
documents for training classes
Chaired Inventory Shortage Control and Safety
committees
Served on corporate Shortage Steering Committee

Sales Associate

Sold men’s wear and fine jewelry

404. Chapter Twelve

|Q@xuir 12-5 continued |

Gregory J. Iver son

1988 THOMAS TEMPORARIES

Chicago, Illinois

Inspected and packaged on assembly lines for Baxter

Travenol and Xerox
Prepared inventory reports for a retail candy
warehouse and a large women’s apparel store
Set up merchandise for sales and displays and
organized the stockroom merchandise in women’s shoes
for Carson’s :

ADAMS OFFICE SUPPLY, INC.

Elk Grove Village, Illinois

Prepared merchandise for shipping

Supervised use and refueling of forklifts

1985-1987 JOSE KELLY’S IRISH MEXICAN RESTAURANT

Schaumburg, Illinois

As senior busboy, simplified the busing system,

reducing the number of busboys required on a shift

EDUCATION

1993 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY

Evanston, Illinois

COBOL programming course

1986-1988 UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, CHICAGO

B.S.B.A., major in accounting

1983-1985 NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY

Evanston, Illinois

95 quarter credits completed in mathematics,

chemistry, psychology, economics and general
education requirements

REFERENCES

James P. Finch Ellen Carmichael

President Associate Professor
Thomas Temporaries Northwestern University
442 West Adams Avenue 2000 Sherman Street
Chicago, IL 60645 Evanston, IL 60202
(312) 555- 7834 (708) 555-4000

Job Search 405

 well. The description of the busboy job shows excellent organizing ability. Not
all of your previous jobs will lend themselves to this kind of positive detail, but
include it if you can.

Chronological versus For many years, résumés followed the reverse chronological format outlined
so far in this chapter. An alternative format, devised in the 1970s, is one to
Functional Approach
consider if your experience and education do not fit the “usual” 22-year-old
graduate model. This functional résumé enables you to highlight your skills
rather than where and when you acquired them.
An advantage of the functional résumé is that time is downplayed. This is
useful if you are older or are returning to the job market after some time off
for raising a family or running your own business. Also, a functional resume
subordinates gaps in education or employment to the emphasized information
on skills learned and projects completed.
A disadvantage of the functional résumé for fields in which age can be a
problem, such as accounting, is that merely by using this type of resumé, you
appear to be announcing “I’m older than your average student.” If age is not a
decision factor in your field, a functional résumé may present your qualifica-
tions very strongly.
As you progress in your field, you may find that a functional resumé shows
your strengths more effectively than a chronological résumé would. Here again
you want to gather all possible résumé information and then use it to present
your qualifications in the strongest way you can. If you choose a functional
résumé, do so because it presents your unusual background and qualifications
more strongly than a more traditional résumé would.
The résumé in Exhibit 12—6, from an experienced employee receiving her
MBA, highlights skills over dates. For example, only years appear, not months.
Because she is moving from language training to business management, she
needed to emphasize what she had learned over the years in jobs and at school
rather than past job titles and dates of employment.
The résumé in Exhibit 12—7 uses a functional arrangement to highlight the
skills learned in three years of restaurant work. The writer is able to emphasize
her international and language experience, include some references, and men-
tion her athletic experience (which shows teamwork) and college earnings—
all one concise, well-planned page.

Stationery Choices Whether you get your résumé copied or laid out and printed, the facility will
offer you some paper choices. Unless you are in a creative field, choose a
businesslike paper: color—white, cream, or grey; weight— at least 20-pound
bond; size—8¥2" < 11”. Buy extra paper to use for your application letters,
and buy matching envelopes. If you prepare your own letterhead and envelope
address copy on a laser printer, you can even have stationery and envelopes
printed fairly inexpensively.
Remember paper personality: You want your job search package to look
good and create a favorable first impression of your qualifications for the job.
Some job seekers send their résumé and cover letter in a large envelope with
interesting commemorative stamps; the advantage is that the résumé is un-
folded and thus may stand out in a pile of résumés. Bear in mind, however, that
much business mail is opened by someone other than the decision maker who
reads it, so an attention-getting envelope may not achieve your desired effect.
Checklist 12—1 sums up items to remember when preparing your résumé.
406 Chapter Twelve
|QXHIBIT 12-6 Functional Résumé from an Older Student |

Anna Stepanovitch
4473 West Adams Avenue
San Diego, CA 92116
(619) 555-0691

Communications and public relations program management offering

OBJECTIVE
consulting projects for Pacific Rim

DEGREES San Diego State University Foreign Languages

1990 MBA International Business Japanese
1983 MA Linguistics Russian
1974 BA Russian (Phi Beta Kappa) Ukrainian

PROFESSIONAL SKILLS
Cross-Cultural Assessed management training and staff needs
Persuaded management to systematize placement
Communication
Educated management on business practices
Negotiated contract work for Tokyo office
Implemented language training programs
Translated academic and industrial literature

Assessed skills for promotion and placement

HR Development
Counseled clients on search strategies and training needs
Developed placement evaluation materials

Management & Supervised completion of 36 apartment units

Planning Negotiated purchase and financing of office interior
Set up accounting, banking, and insurance services
Advertised and sold educational programs

Market Research Researched and analyzed hiring needs for office personnel
& Product Systematized skills and requirements database
Wrote, translated and published program descriptions,
Development promotional materials, and training manuals

WORK EXPERIENCE

1985-1989 The WINS Consulting Group, Inc. San Francisco

District Manager-Operations Tokyo
Communications Consultant

1984-1985 Mobil Oil Tokyo

Skills and Communication Consultant Hiroshima

1977-1982 Hiroshima University Hiroshima

Communications Lecturer and Consultant

1973-1977 San Diego State University San Diego

Instructor of Testing, Russian, and English

LATSEC, Inc. La Jolla

1973-1977

Job Search 407

|Q@xuir 12-7 Functional Résumé Emphasizing Skills More than Jobs |

GERALDINE SCOTT
7546 Parkway Drive, Apartment 1C
Saint Louis, MO 63131
(314) 555-5432
CAREER GOAL

A challenging position as a management trainee leading toward

marketing management in a multinational firm.

EDUCATION

Dec. 1993 Washington University, St. Louis

B. S., Business Administration
Concentration in international management and French

RELATED SKILLS

Training Currently train all new hostesses at Waldo’s

restaurant in Frontenac. Created a hostess guide
and test which is used widely throughout the
company.

Managing Now supervise, schedule, and evaluate the progress

of ten hostesses. Interview prospective hostesses.

Accounting Audit waiters, cocktail waitresses, and bartenders.

EMPLOYMENT
Waldo’s, Frontenac, MO August 1990-present
Waldo’s, Belleville, IL March 1990-August 1990

ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Speak, read, and write French fluently

Familiar with Japanese
Active member of AIESEC (International Association of Students
in Economics and Business Management)
Successfully competed in swimming and track
Earned 90% of college expenses

REFERENCES

Mr. Albert Sailer Ms. Susan Armstrong

Instructor at Washington U. General Manager
Marketing Consultant Waldo’s
11885 Olive Street 5024 Baltimore Drive
Creve Coeur, MO 63145 Frontenac, MO 63119
(314) 555-6634 (314) 555-8211

408 Chapter Twelve

 CREATING A COVER
The purpose of the cover letter sent with a résumé is to gain an interview. This
two-part package is a sales presentation on your qualifications for the job.
LETTER THAT SELLS
Think of the cover letter as an application letter rather than merely a trans-
mittal for the résumé. It should add information on where you learned of the
job opening, expand on your qualifications, and ask for an interview.
Suppose you attend a meeting of the parent chapter of your major club, like
or
the American Marketing Association, the Finance and Investment Society,
Job Search
 the Data Processing Management Association. There you meet someone who
says, “You sound like someone we might be able to hire; please send me one
of your résumés.” Do you put one of your résumés in an envelope, address it
to the name on the person’s card, and send it off? No. First, write a short cover
letter, such as the one shown in Exhibit 12—8, in which you mention meeting
the person, remind him or her of your qualifications, and refer to your en-
closed résumé. Then mention that you look forward to your next contact
(possibly an interview). Your goal is to sound enthusiastic and professional.
Then mail the letter and résumé right away. You will effectively have used your
opportunity to sell yourself. That is how you will get a job: by selling your
attributes to a person who needs someone like you.
You can use the same persuasive approach to convince an employer to
create an opening for you. Look at the two very specific cover letters in
Exhibits 12—9 and 12—10 and see how they incorporate the features dis-
cussed in the following sections. Because canned letters won’t create interest
among professional human resources people, we will give fewer examples of
complete letters than we did of résumés. Think hard about how your qualifi-
cations meet an employer’s needs. Then adapt these suggestions and examples
to fit your material.

Get Attention Right Away As in any persuasive message, you need to start with something that will gain
favorable attention. Rather than ask for an application or say you are looking
for a job, talk about the work the firm needs done and why you are the person
to do it.

Mention Contact, IfAny If you have heard about a job opening from a professor, career counselor, or
personal contact, you might mention this person in your opening paragraph,
especially if he or she is well known to your prospective employer. Indicating
an association with the company (referral by an employee or an executive, a
shareholder, or a local community leader) will help gain your letter a more
thoughtful reading by a prospective employer.’

Mention the Job You Can Do The most important thing to do in your first paragraph is to talk about work.
You can get attention by mentioning strong qualifications, such as work ex-
perience, or talking about the job for which you are applying. Be sure to make
it clear that you are applying for a job, but do it in a way that will gain you
favorable attention.

Stress the Employer’s Needs, Especially if the job for which you are applying seems like your dream job, be
Not Yours careful to emphasize how well you can meet the employer’s needs rather than
how well the job suits your needs. The tone you want to achieve is “Here is
what I can do for you” rather than “This is a perfect job for me.”
Here are two openings that have worked for our students:
Because of my college education in finance and my work experience as an electrical
engineer, | could do an outstanding job for Air Products and Chemicals, Inc., in the
Corporate Treasury Department.
As a college graduate with the background you are seeking, | believe | am a strong
candidate for the available financial analyst position. The combination of a challenging
undergraduate program at State University and work experience will enable me to
work effectively and be productive immediately.

Richard H. Beatty, The Perfect Cover Letter (New York: Wiley, 1989), Chapter 3.

410 Chapter Twelve

|@xusrr 12-8 Brief Cover Letter |

7546 Parkway Drive, Apartment 1C

St. Louis, MO 63131
(314) 555-5432
March 17, 1994

Mr. Daniel Hebert

International Sales Manager
Ralston Purina, Inc.
1 Checkerboard Square
St. Louis, MO 63111

Dear Mr. Hebert:

Here is the resume you asked for at last night’s

AMA banquet. As we discussed, I speak French fluently
and am interested in working for an international
company such as Ralston Purina.
As you can see from the enclosed resume, Waldo’s
has entrusted me with helping to hire and train new
hostesses. The interpersonal skills this has taught me
will serve me well in my career.
I look forward to talking to you soon about the
Enthusiastic
international marketing opportunities at Ralston
Purina.

Sincerely,

Gp
olbnadet—
Geraldine Scott

Job Search 411

|Qxuit 12-9 Good Cover Letter |

Diane Alvarez
5335 Ridge Road
Albuquerque, NM

April 2, 1995
Mr. William Washington
Marketing Manager
Southwestern Medical Corporation
2333 Lomas Street
Albuquerque, NM 88501

Dear Mr. Washington:

As a marketer of medical services, could Southwestern

Medical use a person with a marketing degree and five
years of experience selling to adult consumers?

My market research courses, especially, have provided

me with skills that can help you learn more about your
customers. These skills are combined with experience
as an assistant manager of a clothing store, selling
primarily to persons over 30, persons who are major
users of health care.

Please call me to arrange a convenient time for us to

discuss my qualifications for work as a market
researcher for you.

Sincerely,

Lsbidenay
Diane Alvarez

412 Chapter Twelve

|QXHIBIT 12-10 Letter Responding to an Ad |

Charles L. Mackey
4518 Maxwell Street
Chicago, IL 60644
(312) 555-6024

June 15, 1994

Ms. Beryl F. Newman

Executive Vice President
Ward & Bonner Property Management Co.
115 South LaSalle Street
Chicago, IL 60601

Dear Ms. Newman:

With a B. B. A. in real estate and practical experience in

property management, I can help you and your clients as an entry
level property manager, in the position you advertised in the April
issue of The Journal of Property Management.

As you can see from the enclosed resume, my practical

experience as a management intern has allowed me to assume the
responsibility for client affairs. The work demanded an attention
to detail and an ability to work directly with people. I am able
to adapt quickly due to my years of detail-oriented work in the
clerical field. I have practical experience with several word-
processing programs and software such as "Property Management
Plus."

Through a course in real estate investment analysis, I was

able to learn the various aspects from the investor’s perspective.
I discovered the ease with which investment analysis and value
determination techniques can be simulated on computer. I should be
able to learn your treatment of these problems quickly.

The skills I have gained on the job and in the classroom could
be applied, under your guidance, to your clients. Ata time
convenient to you, I would be happy to meet you to discuss the ways
in which I could best serve Ward & Bonner and its clients.

Sincerely,

Chas Weby
Charles L. Mackey

Job Search 413

Convince with Details After an initial paragraph that gets the reader’s attention and interest, use a
paragraph or two to highlight your strong points for this job, using material
from your enclosed résumé. Again, stress what specific skills you can offer the
employer.

Expand on and Highlight the Because one résumé can serve you in applying for a number of jobs, your cover
letter is the differentiating factor. In your letter, you can add information about
Résumé
a previous job that fits well with the job you seek. Or you can point out the
qualifications that make you particularly suited to this job.

Apply Information Rather Since your résumé already lists details, expand on this information in your
than Listing It letter. Show that you can do the job; don’t just fe// Instead of saying, “I
received my degree from. . . ,” tell what you learned in getting that degree:
My marketing courses taught me how to. . .

Tailor Letter to Job If the job applied for is from an ad or you are lucky enough to have a more
Description Where Possible complete job description, make sure your letter ties your qualifications to this
specific job as much as you can. Analyze the advertisement for requirements,
and match your qualifications to those requirements. Then write a letter that
emphasizes how you are qualified to do the job specified.
Listing your qualifications in the same order mentioned in the ad is more
effective than repeating the requirement and then stating that you meet it. In
other words, you might list your qualifications as follows:
Could your organization use a financial executive who
e Grew up in the publishing industry,
e Installed a computerized budgeting system for a publisher,
e Supervised an accounting staff of 35, and
e Cut operating backlogs and potential write-offs?
Since this advertisement was for a magazine publisher that needed a financial
officer knowledgeable about publishing and experienced in financial matters,
this list was an effective opening for a reply. If you must echo the wording of
the advertisement in your letter, do so in a way that makes you sound knowl-
edgeable about the job and its requirements rather than merely copying the ad.
Notice how the writer in Exhibit 12-9 (page 412) compares her retail
experience in dealing with older customers to selling medical services to
similar clients of Southwestern Medical Corporation.

Deal Positively with Negative If you lack some qualification noted in the ad or your experience is in a
Information different area, address the situation positively. Note how the writer in Exhibit
12—10 does this:
| am able to adapt quickly due to my years of detail-oriented work in the clerical field.
One student who returned to graduate school after being laid off from two
consecutive jobs during the 1992 recession put it this way:
Because of the sluggish economy in San Diego, | was able to go back to school last
year.

Mention Résumé Near the Mention your résumé near the end of your letter so that the reader will not put
End the letter down too soon. Point out some qualification as you refer to the
résumé, as the writer in Exhibit 12—10 does:

414 Chapter Twelve

 As you can see from the enclosed résumé, mypractical. experience as a management
intern has allowed me to assume the responsibility for client affairs.
Note also how the use of enclosed as an adjective forces him to describe the
enclosure rather than just mention the fact that it is there.

Since your purpose in writing the cover letter is to be granted an interview, be Ask for an Interview and
sure to ask for an interview at the end of the letter. Mention some qualifica- Remind Reader about Your
tions to remind the reader about the skills you have to offer the company. Be Qualifications
positive but not pushy. Note that recruiters are divided as to whether you
should say that you will call at a certain time to set up the interview. The
negative side: It sounds as though the interviewer has no choice. The positive
side: It gives you some control over the process, especially if you are hard to
reach by phone.
According to a poll in Working Woman,® writing “I will telephone your
office to arrange an appointment” is considered by human resources profes-
sionals as too aggressive. A less pushy approach is: “I will telephone your
secretary next week regarding your availability.” Another writer-oriented way
to mention calling is: “I will call you next week to ensure that you have
received my résumé and perhaps to discuss briefly how my background can
contribute to. . . ”; then mention a positive point about the firm that your
research has uncovered.

Of course, your letter and résumé will have your current address and phone Make Sure the Reader Knows
number. Let the reader know if you will be available in his or her city at some Where to Reach You
future time, as this information might help you get an interview.
If you have an answering machine, make sure the message you leave is
businesslike and that your roommates know how to take messages profession-
ally. You can use a standard message like this:
You have reached 555-1234. Please leave your name and phone number, and Nancy
or Rachel will call you back as soon as possible.
If you live in a setting where many people share one phone (like a dormitory),
try to organize your group so that members take messages for one another in
a way that sounds businesslike —and make sure the phone has a pen and pad
will
of paper close by at all times. Your well-planned résumé and cover letters
interview s.
begin to produce action, so be prepared to receive messages about

Keep track of where you send and to whom you give your résumé.
You might KEEP RECORDS OF
compute r, or a form like JOB CONTACTS
use company note cards, a separate section of your
the following:
RESUME DISTRIBUTION RECORD
Sent to Date Sent Follow-Up Results Further Action
Company Name
the company
In the follow-up column, note calls or further letters to remind
on the compan y, details
of your interest. Also note here, or in another record
who referre d you to
such as the secretary’s name and the name of the person
your intervi ews.
the company. Later you will keep similar records of

81 etters Column,” Working Woman, August 1989, p. 4.

Job Search 415

REVIEW A job search is real work in itself if you include all the steps in the process:
Organize your information-collecting efforts into a notebook, a set of
files, or a computer.
Analyze yourself, your skills, abilities, and accomplishments, and your
ideal job.
Gather information on prospective employers.
Investigate services your placement office provides.
Check library sources, bookstores, and newspapers.
Get information from recruiters.
Network through professional and personal contacts.
Set up some information interviews.
Explore the hidden job market.
e Assemble a database on your addresses, education, job successes,
activities, and references.
Prepare a résumé to sell your skills.
Write a variety of cover letters to package your résumé for different
employers.
Keep records of your job contacts so that you can follow up later.
416 Chapter Twelve
 Collect as much information as you can on yourself and on résumé layout.
Then construct your résumé so that it presents a positive picture of you and
your background. You may want to write different résumés for different jobs.
Write a specific cover letter for each job, tailoring your information to the
job description as much as you can. Even if you have only one résumé, at least
some parts of your letter should vary from company to company.
Armed with your effective résumé and letter, you will be invited to inter-
views, which we discuss in the next chapter.

Job Search 417

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
1. Write out a skills list like the one on pages 381— chose those companies. If some information is
382. Try to come up with at least 20 skills in five missing, how could you find it?
or more different areas from your education, 7 Begin your networking list by listing family
volunteer work, jobs, and personal interests. friends, neighbors, social acquaintances, fellow
2. Write out an abilities list like the one on page workers, and club members who could tell you
382. List examples for at least 10 abilities (revise about their jobs, their companies, and potential
the sample list of abilities to fit your situation
). jobs for you. Try to include between 15 and 30
3. List five accomplishments (using a strong verb people as your core list.
plus results) that you might use in a résumé, an 8. Choose one person from your networking list and
application to graduate school, or a job interview. arrange an information interview. Using the
4, Write a one-page memo to yourself describing questions in the chapter on page 386 and adding
your ideal job. Give enough detail so that a some of your own, find out about that person’s
reader can see what the job entails and why you job and about the job market in that field. Write a
are well suited for it. Keep this memo in your job memo to your instructor summarizing your
file so that you can look at it in five years and see information interview. Use headings to organize
how many of your goals you have met. the information. Do not organize chronologically.
5. Write a one-page memo to your instructor 9. Arrange an interview with a human resources
outlining the services available at your school’s director or other decision maker at a firm in
placement office. Attach brochures. Discuss the which you are interested. Interview this person to
three services that appear to be of most value to find out what the firm wants to see in and wants
you. left out of a résumé and an application letter. You
might take examples to be evaluated. Write a
6. List the names, addresses, and phone numbers of —
memo to your instructor summarizing your
10 companies for which you would like to work.
Give the name and title of a decision maker who
findings.
might hire someone with your qualifications. 10. Give an oral presentation to the class on your
Write one or two summarizing paragraphs about findings from Application Exercise 5, 8, or 9.
where you found this information and bow you

CASES
1. Compiling a Job Portfolio. Compile your own involved? What happens as one advances in this
job portfolio so that you will have a complete company?
record of your background to use in filling out P . Researching a Company. Research a company
applications and developing a résumé. Include that interests you and write a profile of it. Find
sections on your addresses, education, activities, out the following: What is the company’s industry
work experience, and references as described in position (leader, founder, follower)? What does
the chapter. Be sure to leave spaces for future the company produce? What market share does
additions so that you can keep the portfolio up to this product have? Who are the company’s major
date. competitors? Who are the company’s customers?
2. Writing a Self-Assessment Essay. Write a self- What profits did the company earn over the last
assessment to use as an application essay for five or ten years? What sales figure did the
graduate school. Identify three accomplishments company attain? What is the company’s ROI? If
of which you are proud. Discuss them so that the you can, evaluate the company’s culture: What is
reader sees their meaning and importance. the management style? What is the work
3. Gathering Career Information. Gather environment like? How does company
information about three possible careers suited to management make decisions?
your interests and qualifications. Include the Begin your profile with information about the
following: What skills are required? Does the job company: name, address, phone number, names
involve work with people? How closely will you and titles of people who could provide
be supervised? Where are jobs located? Is it a 9- information to or hire people with your
to-5 workweek, or are hours flexible or unusual? credentials. Then list the facts and opinions you
What combination of physical and mental work is have gathered about the company. You might use

418 Chapter Twelve

 headings such as the following: Major Products 8. Applying for an Internship. Find an
and Services, Competitive Analysis, Major internship, cooperative education, or work-study
Locations, Organizational Culture and Structure, program with work related to the field you hope
Employment Opportunities for New Graduates. to enter upon graduation. Write a résumé and
5. Presenting a Picture of a Company. Prepare letter showing how you are qualified for this job
an oral presentation on the company you selected based on your work to date.
in Case 4. This time analyze the company and give . Applying for a Summer Job. Answer the
a picture of what it would be like to work there. following ad for a summer job. Aim for work that
6. Writing Two Contrasting Résumés. Write a will produce some strong accomplishments for
résumé for yourself to apply for a job in the Peace your résumé when you graduate.
Corps or another social service or nonprofit CRUISE JOBS
agency. Next, revise the résumé to apply for a job
with Procter & Gamble or another large Earn $2,000+ per month working for Cruise Ships and
corporation. What are the differences between the Tour Companies. Holiday, Summer, and Full-Time
employment available. Cruise staff, Tour guides,
résumés?
Waitpersons, Bartenders, Musicians, Counselors, etc.
7. Answering a Want Ad. Find a want ad from a Cruise Employment Services, P.O. Box 1357, Miami, FL
newspaper, association journal, placement office, 33166.
or other source for a job in the field you hope to
10. Applying for a Job While in School. Find a
enter upon graduation. Assuming you are
job description at your school’s placement or
graduating at the end of this semester, write a
employment office for work you could do now.
résumé and letter showing how you are qualified
Write a résumé and letter to apply for that job.
for this job. You may need to forecast your
courses completed and future jobs if you are not
yet actually ready to graduate.

CREATING AN INVENTORY OF VOCATIONAL ASSETS

eading 12—11 Geraldine Henze

Your in-depth descriptions of accomplishments furnish a sets— qualities meaningful in almost any position in almost
wealth of information about your skills, personal character- any organization.
istics, and preferences in terms of rewards and interper-
sonal contact. Using Table 1 (page 420) as a guide, organize Source: Geraldine Henze, Winning Career Moves (Homewood, Ill:

this information and express it in terms of transferable as- Business One Irwin, 1992), pp. 75-76.

Job Search 419

|@aBLe 1 Transferable Skills : . |

Analytical Ability
Ability to:
Concentrate Form and test Draw conclusions Reason logically
Perceive relationships hypotheses Define objectives Identify assumptions
Grasp concepts quickly Gather information Solve problems

Communication Skills
Ability to:
Listen well Write clearly Adapt messages to Inspire confidence
Follow instructions Give instructions different audiences Work well with a variety
Speak foreign languages Work in groups Read and retain of people
Conduct meetings Speak confidently information

Quantitative Ability
Ability to:
Work with numbers Interpret numerical Read and design graphs Prepare forecasts
Explain calculations results Identify miscalculation Work with a variety of
Develop financial plans Perform calculations Prepare budgets software and
Keep accounting records accurately hardware
Technical Knowledge
Ability to:
Read technical reports, Follow regulatory Understand technical Read blueprints
manuals, and journals guidelines terms and principles Explain technical
concepts
Decision-Making Ability
Ability to:
See and evaluate Make decisions Explain decisions Anticipate impact of
alternatives consistent with Gather relevant decisions
Consult others organizational goals information

Organizational Skills
Ability to:
Plan activities Manage own time Set priorities Co-ordinate activities of
Set and meet deadlines Define goals Tolerate interruptions others
Adjust to changes
Maturity and Initiative
Ability to:
Work independently Innovate Maintain composure Take responsibility for
Encourage participation Recognize need for help Tolerate frustrations decisions and results

Potential for Growth

Ability to:
Take reasonable risks Learn from mistakes Apply classroom Set appropriate goals for
Persist at tough tasks Recover from setbacks learning to work own development
Recognize strengths Identify weaknesses

420 Chapter Twelve

 SELLING YOURSELF IN 30 SECONDS
eading 12—2 Barry Stavro

It’s taken years of schooling and experience on the job to Instead, list the most interesting ones and those where you
build up the credentials listed on your résumé. But a per- worked the longest.
sonnel manager needs only 20 to 30 seconds to scan your For women who are trying to find a job after taking time
résumé before deciding not to hire you, or to -put your off to raise children, Washington urges them to list their
résumé in the pile of serious candidates. past jobs, “even if it was five or 10 years ago.” But they also
Someone who has read thousands of résumés is Richard should list any other recent activities in a separate section
Andre, vice president of human resources at 20th Century called Projects or Activities. “Whether it’s the PTA, Cub
Industries, a Woodland Hills-based auto insurance com- Scouts or any organizational things, it shows a person is still
pany. To pass the 30-second résumé test, he said, candi- active and able to organize,” he said.
dates must be concise. “We’re looking for brief résumés, Education is the next section. Those who are college
not five-pagers,” he said. “They should be a page, or two at graduates should list their school and the degree they
the most.” earned. If you went to college but did not graduate, you can
Another mistake, Andre said, is making a mistake. “Ré- still turn that into a plus. Write down the schools you at-
sumés should be grammatically correct. Nothing turns you tended and how many credits you earned. If any classes you
off like typos or misspellings.” took may relate to jobs you are applying for, list some
Tom Washington, author of the book Résumé Power, course work.
Selling Yourself on Paper, said another blunder is sending And if you have taken some vocational training courses,
a résumé on yellow, orange or blue paper, instead of using list those as well. “It shows an employer they are serious
white or off-white paper. “There are better ways to get and willing to take whatever preparation is needed,” Wash-
people’s attention than neon-colored paper,’ Washington ington said.
said. Other skills such as typing, personal-computer experi-
No matter how neat a résumé is, the real key is whether ence or speaking a foreign language should be listed at the
it is well-organized and written smartly enough to grab the bottom of a résumé. “Any bilingual capabilities these days
attention of someone you have never met. As Washington are a plus to any business in southern California,” Andre
put it: “Does the résumé sell this person? Or is the résumé said.
just dates and a laundry list of titles and duties.” After writing your résumé, ask a friend to check it for
To develop the best résumé, Washington suggests writ- grammatical mistakes and to offer any suggestions on how
ing notes on everything that comes to mind about past jobs, to improve the content. If you are still unhappy with your
schooling, volunteer activities and any other special skills résumé, try one of the scores of résumé services listed in
that you have. Write several rough drafts, then pare the the Yellow Pages.
information. For about $25 for a one-page résumé, these companies
As you write, he said, don’t just list what kind of job you will make sure that everything is spelled right and will lay
had; give some examples that show results or goals you out your résumé in a computerized format and print it on
services will also write your ré-
achieved at work. Washington includes in his book the fancy paper. The résumé
In effect, they will interview you, then
résumé of someone who started as a waitress. Her résumé sumé from scratch.
well with custom- compose a new résumé. But expect to pay $45 to $80 per
said she was very professional, got along
ers and regularly took home the highest tips at the restau- page.
rant. “You should make the most out of whatever experi- Once you have a résumé, send it out with a cover letter.
ence you have,” Washington said. “Anything that demon- Your letter should be brief—three or four paragraphs.
strates you were good at what you did.” Mention the job you are applying for, perhaps highlight
The top of a résumé should list your name, address and something from your résumé and mention something
phone number. If you have different day and nighttime about the company you are applying to.
phone numbers, list both—a missed call can cost you an Andre, for instance, is impressed when people know that
interview. Keep your résumé up to date; don’t just dust off 20th Century only sells auto and home insurance, not life
an old copy. insurance.
Underneath your name, you can write a brief Qualifica- What he doesn’t like are gimmicky letters. “Occasionally,
tions section, in effect summarizing your skills. If you have people write a poem as part of a cover letter to be cute,”
worked at an office, and you want to find another office job Andre said. Insurance companies, he said, don’t need any
poets on the payroll.
and know how to operate personal computers and fax ma-
chines, mention those skills here.
Most résumés, however, are built around two essential
sections: employment and education history. If you have Source: Barry Stavro, “Selling Yourself in 30 Seconds,” Los
Angeles Times, February 3, 1992, pp. 9-11.
stumbled through alot of jobs, though, don’t list them all.
Job Search 421
(haplei Lider

_Zob Interviews
You will learn many on-the-job skills in school and at your part-time and full-time
jobs while in school. One of the most important skills for getting a job after you
graduate is handling an interview successfully—a skill in which you won’t get
much practice while in school. This chapter will give you a preview of what to
expect at your job interviews and how you can prepare for and succeed in them.
Because company recruiters interview on many college campuses, we discuss how
the typical on-campus recruiting system works.
In Chapter Twelve, you learned how to schedule interviews through
networking and application letters. In this chapter we also discuss videotape and
computer interviews, relatively new ways to evaluate job candidates. We discuss
what happens in a typical 30-minute interview, explain how to succeed in your
nonverbal interviews, and include many sample interview questions and
techniques: We also discuss what may happen at a seciond, on-site interview at the
company and how to approach this kind of interview, company tours, and lunches.
We conclude with a discussion of thank-you letters, one of the final steps in the
interview process, and explain how to negotiate salary once you receive a job offer.

423
 TheOnCampusince -
- Talks Back

abou dine them what to

| expani 1 ah interview,

eee ing
ng iinhisold neighborhoodkicking his

As you discovered in Chapter Twelve, your college career-planning and place-

THE COLLEGE
ment office can be a valuable resource in your job hunt. In addition to pro-
RECRUITING SYSTEM viding a library of company information and career-planning testing and coun-
seling, this office will typically offer workshops on résumé writing, interview-
ing, and job search techniques.

Workshops Here are some sample titles of workshops offered by the placement office on
one large campus: Orientation to On-Campus Interviewing; How to Write a
Résumé; How to Interview Effectively; How to Find a Job; Business Etiquette;
Use campus resources as a Tips for Getting That Job in Accounting/Marketing/Social Work/Recreation
starting point for your search.
(different workshops for different majors, sometimes taught by practicing pro-
fessionals in the field). Take advantage of workshops such as these so that you
will be as well prepared as possible when interview time comes around.

Computerized Guidance In addition to workshops and appointments with counselors, some placement
offices offer computerized career-planning help. One sophisticated program is

o
called SIGI PLUS (System of Interactive Guidance and Information PLUS). This
program asks you self-assessment questions; then it matches your values to
various Occupations and provides some information about those occupations.
The program takes three or four hours to complete.
Other, shorter programs include
e Please Understand Me (one hour).
e The Personal Assessment/Career System (45 minutes).

424. Chapter Thirteen

 e Vocational Research Interest Inventory (VRII) (one hour).
e Major/Minor Finder (30—45 minutes).
A computer program is no substitute for a trained career counselor, of course,
but these programs can help you find out how your skills match various oc-
cupations quickly and relatively inexpensively.
You can also find software that will help you write a résumé (Job Hunter’s
Survival Kit, Résumé Maker, Résumé Kit), prepare for and practice interview-
ing (The Winning Approach to Interviewing, Interview Scenarios, Successful
Job Interviewing), identify occupations requiring similar skills (Dictionary of
Occupational Titles), and see current nationwide job openings (Joblink and
NEWS). Check to see what programs your career-planning and placement
office has to offer. They are valuable aids for helping you choose and find a job.

Before your senior year, find out what information you will need to have on file The Placement Process
to qualify for interviews and when the interview schedule begins. Also find out
what information on students recruiters seek (Résumé only? Transcripts?
Placement file?). Placement processes vary among schools and majors.
Some schools allow you to sign up with any companies of interest to you.
Others, like the University of Virginia, use a bid system, in which you have a Find out what system your
school uses to assign on-campus
total number of points and interviews go to people who bid the most on a interviews.
company. You may also be able to submit résumés— sometimes online— and
companies interested in you will invite you to an interview.

Before you go to an interview, find out where the company is located, what its PREPARING FOR AN
products are, who its competitors are, how it ranks in its industry, and any
INTERVIEW
other information you can. Read career center brochures and library reports
on companies, and keep up with the business press about developments in
companies that interest you. Find out the organizational structure of a firm so Preliminary Company
that you can get a feel for how important the company thinks your depart- Research
ment is.
Look at a directory of job titles to find out what the company calls the job
you want to get. The Occupational Outlook Handbook also lists general salary
information, at least for entry-level jobs. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics Research companies before you
meet representatives.
publishes an annual National Survey of Professional, Administrative, Technt-
cal, and Clerical Pay. Business periodicals sometimes publish salary surveys,
as does Working Woman magazine.
Your professional association should have salary figures. Read its publica-
‘tions or call the national headquarters to find out. You will be better prepared
for interview questions if you have a clear picture of the industry from your
research in the library and from interviews with professionals in the field.

Of course, you won’t limit your job search to campus interviews. As you Networking, Applying to
learned in Chapter Twelve, contacts set up within a network can help you Companies Directly, and
discover jobs in the hidden job market. Newspape r and profession al journal
Answering Ads
ads target people trained in every specialty. Application letters sent with a
résumé or phone calls to company decision makers can introduce you to
potential employers.
In addition to a network information record (described in Chapter Twelve ),
Keep track of all job contacts.
keep a telephone log of your potential job contacts (See Exhibit 13— 1). This
record will help you stay on top of the details of your job search so that you

Job Interviews 425

 QXHIBIT 13-1 Telephone Log

Telephone Log

8
(ec® n 3 ve)VY & oOGe o a o a 9° g 5 oO Gq 8
information, etc.)

426 Chapter Thirteen

 can follow up. A similar record of where you have sent and handed out ré-
sumés is also useful as your circle of contacts widens.

Once you have identified through your research companies that can poten- Contacting by Letter and by
_ tially use your services, contact company representatives to sell your skills and Telephone
qualifications. Write a cover letter adapted to the company’s needs that you
have identified. In your letter, remember to
1. Gain attention and interest by talking about what you can do for the
company.
2. Convince the reader of your qualifications by using specific details.
3. Ask for an interview, adding a final reminder about the skills you can
offer the company.
When you telephone a company in which you are interested, be as assertive as
you can politely be; otherwise, you will be unable to speak to a decision maker
whom you can convince about your qualifications. If you have already sent a
letter and résumé, you can follow up with a phone call asking about a meeting
to discuss future possibilities.
If the person is difficult to reach by phone, find out when the best time to
call would be. If you can find out the person’s work schedule, you can at least —
call at a convenient time for him or her. Plan what you will say to the assistant
who answers the phone (if you say merely that you are looking for a job, your
call will probably not get put through). Mention your network contact’s name,
and say that this contact suggested you call. Mention your letter and ask
whether the person you are trying to reach has received it yet.

Newspaper advertisements, as well as ads in professional journals, are read by Answering Ads
many candidates. For this reason, companies use such ads to demonstrate an
effort to attract a broad pool of applicants and meet affirmative action require-
Write a strong letter when
ments. When responding to such an ad, make sure that your cover letter answering ads.
clearly shows how you fit the job requirements. Your reader may be a human
resources department screener who will send your letter on to a hiring man-
ager. Each of these people needs to be able to see from your letter the value
you can add to the company.
Do not mention a specific salary, even if the ad says you must. At this point,
simply give a range. Also, recognize that not all advertised jobs may actually be
available. Perhaps an inside candidate is a strong contender, or the firm is
trying to collect a file of nationally available candidates to meet Equal Employ-
ment Opportunity Act requirements. For these reasons, answering ads may
give you only about a 10 percent response rate as you move into higher-level
jobs. Even so, answering ads should be one part of your campaign to gain job
interviews.

Employers hire people, not general qualifications, and an interview’s purpose INTERVIEW
is to evaluate the candidate from the company’s point of view. As the candidate FUNDAMENTALS
has been invited based on paper qualifications, the interviewer will evaluate
the person and how good his or her fit with the company is.

Interview questions can be closed, open-ended, probing, or a combination of Types of Questions

these types.

Job Interviews 427

 Closed. Answer closed questions with the requested factual data in a con-
versational format. Don’t ramble, but don’t just give your phone number,
major, GPA, and so on.’

Open-Ended, Use open-ended questions to illustrate a strength. State your

strength, give details to illustrate or prove your point, and tell the interviewer
what you have just proven.

Probing. Answer probing questions with more detail about the topic you
have been discussing.

Types of Interviewers The person who interviews you may be a screener, a professional recruiter, a
recent graduate or peer recruiter, or a hiring manager.

Screener. A screener is usually a human resources employee who verifies

factual information on a résumé. The screener may be an expert at evaluating
candidates; she screens for required qualifications.

Professional Recruiter. A professional recruiter may prefer the structured-

interview format. This person is well trained and knows what a good candidate
for the job will look like on paper and in personality. The professional recruiter
also screens for required qualifications. He or she is comfortable with inter-
viewing, makes eye contact, and asks legal questions.

Recent Graduate or Peer Recruiter. This type of interviewer may rely on

conversation more than on a structured interview. This recruiter is most in-
terested in how well you would fit in with the company.

Hiring Manager. A hiring manager knows the technical field intimately.

Show him or her that you know the field. This person may not be trained to
interview and generally uses the unstructured type of interview.

Types of Interviews Three basic types of interview are the structured, unstructured, and stress
interview.

Structured. The structured interview uses closed and open-ended ques-

tions. The candidate does most of the talking.

Unstructured. The unstructured interview is more casual. It may use prob-

ing and follow-up questions. This type of interview may seem more like a
conversation, but remember that it is still an interview.

Stress. The stress interview uses what-if questions. Often the interviewer is
a decision taker rather than a trained interviewer. This person is looking to
see whether you can handle stress.

ELECTRONIC MEDIA Technological advances have added to the types of interviews students may
encounter. Interviews may be conducted by a computer, be videotaped, or be
IN INTERVIEWS broadcast by satellite.

‘John LaFevre, How You Really Get Hired, 3rd. ed. (New York: Prentice-Hall), p. 75.

428 Chapter Thirteen

 Julie Houck/Tony Stone Images

In addition to selling your technical skills,

in a successful job interview you also sell
your enthusiasm and energy by looking
interested and alert.

Computer Interviews
While not really suitable for executive jobs, computerized interviews are cur-
rently being used to evaluate candidates for lower-level positions.
for inter-
Some advantages of computerized interviewing are time savings
the program is the same for every- Computer interviews have the
viewers, consistency of questions (since
ele of an impersonal
one), and elimination of possible interviewer bias. Art Bell reports that people
with questions
seem to give more accurate information to a computer “even
about theft, drug abuse, and likeliness to quit.””
-
Experienced interviewers can develop for each job a set of basic, multiple
t time, days of work, Om
choice questions covering requirements (full time/par
in work-
related experience) and expectations (good technical skills, success
helpful if it branches
ing with difficult people). The basic program can be more
software
to more specific questions about answers, just as instructional
the student’s an-
branches a student from easier questions into areas where
s insert the inter-
swers reveal he or she needs more work. Some program
to those in the
viewee’s name and ask more conversational questions, similar
career-planning programs at a placement office.
how long
With its built-in recordkeeping capabilities, the program can track
or she paused
it took an applicant to complete the interview, how long he
d any answers .
before answering questions, and whether the applicant change
“score” the inter-
As is true with many tests, the computer can.also quickly
that contrad ict other answers into account .?
view, taking answers
they make it
Because these programs evaluate candidates at a basic level,
First, each can-
easier for the human resources office to compare candidates.

d, IIl.: Business
2arthur H. Bell, Extraviewing: Innovative Ways to Hire the Best (Homewoo
One Irwin, 1992), p. 65.
Bell, p. 66.
Job Interviews 429
 didate is scored on fundamental requirements and expectations. Second, each
candidate has answered the same set of questions, varying only in details
related to later answers. Third, all candidates are seen equally, since the com-
puter doesn’t recognize race, age, gender, appearance, or other factors that
could cause initial bias.
These advantages of computer interviewing make it a workable idea at least
for initial screening. If you must take such an interview, regard it as a relatively
painless way to give and get factual information. And, as with all interviews, try
not to screen yourself out of consideration for the job by giving answers that
create an unfavorable impression. Remember that you may be videotaped
while answering questions, so your body language is important. Try to appear
pleasant and enthusiastic in the face of this faceless machine interview.

Videotaped Résumés As we discussed in Chapter Twelve, career-planning and placement offices

have for some time received videotaped presentations on companies that
recruit on campus. The other half of the interview conversation— the candi-
date—is now also producing videos in one of two ways: as an animated ré-
sumé or as an interview performed by a neutral representative of a videotaping
firm hired by the company attempting to fill a job.
If you are applying for a job in a conservative field such as accounting,
engineering, or banking, a video résumé is probably not for you. Neither your
A videotaped résumé isn’t lack of inclination toward an acting career nor the corporate culture at your
appropriate for all jobs. prospective employer supports this type of presentation. In some personnel
circles, a video résumé is regarded as a gimmick that detracts from an appli-
cant’s image.
However, in fields in which people skills are especially important, such as
marketing, a video résumé might serve to show your personality much as an
audition tape showcases an actor’s talents. Of course, if you choose this option,
you will have to produce a professional-looking video and back it up with a
written résumé. As you would with all paid services, make sure the company
producing your videotape has a sound business reputation.

Videotaped Interviews Videotaped interviews, arranged in professional studios, cover questions writ-
ten by the prospective employer. As in all structured interviews, the same
questions are asked of all candidates. An advantage for the interviewing com-
A videotaped interview can be pany is that the interview can be shown a number of times and to a number of
seen more than once and at
different locations. decision makers. According to Art Bell, unless later research finds that some
groups are adversely affected by being videotaped, this type of interview is
considered acceptable by the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
(EEOC).4
An advantage to candidates is the opportunity to be interviewed for jobs in
distant cities or by companies that do not send recruiters to your area. Meeting
prospective employers in person is preferable, if possible, but a video inter-
view can showcase your personality better than a letter and résumé or a
computerized interview would.

Satellite Interviews Another electronic type of interview is the satellite interview, an “individual-
ized videoconference” used as an extension of in-person interviews on cam-
pus. Unlike in a videotaped interview, in a live videoconference a candidate

‘Bell, pp. 62-64.

430 Chapter Thirteen
can answer follow-up questions and elaborate on responses if the company
representative wishes.” :

Some organizations use group interviews. Two types of group interviews exist: GROUP INTERVIEWS
one in which you are part of a group of candidates being interviewed at the
same time or one in which you face a panel of interviewers. Each type requires
a shift in your interviewing strategy.
If you are one of a group of interviewees, you need to come across as
assertive without being aggressive. You want to be remembered positively as
a leader, but you don’t want to be seen as overbearing. You want to get some
answers in early so that you are not always the last to respond. Try to convey
some of your personality in addition to your factual answers so that the inter-
viewer(s) will remember you as a person.
The panel type of group interview often occurs at on-site interviews, where
a team of employees meets with the candidate at one time. If you are being
interviewed by a panel, try to jot down all the interviewers’ names so that you
Group interviews give you a
can refer to people by name at least some of the time. Just as though you had chance to show your social
a small client audience around a conference table, try to make eye contact with skills.
various panel members as you give your answers. Again, convey some person-
ality to avoid appearing stiff; try to project yourself as an interesting person
rather than just another candidate.
Interviewers from certain fields, such as banking and consulting, use group
interviews to evaluate how a candidate reacts under pressure and interacts
with new people. Nonprofit groups may use a panel of interviewers because
the panel as a whole is the decision maker.
Because the members of the group will formulate questions while you are
answering one question, you will usually have less “breathing space” in a group
interview. Ask for a moment to consider an answer if you need it. A group
interview can be highly structured, with each member asking certain questions
of every candidate, or highly unstructured, with interviewers interrupting the
candidate and one another. Your goal in a group interview is to project the
impression that you can do the job. Being strong enough to stand up to a group
will help you showcase this quality.

Most interviews with recruiters last just 30 minutes and follow a fairly con- THE TYPICAL
ventional format. Thus, we will discuss this kind of interview in detail. 30-MINUTE
Of course, you will plan your interview clothes to create an attractive,
professional impression. Arrive a few minutes early at the campus interview
INTERVIEW TIME
site. Take a minute to get yourself into a positive frame of mind. You want to FRAME
impress the interviewers, but you also want to find out whether you would like
to work with them.
Even if you were not impressed with the company in your information
sessions, go into the interview with a positive attitude. Be objective. Focus on
presenting positive information about your personality and your communica-
Convey enthusiasm and
confidence.
tion skills; interviewers hope to learn more than just about your technical
m,
knowledge. When you walk into the interview room, try to project enthusias
positiveness, and friendliness.
The following sections will give you a breakdown of what is likely to happen
during each stage of your interview.

pp.
David R. Eyler, Job Interviews that Mean Business (New York: Random House, 1992),
136-37.
Job Interviews 431
Small Talk: 5 Minutes Remember that first impressions are formed within the first two minutes,
whether you are meeting a potential new friend or talking to an interviewer.
The way you walk into the room, the way you shake hands, and the way you
sit in a chair all convey an impression about you. Make sure it’s a strong one.
To make you as comfortable as possible in a naturally stressful situation,
your interviewer will usually begin with conversational comments about the
campus, local sports, the weather, or your leisure activities. These conversa-
tional comments may grow from something you mentioned in your résumé.
While this 7s part of the interview, try to relax and talk about these everyday
subjects a little. Sound positive and upbeat, like the kind of person you would
like to work with.
If your major is a technical one, and especially if your school is well known
for turning out successful graduates in that major, you may find that your
interviewer extends the “small talk” part of the interview. This is probably
because the interviewer knows you are competent in the technical aspects of
the field and is trying to find out about some of your other qualifications and
how you will fit in with other employees.

Asking and Answering In this part of the interview, the interviewer gathers information about you.
Questions: 15 Minutes (We have included a number of sample questions later in the chapter.) Make
your answers sound professional: thoughtful, developed, and confident. Be
positive about your accomplishments without bragging. Add enough details to
give the interviewer a picture of what you are discussing.
The interviewer’s questions, often derived from the material in your ré-
sume, are aimed at getting a picture of your education and experience as they
relate to the job. If you have done your homework on the company, you will
Adapt your answers to each
company’s needs. know how to fit your qualifications to the job. Your goal here is to create the
impression of someone who would both be able to do the job and fit into the
company’s culture.

"VERY IMPRESSIVE...A HUNTING MAJOR WITH

A GATHERING MINOR."
© 1993; reprinted courtesy of Bunny Hoest and Parade Magazine.

An interviewer will often derive questions from the material in your résumé.
432 Chapter Thirteen
When the interviewer has finished with his or her questions, you will probably Candidate Questions: 5
be asked if you have any questions. Of course you do! Ask something job Minutes
related or something current from your reading about the company in the
business press. Do not ask about benefits, salary, or vacation. Remember that
the company wants to hire you to work. You can negotiate salary when you are
called with a job offer.
If you have read up on the company, you. can develop several questions to
ask the interviewer. You can even ask these questions earlier if there seems to
be a lull in the interview; it will give you another chance to look prepared and
interested.
You might ask what path the interviewer took to arrive at his or her own
job, about what preparation would be best for the job, or with whom you
would work. A possible final question is “When might I expect to hear from
you?” Be sure to ask for the interviewer’s card so that you can write a personal
thank-you note.

After you leave, the interviewer will take some notes to remember you by in Interview Write-Up: 5
a day filled with half-hour interviews. Following this model, you should make Minutes
some notes of your own when you get home. What did you do well? What
answers might you have improved? What questions were a surprise? Did you
communicate your strong points regarding this job? Did you convey enthusi-
asm about the job and the company? A form such as Exhibit 13—2 will help
you keep these records. Use each interview as a learning experience, and try
to improve some aspect of your interviewing skills at every subsequent inter-
view.
Now that you met with a company representative, do you still feel strongly
Evaluate each interview— do
that you want to work for this company? Is the job as goodafit for you as you you still want to work for this
anticipated? Do you think the company representative was impressed with company?
you? Make a few notes in your file about these reactions.
In addition, make a computer entry or a file card for each interview listing
the interviewer’s name, address, and phone number, the date of the interview,
and any follow-up activity. Keep a log such as that in Exhibit 13—3 in the front
of your interview paper file to keep up with necessary action. For more de-
tailed information on interview planning and follow-up, see Geraldine Henze’s
informative book Winning Career Moves (Homewood, Ill.: Business One Ir-
win, 1992).

Some researchers say that only 10 percent of communication is in your words; THE NONVERBAL
the rest is in how you look and act. In addition to preparing for the content of INTERVIEW
your interview by researching the company and developing answers to poten-
tial interview questions, you will plan what to wear and consider situations
that might arise so you can deal with them comfortably.
What You Wear
John Molloy’s books Dress for Success, Women’s Dress for Success, and Live for
Success can give you some tips about how to look as though you fit the job for
which you will interview.° Even though Molloy’s books are a number of years
old, he describes the business uniform most men still wear. Women’s clothing
standards have relaxed somewhat, but they still include a conservative inter-

‘John T. Malloy, Dress for Success (New York: Warner Books, 1988); John T. Malloy,
for Success
Women’s Dress for Success (New York: Warner Books, 1987); John T. Malloy, Live
(New York: Bantam Books, 1985).
Job Interviews 433
|Qxuiit 13—2 Interview Report Form |

Interview Report
Date:

Interviewer:

Name, Title

Company

Address

Purpose of interview:
O Information

O Networking

Comments
on my:
Preparation

Enthusiasm

Ability to respond to questions

Anxiety

What I learned from interview:

New questions I was asked

Good answers I gave

Answers I need to improve

Follow up:
O Thank-you letter O Follow-up call (date

O Calls to referrals

Expected action from interviewer:

Job offer (by date >

Other.

434. Chapter Thirteen

|Qxuir 13-3 Interview Log |

Interview Log

Name, Title Result (referrals, appointments,

Phone# information, offers, etc.)

fob ilterviows 435

What you look like is as view suit and appropriate blouse. Newer books such as Pamela Satran’s Dress-
important as what you say. ing Smart: The Thinking Woman’s Guide to Style give more detail about what
successful women wear to work today.’
Anthony Medley’s Sweaty Palms is another good source of information on
interview dress and behavior.® Since the subject of this book is interviewing,
Medley includes such details as remembering to wash your hands after you put
on aftershave so that it won’t get on the interviewer’s hand when you shake
hands.
Molloy found that actors who were pretending to be job candidates could
be hired for completely inappropriate jobs because they were able to convey
strength, confidence, and energy; move, talk, and dress correctly; and convince
interviewers that they were capable of doing the job.
To be taken seriously in an interview, be conservative rather than memo-
rable. (You can vary your clothing /ater when you get the job and see what
other employees wear.) Both men and women often interview wearing navy
blue or dark-gray suits. If yours is a field in which people don’t wear suits, wear
something a level above what people would wear to work on a typical day.
One clue is to check out the interviewer, if you can, the semester before you
have to interview to see what he or she is wearing.
Wear something you feel comfortable in that suits the job for which you are
Dress for the job you would like applying. For example, retail merchandising jobs require some flair, so you
to have. might not have to wear a dark suit. One rule that still stands is “dress for the
job you would like to have.”
A successful interview look includes
e Well-polished shoes, recently heeled if necessary.
e An ironed shirt or blouse, even if permanent press.
e A good belt that looks new.
e Simple jewelry such as a watch, one ring per hand.
For women: simple earrings and a pin or a necklace.
e Clean, trimmed nails.
For women: clear or light-colored nail polish.
e Up-to-date eyeglass frames.
e A simple, conservative hairstyle.
e No frayed cuffs, missing buttons, worn belt marks from losing or
gaining weight.

How Professional You Look Plan what to bring to the interview. Women should bring a purse ora brief-
and Act case, but not both. If you have a coat, a briefcase, a purse, and an umbrella, it
will take you awhile to get organized to sit down. Consolidate so that you can
concentrate on the task at hand—impressing the interviewer enough to get
the job. At least keep your right hand free to shake hands. Arriving at the
interview site five to ten minutes early will give you a chance to get mentally
and physically prepared for the interview.
Walk into the room with confidence, holding your head high. A professional,
confident look means business to interviewers. Shake hands when the inter-

7Pamela Satran, Dressing Smart: The Thinking Woman’s Guide to Style (New York:
Doubleday, 1992).
8H. Anthony Medley, Sweaty Palms: The Neglected Art of Being Interviewed, rev. ed.
(Berkeley: Ten Speed Press, 1992).

436 Chapter Thirteen

 viewer offers a handshake; don’t initiate the handshake yourself. (Practice
shaking hands beforehand if handshaking is new to you. You need to appear First impressions are very
important.
confident, but neither weak nor bone-crushingly strong.)When offered a chair,
sit up and look alert; slouching will make you look tired or bored. Checklist
13-1 offers some do’s and don'ts.
According to Charissa Dunn, an important interview habit is to sit still,
because nervous tension makes a person want to fidget.”
Another good source of business behavior tips is Letitia Baldrige’s Com-
plete Guide to Executive Manners (New York: Rawson Associates, 1985).

Don’t worry about an occasional short period of silence during the interview. How You React to Silence
Interviewers often appreciate a candidate who really thinks about how to
answer a question instead of having a pat, planned answer.
Nevertheless, silence can make a candidate nervous—and a nervous inter-
viewee may try to fill the silence with words, any words, to dispel his or her
discomfort. The best way to handle silence is to pause, then ask, “Would you
like me to expand on my experience?” or whatever topic you have just been Silence can be quite unnerving.
discussing. In fact, if the interviewer is making eye contact with you, he or she
might be waiting for you to expand on your answer without intervening, a

°Charissa Dunn, “Actions Speak Louder Than Words in Job Interview,” Business Education
Forum, November 1985, p. 15.
Job Interviews 437
 technique Art Bell calls a “silent inquiry.”’® An inexperienced interviewer,
however, could merely be trying to think of another question.
Some experienced interviewers use silence as a stress technique, apparently
hoping the interviewee will blurt out some negative information just to fill the
silence. If you suspect this is the case, remain calm—and silent—looking at
the interviewer as though you are waiting for him or her to ask the next
question. Unless the interviewer wants to dispel the natural, conversational
tone of the interview, a new question will soon follow.

In preparing for your interviews, read all the lists of questions available at the
SAMPLE INTERVIEW
placement office, since they are compiled by people in charge of interviewing
QUESTIONS AND college students. Ask other students what questions they have been asked.
ANSWERING TIPS Read articles about current interview techniques, because trends develop over
time. The following sections describe the categories of questions most com-
monly used for interviews.

Education Questions Interviewers may ask factual questions about your school, major, or individual
courses. They may also ask evaluative questions about why you took a certain
course or which course(s) you preferred and why. Sample questions are:
#& What elective courses did you take?
e If you could take more courses, what would you take? Why?
e Which marketing course did you like best?
e What are your plans for graduate study?
e What motivated you to seek a college degree?
e Tell me about the best and worst course you’ve ever taken.
e Why did you choose your elective courses?
e How was your education financed?
e What was there about the courses in your major that appealed to you?
Most questions about education can be answered with the relevant facts, but
remember to illustrate your particular strengths that suit you for work with
this company. Questions that ask about best and worst courses, jobs, or expe-
riences tend to elicit answers revealing your strengths and weaknesses even if
those two words are not used.

Experience Questions In addition to the factual questions about jobs and volunteer experience, the
interviewer might ask about what qualities you think make a good supervisor
or how you know you have completed a project successfully. Adapt your
actual work experience to the job for which you are applying as much as you
can, just as you did in your application letter. Even if your work was in financial
services, you can show skills you learned that can help you in a marketing job.
If a company requires experience, in addition to paid jobs you can talk
about internships or cooperative education programs you arranged through
school, about summer jobs related to your career, or even about volunteer
work. Use this experience to show your managerial, financial, or marketing
skills. Give specific examples of how you learned skills that will be useful on
the job you seek.

‘arthur H. Bell, The Complete Manager's Guide to Interviewing: How to Hire the Best
(Homewood, Ill.: Business One Irwin, 1989), p. 59.

438 Chapter Thirteen

 If an interviewer tells you he or she thinks you do not have enough expe-
rience for the job, ask what challenges the job offers and use your experience
to show how you can handle those problems.
Sample questions include:
‘ e Tell me about your previous jobs.
e Is your work progress representative of your ability?
e What was your most disappointing work experience?
e How do you know if you’ve done a good job?
e How can a manager help you function better as an employee?
Describe the situation at work you liked least.
Describe a situation where you handled a problem with a coworker.
e What experience do you have that is relevant to this job?
e Tell me about your most challenging and least challenging jobs.
(Illustrate strengths that apply to the job for which you are
interviewing.)
e What was the main thing you learned on your last job?
e What changes have you made in your approach to others to become
better accepted at work?
e What do you think are the drawbacks to pursuing as a career the kind
of work you had in your last job?
What work achievements have been recognized by your supervisors?
e What kind of people do you like to work with?
In- what ways has your job developed you to take on greater
responsibilities?
e What are some things about which you and your supervisor might
disagree?
e Can you describe for me a typical day in your job?
e Have you had a mentor?
Most questions about experience are best answered by telling what you know
and have done in previous jobs that will be most useful in doing the job for
which you are interviewing. Again, emphasize your strengths for this job based
on your company and job research.

To get a feel for what kind of person you are, interviewers may ask about Activities and Honors
activities outside of classes and work. Do you volunteer? Have you been ()uestions
elected to office? Can you persuade people to work on a task together? Do you
have good people skills?
Sample questions include:
4 What do you get out of your activities outside of class?
e What do you do in your spare time?
e What kind of projects have you been involved in for X organization?
e Have you been in charge of a fund-raising project?
e What has your volunteer work taught you? .
e What do you do for fun?
e How did you get team members on a project to do their share of the
work?
Job Interviews 439
 e What is your chief contribution to any group with which you have
been involved?
Most questions about activities are best answered by mentioning those that
would add to your value to the company. Fitness is a positive activity for any
job; volunteer work with nonprofit agencies may help you interact with a
company’s future customers; club work has taught you to work effectively with
diverse people. This is not the time to bring up activities that might be risky
and thus raise the company’s health benefit costs or activities that could screen
you out from further consideration, such as political or religious affiliations.

Personal Qualities Questions Interviewers try to find out whether you can lead people, are good at following
directions, or are very conscientious. Formerly, a conventional way to elicit
these and other pieces of information was to ask “What are your strengths?”
Because so many candidates have given pat answers to this question, inter-
viewers today are more apt to ask something like “What things about yourself
wouldn’t you change?” You might be asked what percentage of the funds for
your college education you earned yourself, or what accomplishment you are
most proud of.
If you have worked on team projects, usually try to find other things to do
Convey dependability in your when your own work is done, make friends easily, or are accurate with details,
answers.
make sure to mention these positive attributes.
As companies downsized during the recession of the early 1990s, they
needed their remaining employees to work longer hours to get the job done.
Here is a chance to illustrate how hard-working you are. Can you mention
extra work, willingness to work long hours, or additional job responsibilities?
If you have worked while attending school, you probably can offer a number
of examples. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reports that 25 percent of U.S.
workers work 49 or more hours per week.
Sample questions about personal qualities include:

e What things frustrate you the most? How do you deal with them?
e Tell me all about yourself.
e Tell me about a risk you have taken.
e Have you done anything to improve yourself in the past year?
e What motivates you?
e What accomplishment makes you most proud?
e Describe a decision you made in the last six months.
e What are your short-term and long-term goals?
e What difficulties did you encounter in the X leadership position?
e In what respects do you think you have improved in your decision
making? (This positive-sounding question might lead you to tell about a
mistake you made; be sure to give a positive answer instead.)
e What are your hopes for the future?
e Tell me about your long-term career objectives and what you feel you
need to develop in yourself to be ready for such a job.
e Describe a cause you regard as important.
e Who or what in your life has influenced you most with regard to your
career objectives?
e What kind of criticism do you get from your family?
440 Chapter Thirteen
 e What do you do when you're having trouble solving a problem?
e Everyone says they want to work with people. Tell me why.
e What is the difference between your greatest success and your greatest
failure?
e What things about yourself wouldn’t you change? (This is another
chance to immediately mention your strengths for this job.)
e Where would you live if you could choose anywhere?
Most questions about personal qualities are best answered by showing how
you will be able to handle job problems when they arise. Be as specific as you
can. Use a real-life account to illustrate your strengths for the job. Show how
you will fit in with the existing corporate culture. Do not blame others; instead
show what you have learned from your experiences.

If you mention an accomplishment, an interviewer may follow up by asking Follow-up Questions

you to be more specific with questions ‘like the following:
e How many dollars did that suggestion save the company?
e What amount of that product did you sell in a month?
e How successful was that project?
Other follow-up questions allow the interviewer to probe your responses:
e Why?

e What was the most challenging aspect of. . .?

e Who helped you the most in that situation?
‘e How did you feel about. . .?
e In your role as leader, what was the most difficult interpersonal conflict
you encountered? What did you do about it?
Most follow-up questions give you a chance to expand on your answers. In
elaborating on a positive experience, be specific and quantify, if possible. For
a negative experience, show what you learned that will help you succeed on
the job you now seek.

To find out more about how a candidate will fit with a job, interviewers are Critical-Incident Skills or
beginning to ask what are called critical incident skills or situational ques- Situational Questions
tions. This type of question asks you to describe how you would handle a work
problem. Instead of asking “Can you motivate others to do a good job?” the
interviewer might say, “Give me an example of a situation where you needed Show how your experience will
serve the company.
to motivate others to finish a project.” If you are asked a question like this,
think of the skill needed to perform the task and answer accordingly. Be sure
to show your skills through example rather than just state that you have those
skills.
Sample critical-incident skills questions are:
e Do your talents lean toward being analytical or creative?
e Give me an example of a time your work was criticized.
e Can you tell me about a project where you had to meet a difficult
deadline? How did you finish on time?
e Tell me about a task you took on in a previous job or in a class that
prepares you to handle the requirements we've been talking about.
e Show me how you solve a problem. »
Job Interviews 441
 e Tell me about a time when you tried to help someone change. How
did you go about it? How did it work?
e Tell me about an obstacle you had to overcome.
e If you had a problem with a subordinate’s need to take off work often
to help an aging parent, how would you handle it?
° What risks did you take in your last few jobs, and what was the result
of those risks?
ments
Interviewers usually arrive at these questions by considering the require
hours? Lots of conflict? People skills?). You will be able to
of the job (Long
answer such questions successfully if you have done your job analysis home-
work.
Consider telling a “story” to answer a question of this type. Rather than just
in
stating the percentage of college funds you earned, tell what you Jearned
doing so. Instead of merely describin g the ideal job in abstract terms, tell about
a job you actually had that helped you see the attributes of a good job. Reading
13-1 (page 455) on intercultural interviews has some good story-telling ex-
amples.
In the case of technical questions, try to describe how you arrived at the
solution rather than just saying, “The answer is 27.” Interviewers are interested
in how you solve problems as well as in whether you can arrive at the answers.
The ability to explain technical material clearly to nonexperts is a job skill
much in demand, so answering such a question well will also illustrate your
communication skills.

Atypical Questions As in many other aspects of the workplace, trends in interviews come and go.
Stress interviews were common at one time, with interviewers doing things
like nailing windows shut and asking candidates to open them, arguing with
Stress Questions candidates’ answers to questions, and generally belittling and trying to unnerve
candidates. Fortunately, such extreme tactics are becoming increasingly rare.
Talk to your classmates about questions they have been asked in interviews.
Most people like to talk about their “off-the-wall” experiences. At one time
Merrill Lynch asked, “What would your obituary say if it were written tomor-
row?” This kind of question forces you to think about what your accomplish-
Find out what questions your ments have been so far rather than what you plan to do later. Today some
classmates are being asked. accounting firms are asking, “What would you like written on your tomb-
stone?” This gives you a chance to talk either about your accomplishments so
far or about your future goals. If you can translate such a question into a more
recognizable form—into what the question seems to be getting at—you will
have less trouble answering it.
Candidates for recreation jobs in Southern California were asked, “What
would you do if you came to work and found your supervisor dead at her
desk?” The question was supposed to elicit knowledge of the chain of com-
mand (“I'd call her immediate boss and notify him or her”),but probably more
than one startled candidate blurted out, “I'd tell my friends there was a job
open!” Interviewers at Microsoft ask questions such as “How many gas stations
are in the United States?” The interviewer doesn’t expect you to know the
exact answer but wants you to show how you might arrive at an answer.
(Procedure: Estimate the number of cars per gas station, assume the total
number of cars in the United States, and divide the second figure by the first to
find the possible number of stations.)

442 Chapter Thirteen

 Here are some typical stress questions asked by some companies:
e What is the worst thing you’ve heard about our company?
e Wouldn't you really be happier in another job?
e Everybody has pet peeves. What are yours?
e Everybody likes to criticize. What do people criticize about you?
e The last person we hired lacked a good work ethic. How will you be
different? (Ask what the person failed to do; it may give you a good
picture of the corporate culture.)
e Will you stay with us long enough to make our training costs a good
investment?
e How would you solve our marketing problem?
Recognize that you need not begin your answer instantly. Take time to think;
then consider saying, “One approach that might work is to. . .” Your answer
needs to be thoughtful, but it can allow for alternative ways to handle the
problem.

Questions about weaknesses are somewhat unnerving, because a candidate Questions About Weak Points
wants to describe qualifications for the job, not reasons for disqualification.
The traditional advice is to mention
e A weakness that is really a strength (“I expect everyone to work as
hard as I do”).
~ A weakness you have corrected (“I used to have trouble delegating
work, but learned I can’t do everything myself”).
e A weakness that existed in the past but is really no longer relevant to
this job.
You must be prepared for “weakness” questions to be able to turn your an-
swers into strengths. If you must describe a potential weakness, make sure _
is clearly job related and go on to discuss how you have compensated for it.’
Be prepared to speak positively
Because many people are so prepared that they almost seem to have canned of your weaknesses.
answers for the strength and weakness questions, be aware that many versions
of these questions exist.
Possible weakness questions include:
e What would your parents/roommate/supervisor/faculty advisor/etc. say
is your greatest weakness?
e What skills do you need to develop to progress in your career?
As with all your answers, return the subject to your strengths for this job and
to your enthusiasm for positive ideas such as more responsibility.

Job seekers are not the only people who network. Employers also use net- Networking by Employers
working to find out about job candidates. Since written references are seldom
used today, interviewers may ask for negative references— people with whom
Prepare negative references for
you have had problems in earlier jobs. Consider who might be on that list; let possible contacts.
those people know they might be getting a call. This kind of damage control
may improve your image when the reference check occurs. A more positive

11Geraldine Henze, Winning Career Moves (Homewood, IIL: Business One Irwin, 1992),
p. 150.

Job Interviews 443

 approach, however, is to contact ahead of time a few people with whom you
have had honest differences but who would respond that you were a baeht
fair-minded person who just happened to see things differently than they did.

Job-Related Questions Some state agencies ask very specific job-related questions, such as “If you had
X and Y happen on an audit of ABC company, what would you do?” Answering
this kind of question gives you a chance to use your technical knowledge
gained from school or from work experience.
Interviewers may also try to get a feel for how much you know about their
companies and how well you would fit in. If you have done your company
research, you can tailor your answers to allay these concerns by showing that
you are enthusiastic about the company’s location, know about its products,
and understand at least something about the company’s corporate culture.
Sample questions include:
e Why do you want to work for this company?
e What do you know about this business?
e We have many qualified applicants. Why should we hire you for this
job? (This is your chance to list your qualifications and the several
ways you match what the company needs in the person who fills the
job.) .
e How would you install a standard cost-accounting system?
e How long would it take you to make a contribution here?
Questions of this type give you an opportunity to show your technical knowl-
edge and once again emphasize your strong points for this job.

Questions that Discriminate In job interviews or on applications, employers are prohibited from asking

iid
questions that would elicit information prompting them to discriminate
against ethnic or racial minorities, women, older workers, disabled persons,
and a number of other classes protected under the equal employment oppor-
tunity laws. Nevertheless, the world is not a perfect place, and discrimination
still exists. Companies, and even industries, may discriminate against women,
homosexuals, African-Americans, white males (so-called reverse discrimina-
tion), or other groups. If you can prove that you did not get a job because of
overt discrimination, you might get a cash award or even get the job in ques-
tion. Consider, however, that first, discrimination is hard to prove, and second,
that such a company might be an undesirable place to work. You may have run
into either a bad interviewer or a symbol of the corporate culture.
As we discuss in Chapter 16, employers can ask job-related questions as
long as they ask them of all applicants. If night work or travel is required, you
need to be able to show that you can do it. (The days of asking women, “Will
Illegal questions are not about your husband allow you to travel?” are thankfully over.) Apparently, some
job requirements. companies actually used to ask, “What kind of birth control do you use?”
Presumably the object of the question was to find out if having children would
interfere with the person’s work. When asked something so personal, one
suggested response was “What an unusual question! What kind does your
company recommend?”
Defusing an uncomfortable situation is better than confronting an inter-
viewer outright. True, you can say, “That’s an illegal question,’ but a more

“Eyler, Job Interviews that Mean Business, pp. 19, 55.

444. Chapter Thirteen
low-key way of handling it—and difficult interview questions in general— is to
think of what the interviewer is really asking and then answer that question.
An interviewer who asks a woman about plans for marriage and family, for
example, could be trying to find out how career oriented she is. An appropriate
response would be “If what you’re asking is whether I’m committed to a career
with this company, the answer is definitely ‘Yes.’ I stayed with my last job for
three years and missed barely a week of work for health or personal reasons.
I want to grow, and I finish what I start.”’>
Suppose the interviewer asks, ‘““What kind of personal crises have forced you
to miss work days?” Mention a one-time crisis, not your broken-down car or
your children’s accident-prone behavior. Emphasize that you will be at work
every day, doing an effective job for the company.
In other words, you can handle touchy questions in one of three ways: You
can collect enough information to file a complaint about the company, refusing
to answer the question; you can answer the underlying question being asked;
or you can answer the question directly.
Three articles in the September 1991 Bulletin of the Association for Busi-
ness Communication discuss answering illegal interview questions. In one
article, the authors explain that the appropriate way to respond depends on
how concerned the candidate is about the impression being made (not an-
swering meaning a lack of concern and answering meaning a desire to make
a favorable impression ).'*
If you want to make a favorable impression, David Eyler recommends that
you
Answer a question that won’t do you harm;
Make an inoffensive aside that you had the impression such questions
were illegal; and
Avoid threatening the interviewer or labeling yourself litigious.'”
You can assert yourself in an
Keeping the interviewer's goodwill while letting him or her know that you interview and still retain
are aware of your rights is one positive way to handle discrimination questions. goodwill.
Discrimination on the basis of ethnic background, age, or sex has not dis-
appeared from job interviews. Plan ahead of time what answers you can give
to potentially discriminatory questions, if you can answer them at all.
Cultural bias is certainly never deliberately built into an interview, but
interviewers tend to look for candidates who look and act as they themselves
do. Thus, be sure to look and act self-confident, professional, and enthusias-
tic—like the kind of person they want to hire. Recruiters like to meet inter-
esting people with a sense of individuality, just as you do. In an article on
minority business students (Reading 13—1 in this chapter), Eileen Mahoney
says, “You could be the only spot of color (literally and figuratively) on a
recruiter’s interview schedule—make it work to your advantage!”’!°
The article tells about three minority candidates who could have used
stories about their backgrounds to emphasize how they were suited for the
job. For example, a person from a culture that shows respect by limiting eye
contact and giving a gentle handshake may appear too weak. When asked to

13B]izabeth Tener, “The New ‘Guerilla Interview,” Self, November 1987, p. 199.
of the
14Jeff Springston and Joann Keyton, “Interview Response Training,” Bulletin
Association for Business Communica tion, September 1991, p. 29.
Myler, Job Interviews That Mean Business, p. 149.
16f Bileen Mahoney, “The No Clash Interview,” Minority MBA (1992-1993), p. 19.
Job Interviews 445
 “tell me about yourself,” it might be a good idea to mention that you come
from a more diffident culture and describe how that will help you deal with
employees or customers. On the other hand, if you are naturally enthusiastic
and talkative, make sure you act professional in the interview. Don’t put off the
interviewer by acting as though you are talking to one of your friends.
If you are the first person in your family to graduate from college and plan
to help your younger brothers and sisters go to college, mention this in the
light of wanting to succeed at your career to help others rather than of some-
one who expects to put family ahead of career.

Questions Asked by the Remember that an interview is a directed conversation between at least two
people. In addition to giving your answers, ask some questions as part of your
Candidate
side of the conversation. This is one chance to find out whether you would like
to work for this company, as well as for the company to find out whether you
are someone who would fit in there.

Questions at the End of the In the latter part of the interview, the interviewer will ask whether you have
Interview questions about the company. Your research will have given you some ideas,
and some answers to the 20 questions in Table 13-1, listed by recruiters as
the best ones students asked them in interviews.
Other questions to ask are those that relate to the literature the company
Plan useful questions for each provides about itself and its jobs. If the recruiting brochure describes a pro-
company. motion path, you might ask how trainees are evaluated or what differentiates
those who are promoted from those who are not. For example:
e How many people go through the training program in a year?
e How often do you give performance reviews?
e How much travel is involved?
Find out what the job is really ° How frequently are employees relocated?
like.
e Is there anything else I can tell you about my qualifications?
e What objectives would you like accomplished in this job in the next
three months?
Be certain to ask what action will come after the interview: “When might I
expect to hear from you?”

Earlier in the Interview One good time to ask questions is between the small talk and the time the
interviewer begins his or her questions. If you are able to work in some
questions early in the interview, ask what the interviewer is looking for and
where the company is headed. Using this information, you can show how you
are the person to do the job:
e What do you consider ideal experience for this job?
e What are the primary results you would like to see me produce?
e What personal qualities are needed to succeed in this job?
e Is this a new position?

SECOND INTERVIEWS After your on-campus interview, you will likely be invited for a second inter-
view by companies interested in hiring you. You have made the cut. Now take
advantage of the extra knowledge you can gain from this interview to help you
make your job decision.

446 Chapter Thirteen

|@aABLE 13-1 Questions to Ask about the Company in an |
Interview

. What future changes do you see for the company?

. Who are your competitors?

. What makes your econ different a others?

. How does my job fit with the mission of the organization?

. What will I be contributing to the organization?

. What do you wish you had known about the company before you started?

. How would top management describe the corporate culture, and how does
this compare with things in the organization as they really are at the lower
levels?

. What are the ethical and environmental philosophies of your company?

. What is this company’s philosophy toward its employees?

10. What values are sacred to the company?

11. What do you see as the biggest areas of needed improvement within the
company?

12: What are the short- and long-term strategic directions of the company?

13. What is the greatest challenge, from your perspective, that the organization
faces during the next year?

ney Can I expect opportunities for advancement with the company if I work
hard to prove myself?

15% Where would my career progress from my first assignment?

16. What was your career path within the company?

17. What makes your association with this company enjoyable?

18. What are the company’s goals for the future?

iy, If I do well, what will I be doing in five years?

|20. What programs for minorities does your firm have? |

Jack Falvey, “In the Real World,” Business Edge, October 1992, p. 9.

Job Interviews
 Second interviews can take place in person or over the phone. The inter-
view can be at the downtown office of a company located in the same town as
your school, in another city nearby where you have expressed an interest in
working, or in the corporate headquarters clear across the country. In all these
cases (except a phone interview), you will have an opportunity to actually see
the company at work in a way you could not at an interview with an on-
campus recruiter.
This second, on-site interview, of course, helps you gather more informa-
tion about the company and its location and culture. But don’t let the excite-
ment of an on-site visit make you forget that the company will also learn a lot
about you at this interview.
The second interview can consist of another hour or so at the company’s
office, but it often includes lunch and perhaps even an entire day, especially if
you are coming in from out of town. You will be introduced to a number of
An on-site interview gives you people, some of whom you will have time to talk to at some length. Whether
and the company a chance to
look each other over. it seems like a conversation or an interview, remember that it is still an inter-
view. People will continue to try to find out how well you would fit into the
company. They will also try to impress you so that you will accept their offer
later.
You will need to use some business social skills as well as your technical
skills to succeed at these interviews. You need to know how to travel effi-
ciently, what receipts to save, what kinds of foods to order when your mind is
on more than eating, and how to pack for a two-day trip.
Someone will probably meet your plane or at least arrange for you to be
taken to your hotel, where your schedule of appointments will be waiting for
you. Plan to wear appropriate business travel and interview clothing. Also plan
to keep up your regular fitness routine while you are away; this will reduce
stress and help you look energetic during what will probably be a long day or
more of interviewing a number of new people. In addition to impressing these
people, you want to be alert enough to be able to evaluate the company as an
employer for you.
Here are some tips for preparing for on-site interviews:

e Find out whom you will see and what your schedule will be. Technical
people will interview you for qualities other than those the screening
recruiter did. Who is the decision maker?
e If it’s an out-of-town meeting, establish who will arrange for travel,
hotel, and meals. Find out when you will be reimbursed and what
receipts to save.
e Plan business clothing for the entire time you will be with company
representatives— from the time you arrive to the time you leave.
e Eat moderately and get enough sleep. Keep your energy high so that
you look like an attractive candidate.

COMPANY TOURS Prior to graduation, you may have an opportunity to tour companies in which
you are interested, especially if your school is located in a larger city. These
AND LUNCHES opportunities could come from student organizations like the Society for the
Advancement of Management, the Finance and Investment Society, or AIESEC
(a French acronym for the International Association of Economics and Man-
agement Students or Association Internationale des Etudiants en Sciences
Economiques et Commercials). Your career-planning and placement office
448 Chapter Thirteen
may set up tours of local companies, or you may know someone who offers
you a personal tour. :
Take these offers—you may find a company you would like to work for or
find out that a company that interested you is not as you expected. You will get
a chance not only to see the physical plant but also to meet people who work Ask professionals questions
about working in your field.
for the company. You will probably have a chance to ask questions and find out
what it is like to work there.
Observe the following signs of corporate culture:
e Are working conditions equal for all ranks of employees?
e Are employees polite and considerate, welcoming guests and appearing
on time for appointments?
e Do people act friendly or cool toward the boss?
e What official communication publication do employees have?
e What is the company’s tone and look?
e Are awards and signs of group activities evident?!” -
When you talk to company employees and contacts, ask
e What are the company goals?
e How long have most employees been there?
e Do employees get a lot of satisfaction working at the company?
The answers will tell you a great deal about the corporate culture, employee
turnover, and work atmosphere.'® .
You will probably meet some people who are less interesting than others.
Act attentive and interested with al] company representatives; this is business,
not a social visit with friends. Try to find out who your boss would be. Do you
like this person? Will you learn something from him or her? Personal chemistry
isn’t everything, but having a good boss will really help you on the job, no
matter how thorough your technical knowledge.
You may have read books about how to dress and other points about busi-
ness etiquette. The hardest thing about a business lunch may be remembering
Remember that lunch is still
that it is business, not a social occasion. Although it provides an opportunity business.
for you to get to know company members better, it also gives them more time
to look you over. Table 13—2 (page 450) offers some guidelines for handling
a business lunch successfully.
Just as you try to dress professionally but inconspicuously, try to orches-
trate your interview lunch so that people remember your interesting conver-
sation rather than what or how much you ate or drank.

When you get home from a lunch, a tour, or an interview, you should write a THANK-YOU LETTERS
thank-you note. This will help create a good impression of yourself and remind
people you met who you are.

At the end of the interview or tour, be sure to get a business card from your The Importance of
interviewer or host. That way you will be able to spell even unusual names Promptness and Accuracy
correctly and learn the proper mailing address (which may well differ from the
street address).

17Dan Moreau, “Take Charge of Your Career,” Changing Times, October 1990, pp. 93-95.
18Marilyn Moats Kennedy, “The Workplace from Hell: How to Spot It Before You Sign On,”
Glamour, April 1992, p. 139. :

Job Interviews 449

 |@PABLE 13-2 Guidelines for Handling a Business Lunch |
1. Order food that is easy to eat. Avoid food that gets your hands or clothing
dirty (this is not the time for fried chicken or spaghetti).
2. Avoid alcohol. Just as you wouldn’t smoke in an interview (which this
lunch is), don’t do anything that might spoil your concentration.
Remember, this is work.
3. Remember your manners: cut up your food, take small bites, chew with
your mouth closed, tear your bread into pieces before buttering it, and do
not talk with your mouth full. These “rules” sound elementary, but
breaking any of them can create a poor enough impression to cost you a
job offer.
4. Don’t order more food or more expensive items than anyone else. Ask
your interviewers for recommendations, since they probably know the
restaurant well. It may be a treat for them to go to an expensive place with
you, so let them set the tone. The general rule is to order something in the
middle range of the menu, unless your host encourages you to order
something more expensive.
5. If you are being interviewed by a company with plans to send you to one
of its international offices, do research beforehand about the other
country’s eating customs. For example, Europeans use a knife and fork
differently than you may be used to. For an Asian company, you should
learn to use chopsticks and chopstick etiquette, such as not using your
chopsticks to take food from the common serving dish. In Japan, if you
clean your plate, it is assumed you want more food, so leave alittle food
on your plate. In Holland, a business colleague may offer you a small
drink at any time of the day as part of Dutch hospitality. Take the drink,
and at least pretend to drink it.

Letitia Baldrige, Letitia Baldrige’s Complete Guide to Business Manners (New York: Rawson Associates,
1985), p. 170.

Just as with personal thank-you notes such as those for birthday gifts, busi-
ness thank-you notes are most appreciated when they are prompt. Try to get
Thank-you notes must be yours written the day after the interview or tour, if at all possible. If as much
written promptly.
as a week passes, you will almost have to mention the reason for the delay in
writing.
What if you were interviewed by a number of people during a company
visit? Unless you can take the time to compose different notes to each person
you met, write one good letter to the person who set up the interview and ask
this person to thank the other people for spending time with you. If you write
to each interviewer, do not send personalized form letters; they may show
their letters to one another.
Another thank-you note that will gain you goodwill is one to the person
You may need to write more who arranged the interview for you. Do not ask for another favor in this letter;
than one thank-you letter. if you have other topics to discuss, do so in another letter. The sole purpose
of a thank-you letter is to thank someone.

General Outline While it is important to personalize your note as much as possible—mention-

ing specifics from the interview, the tour, or your qualifications— most such
thank-you notes are just a few paragraphs long and follow the same general
pattern.

450 Chapter Thirteen

In the first paragraph, thank the interviewer or your tour host. You might say, Thank the Recipient
|appreciate your spending time yesterday discussing the sales position ABC
Corporation is filling. Hearing that you plan to open a new territory in New Mexico
made me even more eager to begin my career with ABC.

In the second paragraph, talk about something that will help the interviewer Expand on Some
remember you. It could be something you discussed, additional information Individualized Detail
you promised to get, or something you have learned about the company. As
this is the most original paragraph of the letter, try to make it especially
interesting:

Your recent purchase of notebook computers for sales staff will certainly help them
keep up to the minute on prices and availability. The enclosed copy of the article we
discussed shows how insurance salespeople can use notebook computers to give
potential customers instant price quotes.

The third or last paragraph of the thank-you letter should end pleasantly with End with a Forward Look
a forward look at your next contact with this person. Be positive and busi-
nesslike:
| look forward to hearing from you about the contribution | can make to increasing
sales at ABC Corporation.

To help make your thank-you letter gain you goodwill, Gaining Goodwill with Thank-
e Be prompt (within 24 hours of the interview). you Letters
e Be accurate (spell names correctly).
e Be brief (say thank you only once).
e Be specific (so you are memcrable).
e Be positive (make them choose you).
e Be available for further interviews.

To successfully negotiate salary, you need to know two figures: the minimum NEGOTIATING YOUR
you will accept and the maximum you think the company will offer. Your
acceptable minimum should take into account how much money you need to JOB OFFER
live on, how much your specialty is worth in the current market, and how
much money you think you should earn. Your personal feelings about where Salary
the job is located and what your promotion path is will also affect the price you
set On your services.
To get an idea of the maximum the company might offer, collect available
information so you can make an educated guess. Ask professional contacts
what the range for someone like you is in their organizations. Ask executive Plan your salary negotiation
ahead of time.
recruiters, trade association members, and placement office personnel who
perform salary surveys of positions offered to graduates.'?
Employment experts agree that you should wait to discuss salary until the Don’t be the first to mention a
company makes youa job offer. Delay stating a figure until the employer has salary figure.
named one. Here are some suggested delaying statements:
e I’m open and negotiable.
e I need to hear more about the position.

19Paul Hellman, Ready, Aim, You’re Hired (New York: AMACON, 1986). Published in Savvy,
March 1986, pp. 50-52.

Job Interviews 451

 e I’m sure that, should we come to an agreement about the position,
we'll be able to work out the salary.
e It would be presumptuous of me to tell you what the job is worth.
What did you have in mind?
If you follow one of these delaying statements with “What would be a starting
salary for someone with my qualifications?” or “What kind of range have you
allocated to this position?” you are likely to receive the specific answer you are
after.
When the interviewer names a salary, do not say anything. Try to remain
silent for up to 30 seconds. The first offer is usually near the bottom of the
range for the job, and the interviewer will probably raise that number if you
remain silent. If the amount is too low, you may be able to get a promise to
have your salary reviewed in three months based on your performance, even
if the company gives only annual reviews. All future raises are based on your
initial salary, however, so don’t sell yourself short. When a company is making
you an offer, you are in your strongest bargaining position.
When the interviewer names a range or a specific number, wait, then make
a counteroffer— perhaps 20 percent higher or 10 percent under the maximum
you have figured the company will offer if the offer seems low.

Benefits When comparing two offers, include benefits: What is a company car, paid
parking, or other benefits worth to you?
From your research, you should be aware of benefits offered to employees
in your field. Standard benefits include personal holidays, paid vacation, differ-
ent types of insurance, educational programs, and possibly financial incentives
such as stock options. Some larger companies pay for company cars, relocation
costs, spouse relocation, and club membership.
Whether the issue is salary, benefits, or some other aspect of the job offer,
delay your employment decision at least overnight to feel sure that it is the
Don’t accept an offer too best decision for you and to make the employer want you more. Once you
quickly— sleep on it. have the offer, clarify details about your future, such as timing of performance
and salary reviews, relocation and benefit policies, and available resources for
accomplishing your job.

Job interviews give you an opportunity to present yourself well for available
REVIEW jobs. You can succeed at interviewing by doing your company homework,
finding out what questions might be asked, and preparing for the interview as
though it were a research and speaking assignment. This chapter presented a
number of guidelines for preparing for interviews, answering the various types
of interview questions, handling second interviews, and negotiating job offers:
e Use campus resources for company research and recruiter contact.
e Practice interviewing by role-playing, if possible.
e Learn about kinds of interview questions (open, closed, probing).
Learn about kinds of interviewers (screener, professional, peer, hiring
manager ).
e Learn about kinds of interviews (structured, unstructured, stress,
group
).
e Prepare for possible computer and video interviews.
e Plan your interview clothing to convey a positive impression.

452 Chapter Thirteen

Study nonverbal behavior and uses of silence.
Study interview questions and possible answers (education, experience,
).
activities and honors, personal qualities
Learn how to deal with situational, job-related, and discriminatory
questions.
Plan some questions to ask in the interview.
Review your skills and abilities lists to go into an interview feeling
positive about yourself and your skills.
Prepare for on-site interviews and company tours.
Write thank-you letters to enhance your candidacy for the job.
Successfully negotiate salary and benefits once you receive an offer.

Job Interviews 453

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
. List three sources you will use to identify 6. Imagine you are going to a group interview to
prospective employers. How will you find more choose candidates for an exchange program with
information on the companies than these sources another university or in another country. How can
can make available to you? you make yourself memorable in a positive way?
. Based on a typical thirty-minute interview, what 7. Write a summary of what you expect to happen
do you plan to accomplish in the first five on a second interview with a company that takes
minutes? place at the company’s headquarters. What two
. How do you plan to emphasize your education or aspects of the interview worry you the most?
your experience (whichever qualifies you more Why? What can you do to better prepare for
for the job applied for)? them?
. List several questions you should not ask an 8. An interviewer asks, “Show me how you solve a
interviewer. problem.” Write out your answer.
. What do you plan to wear to your interviews? 9. What are your action choices if an interviewer
Why did you choose this specific outfit? What asks you an illegal question?
nonverbal impression are you trying to convey? 10. How can you deal with silence in an interview?

CASES
1. Researching Jobs. Using the Occupational communicate in an interview. What stories could
Outlook Handbook, find five jobs that interest you tell to briefly illustrate these points? Write out
you. List these jobs and the entry-level salary for one of these stories.
each. Write a paragraph explaining why you are 6. Role-playing an Interview. With two
suited to each of these jobs. classmates, role-play part of an interview involving
. Researching a Company. Research a company at least four interview questions. One student
that plans to send recruiters to your campus to should act as an observer and take notes. Then
interview potential job candidates. Find out as each of you reports to the class what went well
much of the following information as you can. and what you would like to have changed about
Then write up a company profile to prepare the interview.
yourself for an interview. 7. Writing a Memo on Interviewing. Find two or
Name of recruiter three recent articles on interviewing. Write a
. Size of organization in industry memo to your placement office telling how to
Potential growth and competition prepare students for current interview styles (cite
. Annual sales growth over past five years your sources).
oP
ono Complete product line or services, including 8. Writing a Follow-up Letter. Write a follow-up
new products letter to a recruiter with whom you had an on-
Age of top managers and their backgrounds campus interview. Mention some aspect of your
. Corporate culture education or experience that will further qualify
. Type of training program you for the job. Three weeks have passed since
gq. Promotional path and relocation policies
os
mp your interview.
. Questioning a Recruiter. Based on your 9. Writing a Thank-You Letter. Write a thank-you
company research in Case 2, write out 10 letter to your interviewers at an on-site interview
questions to ask this recruiter. Think of questions with a company in which you are very interested.
that show that you already have some knowledge You just flew home from the headquarters city.
of the company. Do you have any receipts that were not already
. Explaining your Interest. The interviewer of reimbursed?
the company in Case 2 asks, “Why are you 10. Accepting a Job Offer. Write a letter accepting
interested in our company?” Write out your a job offer. Be sure to clarify any necessary
answer. details, such as when you can begin work, and to
. Selling your Qualifications. Write a list of convey enthusiasm about your new job.
three main points about yourself that you want to

454. Chapter Thirteen

 THE NO CLASH INTERVIEW
eading 13-1 F, Eileen Mahoney

Everett Begay was getting worried. He’d been through five e Leadership: ability to cite specific examples of
interviews and had no job offers. He was careful to be on personal achievements and strengths.
his best behavior and to be especially polite to the employ- e Goal Orientation: the ability to express short- and
ment recruiters. His grades were high and his skills were long-term goals as they pertain to the job.
good, but something was obviously wrong.
Professionalism: indicated through the use of
Ana Gonzales thought her first interview was going well.
grammatically correct English with no slang or
She was answering the questions honestly and openly like
“peer” words.
her career counselor had advised. When asked about her
five-year goals, she told the recruiter she wanted to earn e Composure: remaining calm under pressure and
enough money to put her younger sister through school handling stress questions comfortably.
and then start her own family, providing them with oppor- e Enthusiasm: excitement about the job and a sincere
tunities she hadn’t had. The interview went downhill from desire to become a part of the organization and
there. industry.
Dwight Williams was excited about his interview. He put Authenticity: capable of portraying a sense of
forth an extra effort to be friendly and relaxed with the individuality that is interesting and sincere.
corporate recruiter. When the recruiter asked Dwight what
These characteristics may strike a chord of discomfort for
he had to offer the company, Dwight tried to rely on his
some people because they inherently clash with personal
energy and enthusiasm because he had no previous related
and/or cultural values. Rather than try to change your en-
work experience. The more zealous he became in his ef-
tire value system or just fake it in the interview process, it
forts to convince the recruiter how much he wanted the
is better to find a way to express yourself in ways that not
job, the more the recruiter seemed to withdraw.
only feel right for you but are comfortable for the recruiter
The corporate interview can be a nerve-wracking ordeal.
as well. The first step in being able to do this requires some
You can go into an interview feeling confident and excited
self analysis and reflection.
and come out feeling deflated and dazed. When an inter-
view doesn’t go well it is sometimes difficult to determine
exactly what went wrong. Clarify What You Want and What You
Corporations, like any other group of people, have their Have to Offer
own identity consisting of cultural norms, appropriate be-
haviors and unspoken expectations. Research has shown Before you try to compete in a culturally biased interview,
that interviewers unconsciously like candidates who look, you must have a clear understanding of your values, cul-
act and think as they do, demonstrating characteristics sim- tural heritage, and personal strengths. Too often people
ilar to those of the corporate culture. In fact, this “likability approach the job hunt with a one-down attitude of “I hope
factor” is often unintentionally given more weight in hiring they like me.” Remember, you will be spending the major-
decisions than an applicant’s specific abilities, resulting in ity of your wakeful state on the job, and thus should be
culturally biased interviews. interviewing with an attitude of “I hope I like them.” Ide-
This puts women and people of color at a distinct disad- ally, you want to land a job that is enjoyable as well as
vantage because they are still underrepresented in the cor- compatible with your value system.
porate environment. Not only are covert corporate codes In order to do this, you need to develop a set of criteria
of behavior unknown to minority candidates, but they of- by which to evaluate potential organizations. These criteria
ten run counter to their personal beliefs and cultural val- should not be limited to salary and other benefits— these
ues. However, this does not have to interfere with a suc- are poor compensation for a boring job that requires you to
cessful job hunt. Women and people of color can sell out your personal beliefs. Instead, consider what tasks
circumvent any subtle discrimination they encounter in you have found interesting and enjoyable in the past. Also,
the interview process by using the following tips. think about what values have impacted your life decisions.
The most rewarding jobs are ones that are compatible with
Know the Interviewer’s Expectations these criteria.
As important as clarifying what you want is knowing
Most recruiters have a conscious or unconscious picture of what you can do. The recruiter’s job is to predict your
the “ideal candidate” in the interview process. Following future performance in the company based on your previous
are some characteristics that employers typically respond performance in academics, work, and other activities. You
to favorably: can make this task easier by having several ready examples
e Self-confidence: demonstratedby a strong of activities that clearly demonstrate your most marketable
handshake, ready smile and good eye contact. skills.
Job Interviews 455
Research the Company recruiters would interpret these behaviors as indicating
that Everett was a shy underachiever. Everett could have
Once you have a solid picture of who you are and what you corrected this misinterpretation by explaining his behavior
want, you need to get a clearer picture of each company during the course of the interview. For example, if asked
that seriously interests you. This requires extensive re- “Tell me about yourself” he could have replied, “In order
search. Don’t rely solely on your campus placement office. to tell you about myself, I need first to tell you alittle about
Instead, utilize the campus and public libraries to search for my culture. Are you very familiar with Native American
articles about the organization or its employees. Talk to traditions?” He could go on from there to clue in the re-
customers or clients who use the services or products of cruiter.
the organization and ask them for their impressions. Talk to For Ana Gonzales to talk about her family in relation to
employees of the organization and find out how they feel her long-term goals was natural. Growing up in the barrios,
about working there. Contact the public relations depart- family had always been a major focus of her life. Thanks to
ment of the corporation and ask them to send you any their love and encouragement, she was the first child in her
information that will give insight into the values of the family to graduate from college. But the recruiter could
organization and its leaders. Talk to members of profes- misconstrue her emphasis to mean that career would not
sional organizations who might be able to tell you how the be as important as family and her job performance would
company rates in the industry. Talk to teachers, advisors, suffer as a result.
placement center staff and the alumni office for names of Ana could have improved her answer by sharing with the
previous graduates who may know something about the recruiter what it was like growing up in the barrios and the
specific organization or the industry as a whole. important role family played in her graduation from col-
Company research is key in surviving the culturally bi- lege. This could shed light on why financing her sister's
ased interview. Gathering information about the company education was so important, and leave the recruiter with
increases the opportunity for you to examine their corpo- the impression that Ana is a person of integrity and deter-
rate culture, learning what they value in employees. Com- mination. Ana could have strengthened her answer by com-
pare this to what you have determined to be personally bining personal and professional goals.
important to you; then decide if the company will be a Unfortunately, there is still a strong misconception that
good match. You can also go to the interview better pre- women who have children are going to be less productive
pared to impress the recruiter. than male co-workers, so women should avoid mentioning
plans to start a family no matter how distant those plans
Making Cultural Differences Work for You might be.
Dwight Williams was known among his peers for his
If you find yourself in a situation where your personal val- friendly, outgoing personality. In his efforts to ingratiate the
ues and style are at odds with the recruiter’s, this doesn’t recruiter, Dwight was talking to him as he would a peer.
mean you are destined to fail in the interview. Authenticity The recruiter misinterpreted this friendly attitude and as-
was mentioned as a positive quality in candidates by many sumed Dwight lacked professionalism. A more formal com-
recruiters. In conjunction with this they have reported munication style coupled with his exuberant enthusiasm
they enjoy interviewing “interesting” students. You could would have probably scored more points.
be the only spot of color (literally and figuratively) on a When the recruiter pressed Dwight about what he could
recruiter’s interview schedule—make it work to your ad- offer the company, Dwight fell prey to the common as-
vantage! sumption that paid work experience is the only way to
Remember, cultural bias in an interview is usually not demonstrate relevant skills. He could have emphasized
intentional. Interviewers evaluate you with a certain per- transferable skills developed through participation in areas
spective they may not even be aware is discriminatory. Use such as athletics, academics, church and community
the interview as an opportunity to share insights about events. Some of the most marketable skills are those devel-
your cultural norms and values. Change the recruiter’s per- oped through non-paid activities. The recruiter needs to be
spective! Be careful, however, to weave relevance into convinced that not only do you want the job, but you have
your information—what you share should be pertinent to the skills necessary to do the job.
the type of employee you would make. To exemplify how
this could be done, consider the plight of the three candi-
dates mentioned in the beginning of this article.
The Benefits of a Culturally Biased Interview
In the case of Everett Begay, in the tradition of his Navajo
culture, he was showing the recruiter great respect by of- Culturally biased interviews can act as a screening tool for
fering a gentle handshake and limiting direct eye contact. you to eliminate organizations. You should prepare for an
In addition, leadership among his people is demonstrated interview, express your strengths in a context the recruiter
in deeds, not words, and cooperation for the good of the understands, and attempt to share insights into your cul-
group is highly valued. Thus, he was not inclined to talk tural heritage. If you do this and still come away feeling the
about his individual accomplishments. Unfortunately, most interview was a bomb, maybe that particular company was

456 Chapter Thirteen

 not a good match for you. After all, would you really want recruiter’s gender or color. You will also be better able to
to work for an organization that could not appreciate your assess each organization’s corporate culture and make a
cultural heritage? solid decision which company is the best for you.
If you suspect the interview went poorly because of per-
sonal discrimination on the part of the recruiter, being
screened out can help you decide how much you really
want to work for that organization. If, based on your com-
pany research, you feel the company is still the best match |Storytelling as an Interviewing Art Form |
for you, write to someone else in the company. Get the
name of someone in the specific department where you
want to work, explain why you want to work for them and Successful interviewees are those that can give
what you have to offer. Mention that you had the opportu- enough vivid, unique information in their
nity to interview with one representative of the organiza- responses to capture the recruiter’s attention. Not
tion, but felt you would like to talk with an additional per- only do the recruiters find their responses
son. This extra effort and persistence often impresses interesting but also memorable.
employers and results in a second interview and an even- For example, when doing a practice interview
tual job offer. with a student, I asked him ‘What qualities do you
look for in a good supervisor?”
Some Final Comments He paused for a short while and then said, “I
think a good supervisor is one who is
Remember that enthusiasm doesn’t have to be portrayed hard-working, willing to help out when needed,
through high energy and a “cheerleading” demeanor. Quiet can give clear direction and develop teamwork.”
people can convey enthusiasm by indicating their desire to That was an okay answer, but not great. Later,
work in the industry and by asking informed questions when going over his performance I asked the
about the company. student if there were any questions he found
If you find yourself stumped by a question you don’t particularly difficult. He smiled and said, “Oh
know how to answer, don’t fake it. Instead of trying to tell yeah. That one about a good supervisor. All I could
the recruiter what you think he or she wants to hear, an- think of was my old captain on the fishing boat I
swer truthfully. A simple “I’m not sure” or a request for worked on during the summer in Alaska. Eddie
clarification is appropriate. Your honesty will make a better was this big, burly guy with a long, white beard. I
impression than a fumbled attempt to bluff. Recruiters re- always admired him because he was super hard
alize that we are all human; to retain your composure working and would get down and dirty with the
through a nerve-wracking interview is admirable in itself. rest of us. He didn’t act superior. And our boat had
Many people feel insecure about interviewing when they the highest safety record in the harbor because he
have a low GPA. Though repeated studies have shown that was able to tell us exactly who should be doing
college GPA is not a good indicator of future job perfor- what and where. We never got in each other’s way
mance, some recruiters still ask about it. If your GPA is not and functioned as a team on dangerous high seas.
high, admit it but let the recruiter know it is not a good But I didn’t think I should mention him because he
indicator of your abilities. Then, go on to talk about what wasn’t a professional or anything.”
you.can do and offer specific examples of past performance His second answer said essentially the same
to back up your statements. thing as the first, but in a much more colorful
For many college students, the formal corporate inter- manner. When you answer questions, give a slice
view process is unfamiliar and frightening. To get over any of life in your response when possible. Paint a
fear and improve your performance, go through a practice thumbnail sketch for the recruiter that can give
or mock interview. insight into your personality and make you a
If you follow these general interviewing tips, you will memorable candidate.
perform better in any interview situation regardless of the

Job Interviews 457

 HOW TO PROVE YOUR WAY TO A JOB OFFER
eading 13—2 1 John LaFevre

We have looked at each of the three steps required to Example C: SET to Prove Competence in Field. “I
prove a strength: believe that grades do have a reasonable amount of validity
in predicting ability and competence, but I also feel that
Step I: State the strength you will prove. experience carries equal value. As you can see from my
Step II: Experience episode. resume, I have a 3.1 grade point average. The grades dem-
Step III: Tell what has just been proven. onstrate an achieved level of technical understanding in
marketing, but I believe the real strength I have to offer is
Putting the three steps together in a concise mini-presen- the ability to take the theory and book learning and apply
tation (SET) will dramatically improve interviewing suc- the knowledge in a business environment. Last summer I
cess. Examine our three examples with all three steps put worked as an intern at Ajax Company—they manufacture
together in a SET (note the transition through each step). more than fifty different kinds of kitchen utensils. I was
Example A: SET to Prove Leadership. “My greatest assigned to the advertising/brand management division to
strength is motivating and leading others to achieve a de- assist in the release of a new product. The marketing study
fined goal. I have always had a high degree of energy and I completed was used to determine the testing area demo-
impatience to get things done. For example, I was elected graphics. I received an outstanding rating at the end of the
chairman of the Homecoming Float Committee for three summer and in fact have received an offer from Ajax to
years in a row. I had the real challenge of supervising and enter their training program. By the way, the product has
coordinating the efforts of as many as fifty high school stu- been very successful and is projected to represent 2 per-
dents to get the floats done on time. We received the first- cent of sales by the third quarter of next year. I feel confi-
place trophy for each of the three years—a record that still dent that my formal training and the solid field experience
stands at the school. I continued gaining successful leader- I have discussed prove my technical competence to
ship experience during my college years as a class officer achieve results.”
and as a project leader for our senior project. In that
project I managed a team of eight engineering students Conclusion
whose prescribed goal was to design and build a concrete
boat. I think I played a key role in building a great team Using SETS to substantiate and prove that you offer certain
spirit, and alittle bit of each of us went down when she was strengths is a powerful tool that clearly separates you from
sunk to become a fish haven. To summarize, I believe that the competition. Have you ever been interviewed for a
these examples show that my greatest strength is leader- position that you knew you could handle and would enjoy
ship to motivate others to achieve prescribed goals.” and yet still received a turndown? Have you ever wondered
Example B: SET to Prove Social Poise Necessary to why you received a turndown from an interview that went
Entertain Customers. “I believe that being close to cus- well? Unless required strengths are proven, the interviewer
tomers is a critically important aspect of sales. I enjoy the will never extend an offer.
company of a wide variety of personality types and a broad You should develop and practice several SETS that prove
spectrum of activities from golf to opera. Personally, I think the strengths you offer. They should not be memorized, but
the requirement to entertain customers in various cultural rather should flow naturally in a conversational manner
and social settings adds real excitement to the sales pro- during the interview. A SET can often be modified slightly
cess. A nice restaurant can certainly offer a complementary to prove many different strengths. For example, the job
atmosphere in which to conduct business, and I appreciate candidate who used the float-building experience episode
a fine wine and excellent food presentation, but a pleasant could slightly modify the SET and use it to prove ability to
round of golf or an evening of theater can be equally effec- work as a team player.
tive. The real purpose of entertainment is to leave the guest SETS should be brief, concise, and focused to ensure that
with a good feeling about the salesperson, the company, the interviewer is convinced that you do, in fact, offer that
and the time spent together sharing a social experience. strength. Few candidates realize the importance of proving
With a 12 handicap, I can offer a good round of golf to any required strengths. You are now one of the few—congrat-
caliber player without risking embarrassment to a guest or ulations.
myself. Also, as indicated on my resume, I enjoy a wide
variety of interests; the entertainment function would just Source: John LaFevre, How You Really Get Hired, 1986. Used
enhance my own quality of life. The entertainment function by permission of the publisher, ARCO/A division of Simon &
of the sales position would be a real pleasure, not a chore.” Schuster, New York.

458 Chapter Thirteen

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(Sommunicating
Interpersonally
Effective oral interactions—activities like talking out a problem, kicking around an
idea, settling differences, and building trust—often make the difference between a
productive and an unproductive business organization. This chapter presents a
useful model for interpersonal communication. Then it covers two essential aspects
of processing incoming information. Active listening is a group of skills rarely
taught in any deliberate way yet crucial to business success. Perceiving and
evaluating nonverbal communication are closely related to active listening. People's
nonverbal communication is more often misunderstood than is their verbal
communication. We will look at why that is so, explain what to do about it, and
describe how to control the nonverbal signals we ourselves send.

461
 cc | When Nonverbel Signals8See : :
rom the desk of...! Like ete Let

My co-supervisor, Paul, and I began working eectee about four months ago. -
_ Together we are overseeing the critical first six months of production of a com-
ponent several large equipment companies are relying on. Each of us runs one
line. He’s a competent guy—I think. — |
So why am I worried? When we exchange information about routine problems a
and solutions, he searches my face as if he’s not sure what he’s saying is right,
or not sure it’sokay with me—lI don’t know, exactly. What he says is okay— the -
words are, anyway. He hesitates a lot when, he talks, and acts nervous. He’s |
: Jason Witter really knowledgeable. He reads everything, and he’s on top of an amazing —
_ Production Supervisor _ _ amount of production detail. But I’ve realized several times, after we’ve solved
2 problem, that he remembers all.thedetail iin the conversation but not themain .
idea. He evidently goes and works it out correctly himself—so far.
Frankly, I'm on edge. Our jol is to spot and solve production sebleng:Ifwe
w
ae communicate better we could miss something, and it could be horren-
_dously eae But I'mnoteven sure ae I'm ~~ So how do I being it
up with him? oo oa

PERCEPTION AND Chapter 1 discussed the differences in the way different people perceive the
same experiences and the different attitudes, backgrounds, experiences, emo-
ATTITUDE tions, values, and needs creating their differences in perception.
Other earlier chapters touched on the need to examine the nature of the
audience or the reader before writing a business message. The same need
characterizes ordinary daily dialog, in which we easily revert to the me-cen-
tered focus that comes to us so naturally. We forget that those differences we
Considering the receiver is as examined are stili present and active. In the spontaneous stream of speech,
important in interpersonal often we speak before we think enough about what might be misunderstood.
communication as it is in
writing. As listeners, too, we settle comfortably into our own frame of reference and
thereby isolate ourselves from another’s intended meaning. As both senders
and receivers, we lose out—and so does our organization.

INFLUENCING AND We cannot purposefully influence others unless we know who they are, how
they think and feel and how strongly, why they feel that way, and how they
INFORMING view us and the surrounding situation. We cannot inform others unless we
know who they are, what they already know, what they need, and why they
need it. When we receive, process, and evaluate incoming information accu-
rately, we begin to know how to influence and inform.

TEAMWORK In response to international competition, U.S. organizations are increasing em-

phasis on teamwork. Teamwork relies on the willingness of group members to
The most effective teams value
cooperation more than understand the needs of co-workers and of the organization and to value
competition. cooperation more highly than personal competition.
This team orientation comes harder to Americans, on the average, than to
many other peoples. From the time of the first European migrations, Americans
have been—not selfish, necessarily—pbut self-absorbed. Until recently, our
history, biography, and fiction have featured individuals, not groups, who con-
quered obstacles and became heroes. Now, as the global business perspective
462 Chapter Fourteen
|QXHIBIT 14-1 Johari Grid |
Johari Grid

Person Ais aware Person Ais unaware

Person B
is
aware

PersonB| Hidden Unknown

is or.
unaware ; Unconscious
D

Source: Joseph Luft, Of Human Interaction (Palo Alto, Calif.: National Press Books, 1969).

expands, Americans are learning the value of interdependence in addition to

independence and initiative.
The synergy principle says that a functional group produces more than the
sum of individual members’ efforts alone. The payoff “increases the size of the
pie to divide,” and everyone’s reward rises. In this light, contributing one’s best
to a group makes excellent sense. Still, to work effectively as team members, A synergistic group produces
more than the sum of individual
individuals must learn and incorporate the perspectives of others and must members’ efforts.
master the skills needed to exchange those perspectives.

Mastering these skills is not easy. People have to start with self-knowledge, and COMMON GROUND
self-knowledge, as Kurt Vonnegut has said, “is always bad news.” We like AND TRUST
looking at the pleasant things about ourselves and tend to avoid the unpleasant
things. From this semi-stable basis, we take in and process information about
others—at least, as much information as they are willing to give us. Each side
builds trust cautiously. We rarely have as much information as would be ideal;
yet we must act anyway.

Before we take up listening and nonverbal communication, let us lay some Johari Grid
groundwork. Two theorists, Joseph Luft and Harrington Ingham, diagrammed
the information about a sender that is or could be available to another person
in a communication encounter. This diagram, called the Johari Grid, is shown
in Exhibit 14-1.
Quadrant A of the Johari Grid, called the Open or Public area, contains the
information both sender and receiver know. Quadrant B, the Blind area, con-
of.
tains the information the sender is unaware of but the receiver is aware
Quadrant C, the Hidden area, contains the information the sender is aware of
ous The Johari Grid diagrams the
but is concealing from the receiver. Quadrant D, the Unknown or Unconsci complexity involved in
area, contains the information that neither sender nor receiver knows about understanding another person’s
but that may still influence the interaction. Let’s look at a case using the Johari messages.
Grid.
Communicating Interpersonally 463
 The sender is Jerry, and the receiver is Mike. The two have worked for the
same company for three years and sometimes play slow-pitch ball together on
weekends. Outside the job, Mike has what he considers a very solid project in
which he would like to involve Jerry. They have talked about it from time to
time. Jerry has been mildly interested but noncommittal. Today Mike says that
he mainly needs Jerry’s time and expertise to add to his own, but the $1,000
he has already laid out in materials didn’t quite stretch. He is nearly ready to
sell the project and has located a buyer, but he also needs $250 from Jerry.
e In Quadrant A, the Open area, we place all of Jerry’s verbal and
nonverbal signals he knowingly sends today that are received as he
intended them. We also place there the history accumulated over the
last three years of which both men are aware.
e In Quadrant B, the Blind area, we place what Mike can see that Jerry is
unaware of. For instance, Mike thinks Jerry’s hands fidget more than
usual. Jerry seems less attentive than usual. His eyes look red. Mike
thinks, “Tears? Smoke? Too much liquor?” and doesn’t mention it. Mike
remembers a stupid argument the two had a year ago about a softball
game loss and wonders whether Jerry’s wish to change the subject
means he is still sore about it.
e In Quadrant C, the Hidden area, we place what Jerry knows but
conceals from Mike. For example, Jerry hates to part with money,
dislikes this trait in himself, and has therefore given generously to
office collections for good causes. Jerry is working on a project of his
own, not similar to Mike’s but one Jerry has financed on his own.
Although he knows Mike’s work is good, he disapproves of the
inadequate money planning. He also worked late last night, and his
head aches. And so on.
e In Quadrant D, the Unknown area, we place such things as Jerry’s
repressed and forgotten guilt over a very foolish $300 bet he once
placed and lost, as well as Jerry’s unrecognized partiality to people who
remind him, as Mike does, of his dad’s youngest brother, the uncle who
used to take him often to the video arcade and supply him with
quarters. And so on.
We would need to make a second grid to diagram the encounter with Mike as
sender and Jerry as receiver. You can see from this one sketchy analysis the
built-in problems in an interaction in which each communicator considers that
he is “acting normal.”
In a successful interaction, the Open area grows. Ideally, with each inter-
action senders become more aware of what they are sending. The Blind area
diminishes, and receivers help senders by being tactful and candid. Ideally,
senders decide to reveal more of (or diminish the importance of) the Hidden
area’s content, and receivers help them by being worthy of trust. Sometimes
continued interaction even brings to the surface some of the repressed or
unrecognized content of the Unknown area. As a relationship develops and
trust grows, Quadrants B, C, and D become less influential.

Agendas in Interpersonal The reason or goal for a communication is the communicator’s agenda. In
Communication an ordinary conversation, a sender’s agenda might be “getting to know you.”
In addition, however, a second agenda might be “learning how you might be
of use to me and making you willing to be.” This hidden agenda also
464 Chapter Fourteen
“drives” some of the interaction. Many hidden agendas are manipulative Or Agendas can be overt or
even sinister. hidden.
If the sender creates and maintains a facade and the receiver perceives the
sender pretending to be what she is not, the receiver is likely to do the same.
The open area will not grow much. Both communicators might develop hid-
den agendas.
If problems arise between two communicators in the same culture, con- A>]
sider how much more troublesome these areas of blindness, dissimilar expec- ey
tations, and inaccurate interpretations become in intercultural or international
settings. In cultures valuing soft speech and self-control, a communicator who
uses a forceful voice to convey authority makes the opposite impression. When
communicators from different cultures converse to “break the ice” before
beginning business, different personal topics are acceptable or unacceptable.
Americans might mention or inquire about a spouse and children, but to many
businesspersons in the Middle East such a topic invades privacy. Such inter-
personal and intercultural errors might diminish rather than expand trust.
Successful interpersonal behavior in organizations depends on communica-
tors’ willingness to work toward openness, cooperation, trust, teamwork, and
group or organizational goals. An essential skill set for achieving this is active
listening.

Most people believe they are good listeners. Few are. Studies show that after ACTIVE LISTENING
an interval of just a few hours, most people retain only about 25 percent of
Most listeners retain only about
what they heard. Hearers tend to pass the responsibility for their inattention on 25 percent of what they hear.
to the speaker: “If you want me to listen, you have to keep me interested.”
Active listening and simply hearing are very different. Many people just hear.

Research on listening has pointed out causes of poor listening in American (Causes of Poor Listening
culture. First, unlike many Asian nations’ schools, our schools reward young
children for asserting themselves (“I know, Teacher! I know! I know! Call on
me!”) rather than for working silently to absorb what they are taught. As
children become adults, they perceive that others pay attention to the talkers
rather than to the listeners. The listeners seem to be unimportant, passive, and
compliant.
Then too, every day and from all sides Americans are bombarded by Hee
mands for their attention: radio and television programs, advertisements, con-
versation, traffic, ringing phones, and much more. In these noisy surroundings,
many people form habits of inattention just to let themselves concentrate.
These habits create unrecognized barriers when others talk to these people.

DOES IT MAKE? YOU

NEVER LISTEN ANYWAY...

PEANUTS reprinted by permission of UFS, Inc.

Lucy Van Pelt is a serious bad-listening case. She doesn’t even pretend to listen.
Communicating Interpersonally 465
 A communication barrier called allness inhibits good listening. “I already
know all about that,” we often think when we simply don’t want to be both-
ered with new information. We also tend to write off people who don’t com-
municate very effectively. “I’m never going to hear anything I need from him,”
we think, and the mental wall goes up as this person tries to tell us something.
The speaker believes we need the information. Some of the time he will be
absolutely right—and we will lose.
Research shows that the mind can process information about three times as
fast as most people speak. Our minds have spare time. The extra time is best
Use spare thinking time to used to integrate the new information with what we already know. Unfortu-
integrate new information. nately, many people leave this spare time idle or work out what they will say
next (which makes them begin debating the speaker and perhaps even stop
processing the new information). Or they daydream, looking at the speaker but
only pretending to pay attention.
Daydreaming, if controlled, is healthy. People’s attention spans (their ca-
pacity for unbroken concentration) vary from a few seconds to a few minutes.
At these intervals, the mind takes short side trips to other topics, lingers there
briefly, and then (if we are trying) comes back, refreshed, to the here and now.
The trick is to make oneself come back. Those side trips may be pleasure
jaunts, as the person imagines driving the dream car fast on a long stretch of
open road. They may be work trips, where a continuing worry reasserts itself
and the person hunts for the solution. Poor listeners tune out without even
being aware of it.

Effective Listening Behaviors Effective listening is a set of behaviors. Making the behaviors into habits and
retaining the habits take constant effort. All our laziest impulses get in the way,
and we backslide constantly. Our best advice is to review the following list
every six months. Good listeners know that these habits need reinforcement.
e Do not interrupt. All that extra brain time gives you ample material,
and the temptation to assert yourself is strong.
e Defer judgment of what you are hearing. A poor listener takes in the
first few words, thinks “Oh, that again,” or “This is boring” (too
difficult, irrelevant, disorganized, stupid, a typical tech mindset,
beancounter mentality, touchy-feely, the union line, and so on) and
tunes out. The good listener hears the speaker out before evaluating
what she hears.
Undisciplined emotional e Do not react emotionally to a point you may disagree with. Good
reactions create barriers to listeners look for common ground and try to increase it. Poor listeners
listening.
look for differences, get involved emotionally, and close their minds.
Watch nonverbals to be certain you are receiving the whole message
or, indeed, the real message. Use your sight as well as your hearing. Try
to be empathetic and intuitive. Observe nonverbals, not to criticize
them but to comprehend more fully. As we will discuss in more detail
shortly, sometimes nonverbals carry far more information than verbal
messages do—or even contradict them.
Listen to learn. Be a curious person with an open mind. Do not dismiss
topics or ideas as dull. Usually it’s not the topic that is dull, it’s the dull
mind that shuts it out.
Do not be distracted by the speaker's differences from you. Our biases
are triggered by differences in age, race, sex, or type of word choice;
466 Chapter Fourteen
 by nonverbals such as stance, grooming, and clothing; and even by
' differences in personal attractiveness.
Minimize distractions. In noisy surroundings, move the encounter to a
quieter place, if possible. If not, concentrate harder to filter out the
intrusive signals.
Sift the main ideas from the details, and try to remember the
important points. The mind distracted by the interesting small stuff
misses what is critical. The result is cluttered, hard to organize, and
even harder to remember.
Control your outward behavior as a listener. The speaker is watching
you. Your high eye contact, your murmured “Mm-hmm,” “I see,” “Go
on,” your open posture, and your encouraging facial expressions help
the speaker continue confidently and enhance the speaker’s trust in
you. If you avert your face, turn your shoulder to the person, sigh, or
rattle papers (you can fill out the list), the speaker must deal with
disappointment and struggle to go on. He might give up. Worse, to try
to please you, he might alter what he was going to say. You don’t just
lose a truth. You gain a distortion.
In highly charged situations, paraphrase. Occasionally both speaker
and listener feel stressed. Both are tempted to forget courtesy, turn
taking, and the other conventions of productive conversation. Active
listening nearly goes out the window.
Then the listener remembers the technique of paraphrasing. He says,
“We’re probably not understanding each other fully. After you tell me
your point, I'll try to put it in my own words. You tell me if I’m right
or not. If I’m right, then I'll respond. If you aren’t satisfied that I
understand, tell me again until I can summarize to your satisfaction
what you have said.”
Paraphrasing forces both communicators to try harder. They have to
agree on words and on meanings of words. Their consensus on what
was said lays the groundwork for agreement, or at least understanding,
on the point at issue. Cooperation becomes possible.

Knowledge is power. Information gives the edge to those who possess it. The The Payoffs of Good
most current information usually has not been written down yet. To obtain it, Listening
stay tuned in. Listen.
Good listening is closely linked to productivity. To perform a task correctly, Good listening raises
productivity.
an active listener needs to hear a set of instructions only once. Poor listeners
waste the organization’s resources, giving rise to the adage, “There’s never
time to do it right, but there’s always time to do it over.”
People deeply need to be heard. When you listen to another person, you
help that individual develop, motivate him, and usually earn or increase his
loyalty to you. Denied listening is punitive. It makes people feel angry and
diminished, and it makes them avoid you.
No doubt you know a few people whose talk offers little of value to you. Yet
one day one of them will know something that will make a great difference to
you. If you have rebuffed that person’s attempts to talk to you previously, you
will not hear from her on the day you need to.
As you listen actively to subordinates and co-workers, you model correct
listening behavior to them. An organization whose workers are good listeners
is more productive.
Communicating Interpersonally 467
 hecklist 14—1

As a listener, do I Asa listener, do Iavoid

e Use spare mental processing time to integrate e Prejudging the speaker? —
the new information? e Prejudging the subject?
e Resist distractions? e Interrupting or finishing the speaker'ss
e Maintain high eye contact? sentences?
e Control daydreaming? e ‘Internally debating the speaker?
e Defer judging or second-guessing until T have _e Faking attention?
heard the whole story? « Reacting emotionally? _ i: :
e Watch the speaker's nonverbals |
to understand : _e Getting distracted by thespeakers differences CF
_ better? from me?
e Learn from listening (WIIFM)? ~ _ e Giving discouraging tponpenale ee as
e Listen for the main ideas? ens Br, ek or aoe other wallei
e Empathize with the spear to see thematter
as he or she does?
e Offer supportive foe to0 encourage 2
speaker?
e Paraphrase or question iin cases of ambiguous pe
information or ce

When Do You Stop Does all this mean that you should listen to everyone just as long as each of
Listening? them wants to talk to you? That would be foolish. Time is money, and not all
talkers understand brevity or staying to the point.
Listen until you are sure you have understood. Then, if you are busy, close
the conversation in a tactful way. Refer to the work you must do, and use
nonverbals to reinforce what you say. Be pleasant. If appropriate, suggest that
the two of you talk again later.
Poor listeners sometimes find out too late what they missed. Often they
never find out at all. Good listeners include many of the world’s most powerful
and influential managers. Some explicitly cite the importance of listening, as
does Lee Iacocca, well-known chairman and CEO of Chrysler Corporation
during the 1980s:
I only wish I could find an institute that teaches people how to Jisten.
After all, a good manager needs to listen at least as much as he needs
to talk. Too many people fail to realize that real communication goes
in both directions.
In corporate life, you have to encourage all your people to make a
contribution to the common good and to come up with better ways of
doing things. You don’t have to accept every single suggestion, but if
you don’t get back to the guy and say, “Hey, that idea was terrific,”
and pat him on the back, he’ll never give you another one. That kind
of communication lets people know they really count.
You have to be able to listen well if you’re going to motivate the
people who work for you. Right there, that’s the difference between a
mediocre company and a great company. The most fulfilling thing for
Chapter Fourteen
 Superstock, Inc.

Nonverbals are eloquent but sometimes ambiguous. What is in

these nonverbals, viewed left to right? Passivity, dominance,
engrossment, and suspicion? Or avoidance, earnestness, boredom,
and admiration? To be certain, we would need to observe longer.

me as a manager is to watch someone the system has labeled as just

average or mediocre really come into his own, all because someone
has listened to his problems and helped him solve them.’
To conclude this section, consider these maxims:
e Nature gave us two ears but only one mouth. That should tell us
something.
e Our ears won’t shut, but our mouth will.
e Nobody ever learned anything with his mouth open.
Checklist 14—1 will help you assess your listening behaviors.

Experts say that between 70 and 90 percent of a sender’s meaning is trans- NONVERBAL
mitted nonverbally. As is true of active listening, we rarely stop to examine this COMMUNICATION
communication component. But we have excellent reason to examine it. For
Actual words convey only 10 to
instance, research shows that many job interviewers decide only a minute or 30 percent of a spoken
two into an interview whether a candidate will be a good hire and then spend message’s meaning. The rest is
the remaining 20 or 30 minutes selectively perceiving evidence that confirms nonverbal.
their quick judgment.

When we send worded messages, we take care to choose unambiguous words Ambiguity and Multiple
and clarify through context when a word has multiple meanings. Nonverbal Meanings
signals carry higher risks of ambiguity, for several reasons.

1984),
Lee Iacocca with W. Novak, Iacocca: An Autobiography (New York: Bantam Books,
p. 58.
Communicating Interpersonally 469
 Nonverbals occur in clusters—in infinite combinations. These clusters in-
clude what the eye muscles do, what the hands do, the use of surrounding
space, and so on. In practice, a nonverbal signal rarely occurs alone. For
instance, a person who widens his or her eyes could be signaling surprise but
could also be communicating horror or disgust. Interpreting correctly de-
pends on what else the person does. If the eyebrows lift and the mouth smiles
or remains relaxed, we read pleasant surprise. If the eyebrows do not move
and the head is pulled sharply backward, the negative interpretation is prob-
ably correct.
Different cultures’ meanings for nonverbal signals differ. After a class, an
American student waved “bye” (extending her hand, palm down, and wiggling
the fingers) to an acquaintance from Southeast Asia. The Asian student, who
had nearly reached the door, returned at once and asked, “Yes? What else did
you need to say to me?” In her country, that gesture is a polite “Come here,”
and Americans’ gesture for “come here” (palm up, fingers wiggling) is used
only to summon dogs or inferiors.
People assume that some nonverbals are universal. Some, such as a smile,
may be nearly so, but a smile under the wrong circumstances can be insulting.
Some Asian peoples cover anger or embarrassment with a fixed smile.
Desmond Morris’s book Gestures examines 20 nonverbal hand signals.
Researchers interviewed residents in more than 1,000 localities all over Eu-
rope and the Middle East. Several of the signals, such as pursing together the
fingers and thumb or tugging the lower eyelid downward, mean nothing to
most Americans. In the United States, these signals are used only in population
enclaves containing residents from countries where they do have meaning.
They carry definite but varying meanings abroad. The hand-purse gesture
means “What is it? What do you mean?” in much of Italy, “I’m afraid” in
Belgium, and “Many, lots” in Spain. The eyelid tug can mean “Be watchful” or
“[’m suspicious of you,” depending on where you are.
The American “A-OK” gesture, in which one makes a ring of the index finger
and thumb and extends the other three fingers, is understood in Brazil as an
indecent sexual comment. In Japan the same finger-and-thumb ring means
“money.” In France it means “zero.”
When a nonverbal message contradicts a verbal one, receivers tend to believe
the nonverbal message. Businesspeople usually speak deliberately. Although
they control what they say, they may not always control or even realize what
When a nonverbal conflicts with they are doing as they speak. For this reason, observers infer that a speaker’s
the speaker’s words, the real intent shows in the less deliberate nonverbal behavior accompanying the
receiver will believe the
nonverbal message. verbal message. When verbal and nonverbal behaviors reinforce each other, all
is well. When they conflict, however, receivers perceive the nonverbal behav-
ior as more revealing.
Suppose a subordinate has made a serious error. She tries to explain at some
length the reason for the mistake. Meanwhile her supervisor listens, with face
rigid and averted. The explanation finished, a long pause ensues. Then the boss
says unsmilingly, in an even, controlled tone, “Well, Jane, don’t worry about it.
That'll be all.” Jane couldn’t even get eye contact from the boss. She leaves the
office feeling doomed.

?Desmond Morris, Peter Collett, Peter Marsh, and Marie O'Shaughnessy, Gestures (New York:
Stein and Day, 1979).

470 Chapter Fourteen

The same nonverbal signal can send different messages. Interpretation can
depend on the perceiver. A woman tells of looking at packaged light bulbs in
a store. Deep in thought but perfectly content, she was pondering wattage,
brand, tint, and price. Someone passing by in the aisle glanced at her frown of
concentration and said, “Cheer up! Life can’t be that bad.”
Interpretation can depend on the situation. The identical behavior—a
chuckle, for instance—can be exactly right at a business lunch but highly out
of place in a courtroom.
The same nonverbal message can be sent by the same person in multiple ways.
In some circumstances, a person might communicate anger by raised voice
and contracted facial muscles. In another setting, the same person might com-
municate anger by an impassive face, a long silence, and short, noncommittal
words.
We cannot NOT communicate nonverbally. Even if a person opts to sit
rigidly in a chair, a passerby might notice him and wonder, “Why is that guy
sitting there like a rock? Wonder if I should ask if he’s sick. Maybe he’s angry.
Maybe he’s a nut.” If the same person relaxes his posture, hoping to avoid
making that rigid impression, a viewer might think, “That fellow sure has it
easy. I wish I had time just to sit around like that.” Others interpret our
behavior constantly, even when we may have no intention of communicating.
We lack the words and a supporting environment for discussing nonverbal
communication in the workplace. Hence we can be uncertain about it but have
little opportunity to check our impressions with another observer. A given
cluster of nonverbals might puzzle us, but we might feel foolish asking, “What Lacking words for talking about
does Bill mean when he holds his eyebrows just like that?” The other observer specific nonverbal messages
makes those messages’
might ask, “Huh? Like what?” “Didn’t you see?” “I didn’t notice anything.” If ambiguity even more a problem.
you ask Bill, Bill might say, “I wasn’t,” “I didn’t mean anything,” or “Do you
have an eyebrows problem?” and laugh at you. Yet you know what you saw,
and you still don’t quite understand.
One option is to try to put into words what you think is intended: “You
seem to feel a little skeptical. Is that right?” or “I hope I hear you saying that
you’ve found the funny side of this dilemma.”

Evaluate others’ nonverbals cautiously. Refrain from snap judgments. Before Interpreting: Establish
you decide that a given nonverbal “means” this or that, watch the individual Behavioral Baseline First
for a while to see what nonverbals are simply part of his or her ordinary
patterns, that is, the individual’s behavioral baseline. One person, for in- Withhold judgment of a
speaker’s nonverbals till you
stance, keeps her hand near her mouth much of the time when conversing. know what is ordinary behavior
This nonverbal sometimes means an individual is lying. After a few minutes, for him or her.
though, the person she is talking to realizes that her front teeth are a little
crooked and she is self-conscious about it.
Some writers on nonverbal communication advise observers to watch a
speaker’s nonverbals closely for signs of untruthfulness. They use the term
nonverbal leakage to refer to a speaker’s unintentional nonverbal disclosure
of negative or contradictory information. However, the hand-to-face nonverbal
just mentioned also sometimes accompanies doubt, hesitation, or thoughtful-
ness on the part of the speaker.
Our best advice is to watch nonverbals but remain aware of the multiple
meanings many of them have. Also, remember that people sometimes conceal
information for inoffensive reasons. The person touching her cheek, for in-

Communicating Interpersonally 471

 stance, may actually be uncomfortable about the subject matter or uncertain
about her authority to speak about it, while what she says about it will be
perfectly true. People do lie sometimes, but convicting them on the basis of
nonverbals alone would be foolish.
Recognize cultural differences in behavioral baselines too, domestically as
well as abroad. We will refer to some of them as we discuss the nonverbals
typical of the mainstream U.S. culture. Each culture evolves its own “rules” of
behavior. No single set of rules is better or worse than any other, although the
usefulness of a set or of a given behavior may be less functional in some
situations than in others.
For instance, many women in Asian countries are socialized to speak very
softly. In the United States, they may be at a competitive disadvantage not only
with men but also with women who speak strongly and assertively. Con-
versely, if an American frowns, paces, or pounds afist on a table in a nation
where people cover annoyance with light laughter, a smile, or an impassive
face, the American may be seen as lacking self-control.

Be Aware of and Control Control the nonverbal signals you send. Replace bad habits with habits that
support your communication goals. As you read the material to come, reflect
What You Send
on your own practice in each of the categories. Each of us develops an image.
John T. Molloy has this to say about image, based on interviewing 1,000
executives:
Almost all the men and women we interviewed agreed that success
has more to do with . . . energy than image. However, 98.5 percent of
those interviewed also believe that successful image— including
dressing correctly, moving correctly, and speaking correctly — is
critical to getting ahead. They believe that a person who dresses
conservatively, speaks standard English, and carries himself in an erect
manner has a better chance of impressing people, and succeeding,
than someone who does not.?
With respect to image, Molloy also says that people succeed best in business
when they project upper-middle-class dress, carriage, and speech patterns. Not
leisure class or jet set, not blue-collar, not ethnic, “normal” in business is the
upper-middle-class image.

Power, Status, and In the discussion of active listening, you read about the set of nonverbal
Nonverbals behaviors that encourages another person to communicate. As we look around
us, however, we can readily see that these nonverbal behaviors are not always
forthcoming.
People with power and status often display dominating nonverbals. These
include frowning or staring, taking up more physical space, standing over a
People convey dominance or less powerful person, and so on. Often the spoken words accompanying these
submissiveness nonverbally. behaviors are mild and encouraging, but the less powerful person “gets the
message” all the same. Typically he or she displays submissive nonverbals
in response, such as nodding a lot, lowering the head, averting the eyes, and
so on.
Research suggests that women more often display submissive nonverbals
and men more often display dominating ones. If you observe this to be true of
yourself or of others, some behavior modification may be in order.

John T. Molloy, Molloy’s Live for Success (New York: Bantam/Perigord Press, 1981), p. 2.

472 Chapter Fourteen

Most of what we say about nonverbal communication addresses nonverbal Mainstream U.S. Nonverbal
behavior typical of mainstream American culture. As we go along, we will Communication
point out some (but by no means all) differences between this culture and that
of other nations and of important alternative cultures within our own borders.
The United States has always been home to many cultures. Still, a fairly
well-understood set of nonverbal behaviors has come to represent desired and
expected behavior in business. Although some businesspeople are learning to
understand alternate behaviors, most newcomers understand that acceptance
comes most quickly when they learn and accommodate mainstream culture.
Foreign-born workers in America have managers, co-workers, and subordi-
nates. These American-born employees need to understand the boost to pro-
ductivity that will occur when they try to learn more about what may seem
unusual or inappropriate nonverbals on the part of newcomers. To the new-
comers, their own nonverbals are the way things should be. The newcomers
are usually dealing with considerable culture shock and trying to decipher the
sometimes incomprehensible messages they are receiving.
In former times, the newcomers were expected to blend in. More recently,
global business influences have made it worth Americans’ while to learn about
other cultures. Some have eagerly sought the new knowledge. Some have
avoided it. Many business experts believe that avoiding it will not remain a
successful strategy for long.

Although nonverbal signals usually occur in clusters, examining each category Categories of Nonverbals
helps focus awareness on components of these messages. The categories are
facial expression, posture, gesture and movement, time, space, touch, dress,
surroundings and artifacts, and voice.

Are any facial expressions universal? Probably not. Our many dozens of sepa- Meaning and Facial
rate facial muscles permit almost infinite variations in expressions. So even a Expression
smile—probably our best candidate for universality—is not necessarily an
expression connoting friendship and goodwill. Consider the forced smile, the
frozen smile, the bland, impassive smile, the seductive smile, and the contemp-
tuous smile. We can be sure that facial expression will differ in meaning from
one culture to another. Indeed, they differ from one person to another and
from one situation to another.
When facial expressions are well matched with verbal content, meaning is
enhanced. When they are inconsistent, the receiver is puzzled and has to guess
which message the sender intends. Most of the time, the receiver believes the
nonverbal signal.
The muscles surrounding the eyes convey the greatest variety of expres-
sions. People look at eyes when they are trying hard to understand what
another person means. Mainstream American culture has well-understood (but
seldom worded) rules about how long one person can look straight at an-
other’s eyes and convey only a neutral meaning. If gaze exceeds this time limit,
the look takes on other meanings. The most common meanings for a length-
ened gaze are hostility/threat and sexual interest.
Rules in other cultures differ greatly. Looking time in the Middle. East is
considerably longer than in America. Among American Navajos, looking
straight at another person for more than a second or two is considered rude
and intrusive. In Japan, people seldom look at eyes. A respectful gaze is di-
rected at about the level of the other person’s neck.
Communicating Interpersonally 473
 Mainstream American culture responds favorably to open, expressive faces.
at-
Certainly a speechmaker with a communicative face holds an audience’s
tention more easily than one with a wooden face. There are uses for the “poker
to
face,” however. Sometimes powerful people put on an inexpressive mask
intimidate others. When a face is unreadable, behavior is much harder to
predict and the level of risk in the exchange might rise. Negotiators, too, are
careful not to let their faces communicate information that puts them at a
disadvantage.

Meaning and Posture Businesspeople’s standing posture should be erect and controlled, for both
men and women. Feet should neither be tightly together nor too far apart. The
person should appear evenly balanced and stable. Changing weight from foot
to foot implies nervousness to most people. A slumped posture conveys fa-
tigue, lack of energy, negative attitude, or other undesirable attributes.
When people communicate while seated, their posture should be erect.
Expectations for women differ somewhat from those for men. Men can com-
municate attentiveness even when leaning back (but not slouching) in the
chair. Women must sit erect and even lean forward a little to communicate
attentiveness.

Meaning, Gesture, and Gestures can carry meanings of their own and can modify or reinforce the
meanings of worded messages. You can probably think of a gesture that sub-
Movement
stitutes clearly for
Gestures can be meaningful in e I want to hurt you badly.
themselves or modify worded
messages. e Take it easy. Simmer down. Don’t get all worked up.
e I’m so glad to be here! I love you all.
e We won! We won!
e Maybe yes, maybe no; I feel both ways about it.
e Get over here, and hurry up!
No accompanying words would be needed.
Gestures are also one means by which we regulate turn taking in conver-
sation. We hold up a hand to mean “Wait, I’m not done yet” or extend a hand
and nod the head to mean “Okay, your turn.”
Sometimes we gesture to emphasize and add conviction to what we say.
“Mark my words,” we might say, jabbing a forefinger into the air with each
word. “It’s tough, but there’s nothing I can do for you” might be accompanied
by shrugged shoulders and extended hands, palms upward and out to the sides.
Sometimes we gesture to complement or further explain a worded message.
“The shortest route turns north here and goes through Kentucky,” we say as
we move afinger along a line on a map. “The desktop should be this high,” we
explain, holding a hand palm down 30 inches from the floor.
Body position, degree of tension, degree of control of movement, speed and
force of position change—all these communicate meaning to an observer.
‘People control space with their bodies. Those who gesture in an expansive but
controlled way seem larger and more powerful. People who “stand and sit
small” and who gesture timidly give up perceived power by doing so.

Meaning and Time The United States, Canada, and much of Europe adhere rather tightly to sched-
ules. Many other places, however, have other ideas about time.
474 Chapter Fourteen
 In the mainstream U.S. culture, lateness is usually an error— at times agrave
error. For instance, an applicant who is 10 minutes late to a job interview has
made a bad impression from which she probably cannot recover.
We speak of budgeting our time. We study time management. We carry our
daily calendars with us and cram our days with tasks and appointments. We
“make time” for people. We say people “waste our time” when we disagree
with them about how time should be spent. Spent is the right word in the U.S.
business culture. Time is a resource. We routinely place a dollar value on it,
buy it, and sell it. If communications are late, their value drops drastically.
Status influences time and the value of time. The higher a person’s status, the
higher perceived value (sometimes monetary, sometimes intangible but still
very real) placed on his or her time. A higher-status person typically controls
time in an interview and gets to talk longer.
In Germany the trains run on time—period. In Ireland, they run on time
sometimes. In Ireland, if a friend asks you to meet him “about 7 this evening,”
he might appear at 9:30 p.m. Do not be annoyed at his lateness. To him, this is
not lateness.
In Mexico some lateness is expected, especially of a higher-status person. In
the Middle East, time is viewed much more flexibly than in the United States.
Things can be planned, but if they do not happen as scheduled, people say,
insh’allah (“as God wills”).
At a business appointment in the United States or Germany, people do one
thing at a time. At a business appointment in Saudi Arabia, many activities
might proceed simultaneously. Americans must not take it amiss when a Saudi
conducts business with them in a roomful of people. Interruptions will be
frequent. As Amelia Lobsenz writes, “In answer to the American who asks
‘couldn’t we speak privately?” the Arab will simply lean closer.”*
Businesspeople in other cultures are aware of Americans’ preoccupation
with time and sometimes use it to their advantage. For instance, an American
negotiating with a Japanese must be prepared to spend as much as a week or
more just getting acquainted. After the actual negotiation opens, Japanese
‘ concessions are likely to be small and slow in coming. The American may feel
he is getting nowhere. If he has told the Japanese the date of his return flight,
he probably is getting nowhere. Often nothing much will happen until this
known departure date nears and he is getting desperate. At this point, the
American may well make large concessions just to get some business. He will
do much better in this negotiation if he has an open-ended return ticket and
lets the negotiation take all the time it requires.

Each culture generates “rules” about interpersonal space. If someone comes to Meaning and Space
America from a culture where people stand close together, she may mistakenly
think, “They don’t like me” when Americans take a step back from her.
Americans are used to having considerable personal space. We speak of four
zones in interpersonal distance. Think of each as a circle with the individual
at the center:
e Intimate—ranging from physical contact out to about 18 inches from a
person.
e Personal—ranging from 18 inches to about 4feet.

4Amelia Lobsenz, “When a Nod Means No,” Public Relations Journal, October 1987, p. 36.

Communicating Interpersonally 475

 e Social—ranging from about 4 out to 10 or 12 feet from the individual.
e Public or impersonal—the distance beyond the social, out to infinity.

In business, the intimate zone would rarely be used. Such near approaches are
reserved for family members, lovers, and the like. This rule is well understood
and quite firm. If, for instance, a man in a workplace were repeatedly to invade
this zone belonging to a specific woman, the woman would probably regard
the behavior as a sexual message. It could even lead to a sexual harassment
charge.
The personal zone is used for many interpersonal business exchanges.
When two people meet and shake hands, they rarely approach closer than
about 18 inches. When they continue their talk, they generally stand within
Business uses the personal and four feet of each other. This distance implies, “I am paying attention mainly to
social interpersonal zones you.” If either one moves farther away, the other infers that she might be
heavily.
getting ready to end the exchange.
When several people meet in a hallway and stop to discuss something
important, they use the personal zone. When they stand at this distance from
one another, they are said to be “huddling.” Seeing a small clump of people
standing at this distance, intent in conversation, often discourages others from
joining.
The social zone is suitable for less concentrated exchanges. Casual or brief
exchanges occur in this zone.
To test the idea of public or interpersonal space, consider this: You are
standing ina fairly large area. If someone walks by at about seven feet from you
and looks at you, you think she is fairly likely to speak to you. If that same
person walks by at about 14 feet from you and looks at you, you do not
necessarily think she wants your attention.
Invading people’s space bothers them and sometimes makes them feel
threatened. Most people observe the conventions even though many would be
unable to put those rules into words. For instance, suppose a large group in
your firm is gathering in an auditorium. You go in, see a co-worker you like,
and go to join him. If there are numerous open chairs, convention causes you
to ask, “Mind if I sit here?” even when you know (1) he has no “rights” to any
chair but the one he is sitting in and (2) it will be perfectly okay with him if
you sit next to him. If there are numerous open chairs and you do not know
the person sitting there, you will not select the chair right next to him. Con-
vention demands that you leave space. The space will fill as more people come,
but you will not sit down right next to someone unless most other spaces are
taken.
The zone space in front of a person is more important than that at the side
or in back. In the workplace, looking at someone face to face at a distance of
12 inches is quite threatening. It invokes the image of the drill sergeant shout-
ing down the throat of the trembling recruit.
Certain situations permit people to stand closer for specified periods of
time. Everyone knows about “elevator behavior,” and on a crowded bus peo-
ple sometimes squeeze so tightly together that they seem to challenge the
physics law that two bodies cannot occupy the same space.
More powerful people are accorded more space around them than less
powerful people are.
Finally, a person’s physical size influences the amount of power he or she
projects. Tall, strongly built people seem more imposing to others. A number
of studies have shown that they are listened to and deferred to more than
476 Chapter Fourteen
smaller people are. Electoral votes tend to favor taller candidates. Although
smaller people can and do obtain power, they must contend with people’s
unconscious bias in favor of taller persons.

Among businesspeople, the handshake is the usual touch exchange. In main- Meaning and Touch
stream U.S. culture, a firm but not crushing handshake of one or two seconds’
duration is customary. This is true for both women and men, although formerly
customs differed. Before women entered business and management in high
numbers, they were treated as delicate creatures. A man shook hands with a
woman only if she extended her hand first, and then he shook her hand lightly
and softly. This is no longer the case. Businesswomen dislike the soft little
handshake. It seems to relegate them to an outdated position of weakness.
In business, any touch beyond the handshake can be a minefield. The rea-
sons include
e The inherent ambiguity of nonverbals.
e The perception that initiating touch is often an assertion of power.
e The multiple simultaneous agendas that a single communicator can
have.
e The growth of sexual harassment suits.
e The great differences among people in what they perceive to be the
“right” amount of touching.
Even touches that do not suggest sexual interest (a touch on the forearm, a pat
on the shoulder, a light slap on the back) can create problems.
In the United States, different cultural groups have developed different
touching behavior in both amount and kind of touching. Often the groups who
gesture more also touch more. Outside business, this need not concern us. In
business, however, someone socialized to expect little or no touching behav-
ior might feel irritated and resentful if touched (touched on the forearm,
hugged, patted on the shoulder), especially by someone he or she regards as
inferior in status. One unwritten rule in business is that a superior can initiate
touch but a subordinate cannot.
This convention sometimes astonishes people from groups in which touch-
ing is a normal part of conversation. Many Italian Americans touch a lot. Many
Chinese Americans do not. Many German Americans touch very little. Many
African Americans touch a lot. These differences have no relationship to the
capacity of any group for love or for respect for others; these human emotions
are constant across ethnic groups.
The fact that touch can so easily miscommunicate should make us cautious.
are
Use a firm handshake freely, but refrain from other touches unless you
Aside from the handshake,
ons touching in business can be
certain they will not offend. The most troublesome touch miscomm unicati
risky.
interested
are “I am asserting my more powerful position” and “I am sexually
in you.”

iid
s
Sexual harassment lawsuits against businesses have resulted in numerou
to rise. Sexual
multimillion-dollar awards to individuals, and the cost continues
—is defined fully
harassment— unwelcome sexual attentions in the workplace
in Exhibit 14—2 on page 478.
Unwel-
Many sexual harassment offenses are mostly or entirely nonverbal.
very costly to an
come sexual advances in the workplace are illegal and can be
held respon-
organization. The federal guidelines show that businesses can be

Communicating Interpersonally 477

Quusrr
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. | | capacity.
. 601-11Sexual harassment, Le (d) With respect to conduct between fellow ©
employees, an employer is responsible for acts of
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- iwiolition of Sec. 703 of Title VII. Unwelcome employer (or its agents or supervisory employees)
sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, and knows or should have known of the conduct,
of a sexual unless it can show that it took immediate and—
_ othee verbal
_ nature constitute sexual conduct
& piysical harassment when a appropriate corrective action.
o submission to such oe: ismade ¢ ae (e) An employer may also be respo nsible for
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harassment of employees in theworkplace, ' where
the employer (or its agents or supervisory —
employees) knows or should have known of the
conduct and fails to take immediate and :
appropriate corrective action. In reviewing these
cases the Commission will consider the extent of—
the employer’ s control and any other legal
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sible for their members’ actions in the workplace. Even when the matter does
not go to court, the ill will ensuing from a sexual harassment situation costs the
business heavily in loss of trained personnel and sharply lowered productivity
among those who stay. One source compared a sexual harassment inquiry to
“the nastiest divorce case.”*

Katherine Morrall, “Education, Training Prevent Sexual Harassment Problems: Precautionary

Measures Help Avoid Lawsuits, Savings Institutions 108 (February 1987), p. 121.

478 Chapter Fourteen

 “7 believe young Lewis may be on to something.”
Drawing by Shanahan; © 1992 The New Yorker Magazine, Inc.

Corporate norms on business dress seem to be dysfunctional here.

What people wear communicates a great deal about them and influences the Meaning and Business Dress
way others, both outside and inside the firm, view the firm itself. Much has
been written about clothing as a nonverbal in business. The navy blue or gray
suit (with a tie, for men) is a virtual uniform for managers. Men or women can
choose this garb and rarely look inappropriate. Having said this, we need to
discuss how far and under what circumstances a businessperson can deviate
from this “uniform.”
The main variable is the corporate culture where you work. Apple Com-
puter has a more informal style than IBM does. Account executives in an
advertising agency generally wear more high-fashion styles of business cloth-
ing than the blue-pinstripe-clad people at a bank. Note that the ad agency’s
artists and writers might be able to dress quite informally but will probably
dress up when the team makes a presentation toa client.
Businesspeople on the East Coast dress more conservatively than those on
the West Coast. For a man, for instance, a brown, camel, or beige suit might be
acceptable in California but inadvisable in New York. -
People dress conservatively when getting others to develop trust in them is
essential. For instance, older brokerage clients are more likely to invest their
money with a young broker who wears a good-quality, blue or gray, conser-
vatively cut suit than with the same broker in a high-fashion, baggy-styled,
Italian-silk suit.
People just beginning a business career need a couple of good-quality,
conservative suits in navy or gray. Conservative dress is expected at inter-
views, even in firms where most people work in shirtsleeves after hire. If the
“latest-fashion” look is avoided, the suits can serve for several years.
Communicating Interpersonally 479
 What people buy after working for a while depends on factors like those just
discussed. Two other considerations sometimes tempt business shoppers to
move away from the conservative image. First, many workers look to the
workplace (where they invest most of their time and energy)when they look
for love relationships. Second, the fashion industry needs to make each sea-
son’s clothing obsolete to build a market for next season’s. Both these facts are
perfectly legitimate. But common sense needs to govern choices. The individ-
ual worker must still consider his (and more often her) professional image.
Because women’s positions in managerial ranks are recent and still not very
secure, image matters even more for women than for men. Where there are
few women in a formerly all-male occupation or workplace, the behavior of
these few is much more rigidly scrutinized than is the behavior of the male
employees. If something displeases, adverse inferences are drawn about this
woman and the suitability of women in general for management. (The first
minority members to break into a workplace are similarly scrutinized, perhaps
to an even greater degree.)
Managerial dress for women is a good-quality skirted suit and conservative
blouse or a good-quality conservative dress and blazer. The jacket has been
cited again and again as the means of conveying that the woman holds a
position of authority. Shoes are mid-heel, closed-toe pumps. Jewelry, if worn,
is understated and of good quality. Skirt length is debatable; in fall 1992 many
fashion houses were promoting above-the-knee skirted suits.
The point about short skirts, superhigh heels, tight or clingy clothing, or
other fun clothes is this: Other people will infer from nonverbals a woman’s
primary goal in coming to work. If she can be certain that above-the-knee skirts
will not communicate any impression other than a businesslike one, then
above-the-knee skirts are fine. A woman who chooses to wear very short or
sexy clothes, though, might as well forget about rising in the managerial ranks.
It’s tough enough to be taken seriously even when she does everything right.
Business dress must meet the Some organizations do not care what people wear as long as their work is
expectations of one’s done where the public does not see them. Some care a great deal and either
organization and business
contacts.
set forth a written dress code or communicate their displeasure orally to those
who deviate. Learn and meet the expectations of your organization.

Meaning, Surroundings and In the work place, workers at every status level have space that “belongs” to
Artifacts them alone. The president of the firm has the corner office with window walls,
a beautiful view, thick carpet, and mahogany furniture. The worker on the
assembly line has a work space he or she always occupies, space for storing
tools, and perhaps a locker for securing possessions. The data-entry worker has
a doorless, partitioned cubicle.
To the extent possible, workers arrange artifacts (decorations, pictures, and
other personal possessions) in their space. High-level managers surround
themselves with decor and objects that project a desired image: maybe a
Steuben crystal piece, a tasteful painting with its colors repeated in the room’s
fabrics, award plaques, an expensive desk set, and the portrait of the family.
The data-entry clerk’s space would probably fit 15 or 20 times in the pres-
ident’s office. Still, Jack, the data-entry worker, “owns” his space. Although
guidelines usually exist on what may and may not be displayed, he too might
have the family picture on his desk, along with a plant and some small deco-
rations. When another worker wants to talk to Jack, she pauses at the opening
of the cubicle and waits for a signal.

480 Chapter Fourteen

 Where people do not have their own space or where the space is repeatedly
invaded by others, stress rises. The “open office” met resistance in the United
States until managers realized that they had to let workers individualize their
surroundings a little.

Each person’s voice is unique. When a computer digitally stores the sounds of Meaning and Voice
two people with similar voices saying “Good morning,” the stored signals
differ enough that they can be used as keys to secured areas. Jane says “Good
morning” and the gate unlocks. Jane’s sister Joan says “Good morning” and the
gate stays shut.
Voices differ in quality and resonance. They also differ in the degree to
which individuals are able to vary and control range, pitch, speed, volume, and
extent. Some voice characteristics are inborn; some are habits formed as we
acquire language by imitating the people around us.
People dissatisfied with their speaking voices can improve them by setting
goals and practicing. Inborn characteristics, such as a high-pitched voice, are
harder to change, but improvement is possible. Speech trainers help people Most speakers can improve
change nasal voices, regional accents, monotone voices, poor articulation, and voice characteristics with
practice.
any other vocal characteristic they perceive as a drawback.
Most of the characteristics treated in this section are important in interper-
sonal speech but even more so in giving oral presentations. Most of us need
more variety in our speech. Indeed, people can HE their patterns too much,
but most of us are far from doing that.
Range. A person’s range is the array of tones between the highest and the
lowest note the person can speak or sing. We are born with vocal cords that
will develop to a certain length and thickness, both of which determine range.
Yet some singers and speakers have carefully pushed the limits of the voices
they inherited and extended their range.
When we speak, we rarely use the extremes of the notes we can sing. (We
would sound foolish if we did.) By the same token, most of us can extend the
range of our everyday speaking voices if we try. This gives us better expres-
siveness.
Speakers with relatively high voices can and should work to extend the
lower register of their voices. Quite unfairly, a high voice projects low author-
ity and can sound shrill and ineffectual at higher volumes.
Pitch. Many people who can sing a two- or three-octave scale speak, unfor-
tunately, with little variation in pitch. Most people should vary pitch more than
they do. Variation is expressive, and listeners like it.
Monotone speaking makes a low-energy impression. In a business presen-
tation, it is deadening. Interpersonally it conveys listlessness and lack of inter-
est, even when the speaker is in reality an active, involved individual.
We use changes in pitch to convey meaning. When we pronounce phrases
and sentences on arising inflection— that is, when our pitch rises toward the
end of the utterance—we might intend a question: “What did you say?” Or we
might be tentative about a statement: “So I'll leave early today and stay late
tomorrow?”
Downward-ending inflections can convey confidence: “So from this evi-
dence we conclude that $50,000 will buy the equipment we need.” Some
speakers (more women than men) have formed a bad habit of making infor-
mative statements and assertions with a rising inflection. They seem constantly

Communicating Interpersonally 4381

 to be asking, “Is it okay?” “Can I say this?” “Do you like me?” This disempowers
them. They need to change the habit.

Speed. Some people talk fast, some slow. New Yorkers tend to speak more
rapidly than Nebraskans, who in turn speak more rapidly than Mississippians.
Someone used to slower speech might not readily process “Welllgoddaged-
dadahih.” (The Manhattanite is about to leave.) Note that very slow speech is
sometimes “read” as slow-wittedness. (This has been successfully used by slow
talkers to lay traps for the unwary: “I’m just country folks. You just explain it
to me, now, won’t you?” and the city folks give away their negotiating strategy
to the smiling, leisurely genius from Tupelo or Vicksburg.)
People tend to accommodate to the speed of those they spend time around.
However, some slow talkers simply have a problem with fluency. They grope
for the perfect word, while others grow impatient. Listeners will tolerate some
pauses, even some fairly long ones. But the speaker who cannot seem to get his
or her thoughts out at a reasonable pace might need some work to improve
fluency. Some fast talkers allow nervousness to speed up their speech. Such
persons need to know that too-fast speech can be hard for listeners to under-
stand or could be perceived as an effort to intimidate. If a nervous rush of
words is accurately read as stress, the speaker’s power position can suffer.

Volume. We might increase volume to make ourselves better heard; we

might lower volume to convey confidentiality. On the speaker’s platform, we
need higher volume without higher pitch. Good presenters project their
voices, that is, speak from the diaphragm. People who learn to do this well can
often speak to a large group of people all day without fatigue, while those who
allow this important “belly” muscle to grow lax get worn out and hoarse after
only an hour or so. ’
We also need to control and vary volume. It isn’t only that our voices often
need to carry across distance. Volume, especially in conjunction with the other
vocal characteristics, can change meaning greatly. Imagine a person saying,
factually, “You will never do that again.” Then imagine a person saying the
same words, but this time making the words an order, indelibly printed on the
hearer’s memory, with the threat that any violation will result in heavy pun-
ishment. The speaker might slow the words down or leave alittle space
between the words, but the main difference is in volume.

Extent. Extent means the degree to which we draw out syllables, words, and
even sentences. We might stretch out a “We-e-e-e-ll” to convey skepticism or
hesitancy. We might clip syllables short to convey that we are in a hurry or to
energize other people. Sometimes speakers extend syllables to sound soothing,
sometimes to seem thoughtful, and sometimes to slow another person down.

Voice and shades of meaning. Speakers of English infer shades of meaning

from stressed syllables and changes in pitch. Consider how the changes in
stress alter the meaning of this sentence:

She is the senior engineer. You are mistaken to think that

someone else is.
She is the senior engineer. No, you can’t “talk to her supervi- —
sor.””
She is the senior engineer. She is the only, or most important,
or most respected senior engineer.
482 Chapter Fourteen
 She is the senior engineer The other veteran engineers will
have to defer to her.
She is the senior engineer. She is not the senior finance officer
or marketer. She decides on engi-
neering matters only.

These changes are in no way universal. English speakers in different nations

interpret some stress and pitch patterns differently. When we move into dif-
ferent languages, all bets are off. For instance, while we use pitch changes to
convey shades of meaning, denotation generally remains constant. In contrast,
speakers of Chinese understand entirely different denotations of words from
"tones," that is, from changes in pitch.
Human beings process an amazing amount of information when they com-
municate interpersonally: words, visual cues, voice cues, situational cues, and
much more. Much processing is intuitive and proceeds at a speed beyond our
noticing it. Yet all of us can become better at both receiving and sending these
complicated interpersonal messages. Awareness precedes all deliberate change.

Self-knowledge and effective intrapersonal communication underlie successful Your Self-Talk — the Voice
listening and successful nonverbal communication. At the same time you com- Inside
municate in a receiver-centered way, you remain self-aware (though not self-
centered). We've talked about empathy, which lays groundwork for successful
communication. Likable people greet others with nonverbals that say "Here
YOU Aare," not "Here Jam.”
Positive self-talk and positive imaging will prepare you for interactions with
others. Liking who you are creates confidence in you and acceptance by others.
When the pace of business sometimes creates high stress, it's useful to think
or write analytically about what the sources of stress are. People who don't stop
to do that are likely to mis-identify them and waste energy fighting the wrong
battle. ;
Think for a moment about individuals you may know who project a "Life
isn't fair" or "Poor me" attitude. Whether life is fair is mostly a matter of the way
you tell the story to yourself. Of course we can't control everything that happens,
but we can increase the probability of success by study, forethought, and
preparation.
If we prepare intelligently, even if we do not get exactly what we tned for, we
are entitled to respect what we did: "I did the best I could based on information
available to me at the time. If I had it to do over again, knowing no more than I
knew then, I'd make the same decision.” Next time we will be better equipped to
make a better decision. We learn and go forward, able to respect what we have
been and done.
That's the sane approach to continuous improvement. Prepare thoroughly,
experience things, try new things, analyze successes and failures, give yourself
credit for what you did well, and be honest with yourself if you made mistakes.
Impression Management
A chapter on listening and nonverbal communication is a good time to
think further about first impressions in business. As you find opportunities to
network, make sure you're maximally presentable, both in an exterior and an
interior way. You've read about clean, pressed, good-quality clothes and shoes,
minimal jewelry, and conservative, "trustable" appearance. Your grooming con-

Communicating Interpersonally 483

 Sending and Interpreting
Checklist 14 —2 Nonverbal Communication

As a sender, do I understand that

e My nonverbals affect my verbal messages? e I might have to modify some of my

e Many different nonverbal "senders" — face, nonverbals for others who might otherwise
hands, stance, voice, and many misunderstand?
others — operate both singly and in clusters?
e Ihave to be conscious of what I am doing as I
speak or listen? As a receiver, do I understand that
e Nonverbals are harder to watch and control
than words are? e I must watch others’ nonverbals for a time
‘e The situation can affect the meaning of my before making judgments based on them?
nonverbals? e Cultural differences affect both sending and
e Different organizations have different receiving of nonverbals?
expectations about nonverbals? e Nonverbals can be ambiguous?
e Nonverbals affect the perception of an e Many unacknowledged biases affect the way
individual's relative power and status? we perceive others’ nonverbals?

veys to other what you think of yourself. Your self-talk and self-image regulate
and shape your other nonverbals.
Prepare a 10-second introduction of yourself that will give a new person a
good sense of who you are and what you do. Actually time yourself (privately, of
course), and keep it to 10 seconds, because there's a fierce temptation to keep
talking about ourselves. Give the brief intro; then listen actively, attentively, and
empathetically. Learn who the other person is, where the common ground lies,
and what you might be able to do for each other. As you trade business cards,
consider jotting down a couple of things from your conversation on the card you
give him or her, as well as on the one you receive. Make yourself easy to reach.

Diversity and Many writers point out that the United States is and will be multiracial and
Nonverbal multiethnic. According to projections, by the year 2000 America will have 65
Carniunicatinn million nonwhite residents, with their percentage growing to 25 percent. In
some states, numbers of nonwhite residents approach 50 percent of the total
population.
To be sure, people who work in business expect to learn the work behav-
iors of mainstream American culture. But because of the shifts in numbers,
mainstream American culture must be ready to adapt as well and be more ac-
cepting of others' cultural differences. Without such adaptation, subtle obstacles
will arise and interfere with some workers' ability to contnbute fully to organ-
izations. We all need all of us.
To assess your awareness of nonverbal communication, study Checklist
14
-2.

484 Communicating Interpersonally

Synergy in organizations depends on workers’ ability to depend on one an- REVIEW
other and work toward group goals. Good teamwork makes businesses more
competitive internationally. The Johari Grid diagrams two communicators’
differences in perception during an interaction. Each communicator has one or
more agendas, sometimes overt, sometimes hidden.
Although active listening yields many benefits, most people do not listen
very well. Reasons include noisy surroundings, cultural emphasis on assertive-
ness, allness, excess mental processing time, and uncontrolled daydreaming.
Adhering to 10 principles for good listening offers individuals and organiza-
tions many benefits. These include information power, increased productivity,
and the ability to motivate others.
Nonverbal communication affects the success of interpersonal business
communication but, like listening, receives less analysis and emphasis than it
deserves. Senders convey between 70 and 90 percent of their meaning via
nonverbal signals. Nonverbal messages have different meanings in different
combinations, in different situations, and especially in different cultures. As
senders and as interpreters, people choose and assign meaning differently to
nonverbal signals. Senders must recognize and control their nonverbals. Be-
cause interpretation is inexact, receivers must establish a behavioral baseline
for a new sender before drawing inferences.
Nonverbal business communication includes facial expression, posture, ges-
ture, use of time, use of space, touch, business dress, surroundings and artifacts,
and voice.
With the increasing diversity of the American work force, managers must
become more sensitive to nonverbals as sent and received by non-native-born
employees.

Communicating Interpersonally 485

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
. Developing the trust necessary for teamwork The teachers know what the students mean, but
involves risk. People have to share work better wording would avoid the implication that
information and disclose information about nothing important had gone on during the
themselves. Discuss the advantages of doing so. absence.) What words are “hot buttons” for (a)
Next, honestly and pragmatically, discuss the you? (b) your spouse or significant other? (c)
disadvantages. your father or mother? (d) your boss?
2. Describe the Johari Grid, naming the quadrants 9. Do the following exercise with a classmate. Each
and telling what kind of information would be partner writes down an emotion (fear, disgust,
classified in each. joy, anger, uncertainty, pity, and so on) on an
3. Recall a recent communication encounter in index card or piece of paper. Neither shows the
which the person to whom you were talking other what was written. Then one partner uses
unknowingly revealed information he or she nonverbals such as facial expression, stance, and
would rather have concealed. What did you learn, gesture to communicate the selected emotion to
and by exactly what kinds of signals? the other. The second partner writes down what
3. Describe the several contributory causes of poor he or she believes the first is communicating.
listening. Next, change roles. The second partner uses
nonverbals to communicate his or her selected
4. In interpersonal communication, what is
emotion, and the first partner writes down the
paraphrasing?
emotion he or she thinks is being portrayed.
5. What advantages does a businessperson gain by Then discuss (a) the accuracy of the
listening to superiors? To co-workers? To perception and (b) the ease or difficulty of
subordinates?
communicating that particular emotion
6. Analyze the listening behaviors of selected nonverbally. Exchange your findings with other
persons. Then answer the following questions. pairs of class members who have selected other
a. Who is the best listener you know? List his or emotions to try to communicate nonverbally.
her behaviors as a listener. Compare what you observed about the accuracy
b. Who is the most important listener in your life? of perceived nonverbals.
List his or her behaviors as a listener. 10. From TV newscasts, try to think of a public figure
c. Who is the worst listener you know? List his or
who is currently having a credibility problem.
her behaviors asa listener.
Watch nonverbals as he or she is shown speaking
d. Using the checklist on page 468 as a guide, list in newscast clips. What do you see? Are the
your own typical listening behaviors. Which person’s nonverbals in any way a problem?
weaknesses would be hardest for you to
correct? Set some reasonable, achievable goals, 11. Think of an occasion when your nonverbal
and assess your progress daily for a month. communication was misinterpreted. (A business
Resolve to repeat this exercise every six example would be best, but also consider school
months throughout your business career. and outside-school experiences.) What exactly
7. What makes listening difficult for you? What went wrong? What did you intend that differed
from what others said you meant?
makes it easy?
a. To whom do you have greatest difficulty . 12, Either on television or in person, examine the
listening? List this person’s communication ways others behave toward a person of high
behaviors that give rise to your difficulty. In status. For instance, observe the mayor of your
response to this person, which good listening city with the city council, the president of your
behaviors are hardest for you to perform? school with deans or department chairs, or an
b. To whom do you listen most easily and gladly? influential business leader with a community
List this person’s communication behaviors group or in his or her workplace. Look at
that ease your listening task. interpersonal space, use of eye contact, gesture,
8. Words have the power to create listening posture and body orientation, and other
problems. Think of different communication categories of nonverbals. Do you see any
encounters in which people were angered or nonverbal signals indicating who is the person of
offended by a speaker’s poorly selected words. highest status in a given group?
(Example: Teachers laugh and fume 13. In your workplace, what is standard dress for
simultaneously when students return after an managerial employees when meeting persons
absence and ask, “Did I miss anything important?” from outside the organization?
486 Chapter Fourteen
 14. Discuss your observations about interpersonal show how the different emphasis changes the
distance in the following situations: meaning.
In an elevator. a. He won't pay that price.
In a lecture hall. b. He won't pay that price.
In a waiting line for ticket purchases. c. He won't pay that price.
On a bus. d. He won't pay that price.
eg
PR
AneIn a manager’s office. e. He won't pay that price.
15. In five versions of the following sentence, five
different words are emphasized. By paraphrasing,

CASES
Examine each of the following cases in terms of (as appro- problem, he would “get back to them with an
priate) differing perceptions, the Johari Grid, teamwork, answer.” He would then ask others for help and
trust and the earning of trust, listening skills, and nonverbal call the caller back with the correct answer. His
communication. Try to estimate costs, in both “soft” terms co-workers resented what he was doing but did
and, if possible, in actual dollars. not feel it was their place to blow the whistle on
him. One day, his fakery backfired when one
1. Who’s Running This Ship? The corporate
institution that had spoken to him before called
culture of a software engineering firm called for a
with a serious problem and no one was around
relaxed, casual dress code. Even sloppy clothing
for him to ask. He took a chance, guessed at an
was Okay. The engineers liked this arrangement.
answer, and relayed it confidently. The customer,
Ken, a bright, newly hired engineer, came to the
a bank, proceeded to lose $1 million in a transfer
organization from the U.S. Navy. He had formed
that was processed incorrectly.
the habit of sharp creases and lots of starch. In
Now think back to the time before Alvin was
itself this was not a problem, but visitors to the
exposed. What would you have done if you were
firm assumed he was the manager instead of a
in the position of his co-workers? If you were Al’s
junior software engineer. The senior members of
supervisor, what would you do now to keep
the group felt threatened by him. They were
mistakes like this from occurring in the future?
unwilling to work with him on a one-to-one basis.
If you were a consultant to the group, what 4. How Not to Motivate. Garth, the director of
actions would you recommend, and to whom? Be registration at STH, a health-care organization,
prepared to discuss and defend your answer. picked up a patient’s record completed by Diane,
2. Don’t We Share a Goal in This Booth? Chuck, an intake worker. He called a supervisor at
one of several district sales managers for a another hospital to find out how to handle a
computer peripherals company, worked as a loner record of this type, which involved a particular
and kept to himself. Before a major trade show, procedure and a patient who had applied for
while others were setting up the booth and Medicaid. Hearing what the correct procedure
moving product around, he was making phone was, Garth approached Diane and, in front of co-
calls to his own customers. During the show, workers, instructed her how to do it. His
when district sales managers were expected to be approach was oversimplified and patronizing. His
working the booth and greeting all customers manner implied Diane had completed the record
from everyone’s territory, Chuck was often absent incorrectly, which was not the case. Diane was
from the booth, meeting privately with his own humiliated. She wished Garth had simply asked
her in the first place rather than phoning a
customers. When he worked the booth he talked
supervisor. She did not feel free to object, since
only to people he recognized, ignoring others and
leaving them disgruntled. he was the boss. She could not make any sense
out of the incident or figure out why he seemed
3. Oh, Sorry—My Brains Are All on Break! to have picked up a record at random and singled
Alvin, a customer service worker in a financial
her out for unjustified criticism.
institution, was often asked for information on a
computerized funds transfer system and how to 5. And How Did You Want to Pay for This? Bob,
correct problems with it. He was bright but a sales rep, was on the phone one day when Mary,
unwilling to learn the system thoroughly enough a new sales manager, heard him tell a customer
that the firm could not meet the customer’s
to be able to answer the questions all on his own.
Instead, when a superior or outsider called with a needs. With gestures, Mary pantomimed to Bob

Communicating Interpersonally 487

 that she was going to her office and would pick abrasive both to the people she supervised and to
up the phone line he was on. She listened to the those she reported to. In quite a tactless manner,
customer briefly and then assured him that yes, she freely pointed out what she felt were errors in
they could certainly sell him the items he wanted. judgment and procedures. She loved to get what
Bob was made to look foolish, but not as foolish she called a “major bust” —finding an error in a
as Mary looked later when Bob told her that this tax return or a violation of the building code and
customer was a bad-pay and had already defaulted pointing it out with great zeal to the vice
on a couple of good-sized bills. president. Many people in the organization
6. What Could I Possibly Learn There? Barbara wanted her out and expended effort to make it
happen. She lasted six months and then resigned.
had recently been denied a promotion. She felt
_ One Size Fits All. In a large urban bank, 17 of
she had deserved it because she could do all her
assignments more quickly than her coworkers. She the 18 women in a department followed an
disliked the thought of participating in the unspoken dress policy. They wore tailored dresses
company’s semiannual retreat, scheduled to start with jackets or skirt suits. The company handbook
in one week. This service-oriented organization merely stated that employees should dress in
stressed cooperation and interpersonal “proper business attire.” Debra, a very bright
communication skills. The retreat’s activities woman who felt she was too heavy, wore
included brainstorming sessions, problem-solving polyester pants and overblouses because she felt
sessions, and appreciation gatherings for better and believed she looked better in these
“champion” workers who, Barbara believed, did garments. The manager of the department could
much less than she and spent far too much time not perceive her intelligence and overlooked her
just talking to one another. work record. He saw only that she did not
. Is a Necktie More Important than a Sale? conform to the dress code—which had never
John Rosenzweig, president of a company based in been explicitly stated. He constantly berated her
Hawaii, flew to Detroit in July to meet with James and made her feel inadequate. Because she did
Marks, president of a Michigan company. It was not want reasons to communicate with him, she
hot and humid, and Rosenzweig wore a stopped trying to excel on the job. She didn’t
short-sleeved, open-necked shirt and slacks, the want to draw his attention for any reason, good or
usual business garb in Hawaii. Marks wore a suit bad.
and tie, although perspiration soaked his collar. 10. But I Thought You Said... While out
Marks narrowed his eyes when he first saw conducting fieldwork, Beth found that she did not
Rosenzweig as they met at the airport. At lunch, understand which information was necessary to
Rosenzweig asked whether Marks wouldn't like to include on a workpaper. Beth asked the manager
shed his jacket. “No, thanks,” Marks said curtly. in charge what she thought was a very specific
They didn’t get far into their business discussion. question. The manager responded in a way that
Rosenzweig didn’t feel that he was getting the let Beth know the question had not been
price concessions he should; Marks wondered understood. She asked again, and the manager
whether Rosenzweig really had the authority to acted annoyed because he felt he had answered
negotiate. He didn’t feel sure he was really talking the question. After the second explanation, Beth
to the president of a company. was still confused, but rather than make the
. Thanks, I’ve Had about All the Help I Can manager angry she did the workpaper the way she
Stand. Kelly was hired by a construction firm as thought was probably right. As a result, the
a tax manager. The firm was a collection of workpapers lacked vital information and the two
departments, each ruled by a fairly autocratic found themselves answering to one of the
manager. They cooperated but did not challenge partners in the firm. The manager said he had
one another’s authority. Kelly, feeling she had to explained the matter twice. Beth stated she had
prove a woman could hold her own in this never understood. Who was at fault?
environment, overcompensated. Her manner was

Chapter Fourteen
 USING THE MAGIC BULLET
eading 14-1 Roger Ailes

If you want to influence others, one trait is so much more We had six two-hour meetings. When we played back
powerful than all others: I call it the “magic bullet.” With it, tapes, he was shocked at how intensely unlikable he ap-
your audience will forgive just about anything else you do peared. He used put-down phrases: “You don’t under-
wrong. Without it, you can hit every bull’s-eye in the room stand,” “Well, obviously,” and “Let me explain something
and no one will be impressed. to you.”
The magic bullet is being likable as a speaker. In politics, He communicated impatience and disrespect: interrupt-
the “like” vote can swing elections. The same phenomenon ing frequently, scowling, rolling his eyes, and sighing. Over
shapes our business environment and forms the basis of time, he learned to listen better, elicit others’ ideas, exer-
most negotiations. cise diplomacy and laugh— especially at himself.
Those who can be tough-minded but likable will be the No one can tell you how to be more likable. For the
future’s management elite. That’s because the leaders of the executive I advised, showing made the difference. But the
next 10 years will no longer be able to maintain the low suggestions that helped him may help you as well:
profiles they are accustomed to. The arena will be wide
1. Be considerate. Make listeners comfortable.
open to public scrutiny and will require winning the good-
will— the “like” votes—of constituencies such as employ- 2. Get off to a good start. A strong, warm, responsive
ees, investors, government regulators, consumer activists, beginning puts you in control.
and the news media. As Irving Shapiro, former DuPont 3. Choose your words. Try to talk so your listeners
CEO, said in an interview: “Today, [the CEO] is a quasi- can understand you.
public official, who needs as much skill in dealing with 4. Persuade. Requests work better than orders.
people as any Senator.” 5. Relate. Be enthusiastic and react naturally. Don’t
The most common failings of today’s business leaders are hide behind a deadpan expression.
qualities that used to be considered “natural” in a boss. At
6. Be patient. People think at different speeds.
least one-third of my clients are too arrogant or aggressive.
Many of them are technically brilliant executives, but they 7. Read between the lines. Some people have
fail to win support from subordinates and co-workers. personal problems. If someone doesn’t seem to be
Sometimes they alienate clients. Their logic and analysis absorbing what you’re saying, don’t immediately
assume that he isn’t buying your story.
may be correct, but their manner is so abrasive that they
lose “like” votes—which can torpedo their progress (and 8. Admit your weaknesses, when appropriate. You
even their jobs). will gain respect and understanding.
One CEO of a major retailing firm told me that he was on 9. Pay compliments. They express your awareness
the verge of firing a $400,000-a-year executive who was a and make people want to please you.
consistently good bottom-line performer: “I hate his guts. 10. Express thanks. You'll gain support.
Not only that, everybody on the board hates his guts. He 11. Finally, consider Lord Chesterfield’s advice: “Be
has a big mouth and he irritates his peers as well.” wiser than other people, if you can, but do not
I met with the executive. I told him that I had heard that tell them so.”
he was rude, condescending, thin-skinned—and enor-
mously talented. He shifted in his chair and looked at me Source: Roger Ailes, “Using the Magic Bullet,” Newsweek,
disdainfully. But he was disarmed by my candor. Special Section: Management Digest, September 2, 1991.

MIMIC YOUR WAY TO THE TOP

eading 14—2 1 Larry Reibstein and Nadine Joseph

Here’s the scene: the top executives of Microsoft Corp. are What’s wrong with this picture? Nothing, actually. Psy-
in a meeting and cofounder and CEO Bill Gates is talking. chologists call the phenomenon “modeling,” or “mirror-
As he grows intense he starts rocking and bobbing back and ing” or “patterning.” The guy in the next office calls it
forth in his chair, the rocking and bobbing speeding up as sucking up to the boss. Whether done consciously or not,
he continues. Seated around him, several of his lieutenants subordinates show a relentless tendency to copy their
soon are rocking and bobbing, rocking and bobbing. Gates
periodically pushes his glasses up on his nose; his associates Source: Larry Reibstein and Nadine Joseph, “Mimic Your Way
push their glasses up. to the Top,” Newsweek, August 8, 1988, p. 50.

Communicating Interpersonally 489

boss’s mannerisms, gestures, way of speaking, dress and promptly ordered him home to change clothes. The sub-
sometimes even choice of cars and homes. It’s an accept- ordinate had diluted the boss’s uniqueness. But most bosses
able mode of behavior—up to a point. Some people be- bask in imitation. Hollands cites a California company
come so absorbed in their boss’s identity that when the whose top managers developed an interest in politics when
boss moves on, the subordinate may feel abandoned. their boss, a former Washington pol, took over.
Experts say the motive to mimic derives from the same ‘Like a jerk’: Lots of traits are picked up unintentionally,
forces that lead children to imitate a parent. “We pay hom- sometimes as a way to cope with stress. An Oakland lawyer
age and show allegiance to the most powerful through who nodded like her boss says, “I felt like a jerk because I
mimicry,” says Robert Decker, director of the Palo Alto couldn’t stand him.” Yet unintentional traits are easily
Center for Stress Related Disorders. In groups, he notes, the dropped. Maureen McNamara, media director at Emerson
real power is the person being mimicked, not the person Lane Fortuna, a Boston advertising agency, says that she
with the biggest title. inherited a subordinate who gulped loudly to express sur-
When they do it intentionally, subordinates are trying to prise, a trait she picked up from the previous boss. Within
win the boss’s approval. At one IBM office, corporate cul- a week, the aide dropped the gulp and picked up McNa-
ture used to demand that the desks be steel and the chairs mara’s way of saying “Really?!” It was a shrewd move. As
gray. But one top manager brought in a curvy, bright or- McNamara puts it, “I tend to mimic up.”
ange ashtray, and within days colorful objects materialized Mimicking’s benefits— like career advancement—aren’t
in offices. “When an executive believes he can evoke inter- necessarily available to all. Minorities and foreigners often
est from the boss he’ll fly the same airline, order the same find it puzzling to decipher the nonverbal traits of a boss of
cucumber salad at lunch, wear the same kind of cuff links,” a different culture or sex, according to Jane Falk, a linguist.
says Jean Hollands, a Silicon Valley consultant. That reluctance to mirror the boss, Falk adds, may play at
The danger is when such behavior slips into toadyism or least a small role when minorities and foreigners are over-
steps on a boss’s ego. Letitia Baldrige, an adviser on exec- looked for top jobs. Says Falk, “They’re not marching to the
utive manners, recalls the young assistant who wore a plaid "same drummer.”
suit to please his boss, who always wore plaid. The boss

490 Chapter Fourteen

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(Communicating in
Organizations
An organization contains many smaller organizations. Businesspersons
must become effective in groups of all sizes and configurations. This
chapter examines some means of working well in groups and increasing the
effectiveness of the organization itself. We will examine corporate culture,
power in organizations, organizational networks, and meetings.

493
 | Laid-Back Doesn’t Mean
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I work in an ad agency witha pretty laid-back culture. Youscan read the polite
in the casual behavior of the president and the rest of the staff and executives. oe
A newly hired publicrelations| Person, Molly, a reallyney ane ace oer :

structure underlying |the laid-back informality. 2

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Molly erred as many do when she inferred only part of a set of unwritten rules.
Newcomers must acculturate. Doing so takes time, and mistakes are part of the
reason newcomers do not immediately create full value in return for their pay.

CORPORATE Terrence E. Deal and Allan A. Kennedy’s book Corporate Cultures describes
how business organizations generate an internal atmosphere in which manag-
CULTURE ers and employees work." In some organizations, the culture is strong and well
understood by all. In others the culture is weak, poorly understood, or even
different from one department to another.
This internal environment conveys the organization’s values and permeates
Newcomers to organizations what the organization is and does. The culture can be relatively formal or
must learn from others the basic
assumptions and rules informal, open or close-mouthed, punitive or indulgent, innovative or conser-
governing appropriate behavior vative. Adjectives usually applied to people can be applied to organizations:
and other responses. brash, gutsy, energetic, staid, and so on.
Some organizations, like IBM, let their employees know exactly which ac-
tivities are okay and which are not. “Big Blue” even recommends a conserva-
tive style of dress. IBM also believes in helping employees set reachable goals
to make success probable and to generate high motivation in employees. Even
if forced to downsize (as seemed likely as this book went into production),
IBM is unlikely to stop shaping and reinforcing its employees’ success.
Other organizations create other kinds of internal climates. Apple Com-
puter, Inc., cares little about a particular style of business dress but cares a
great deal about innovation. Some organizations hold formal orientation ses-
sions in corporate culture. In others, employees have to infer for themselves
what the “rules” are for success in those organizations.
Some organizations create their cultures deliberately. Others simply let
their cultures evolve, sometimes remaining unaware of the importance, or
even the existence, of a culture. Some organizations encourage “intelligent
failure,” preferring that individuals try out good ideas even if they fail and

Terrence E. Deal and Allan A. Kennedy, Corporate Cultures (Reading, Mass.: Addison-
Wesley, 1982).

494. Chapter Fifteen

examining errors eagerly for what can be learned. Some firms punish failures
whether the idea was good or bad.

Most firms train new hires, even when newcomers’ education and experience Learning the Ropes
suit the job. Training is expensive but essential. You may know that in many
jobs a new employee works his or her best for six months or more before the
firm begins to realize any profit on that employee. Some organizations train
new people in organizational culture as well as in job content. Most of the
time, however, culture is subtle and situational. It does not lend itself well to
formal instruction.
What can new employees do to learn about culture? They can watch the
behavior of others to see what succeeds and what does not. For instance, some
organizations encourage individuals to make their own successes known. In
other organizations, individuals must share credit for successful projects even
when most of the work was their own. If employees “toot their own horn” in
the latter kind of firm, they might be limiting their career opportunities in that
organization.
Employees can familiarize themselves with whatever policy the firm has put
in writing. Many organizations have policy manuals, some extensive and some
minimal. Some firms refer to policy frequently; others write it down and then
mostly forget about it. Employees rarely need to read through a foot-thick
manual, but they should look at the table of contents and read carefully any
written policy affecting the whole firm and any written policy dealing with
their own areas.
Employees can listen actively. Active listening, as you read in Chapter Four-
teen, builds trust. The good listener is much more likely to receive useful
information and advice than the constant talker, the know-it-all, or the loner.
Although excess socializing on the job is rightly discouraged, brief, friendly,
and time-effective social exchanges build an environment conducive to learn-
ing how to meet expectations and how to avoid career-limiting errors.
Finally, employees can seek a mentor or mentors. A mentor is an experi-
enced, senior person in the organization who is well thought of and willing to
share experiences and offer advice. Two warnings are important in choosing a
mentor. First, be sure the mentor really does understand the culture. Seniority
and friendliness do not in themselves make a good mentor. Second, be aware
that in a changeable business environment, individuals can ascend or descend
the organizational ladder unexpectedly. If a mentor loses power, the protégé
may go down as well.

Most organizations have a mission statement setting forth their strongest, most Written and Unwritten Rules
basic beliefs about the purpose underlying all their efforts. Many firms also
make formal organizational plans for one year, five years, and even ten years. Some organizational rules are
explicit.
Many create formal, written goals and objectives for the firm and its divisions
and departments. Those subunits often carry the formal planning process
much further, sometimes proceeding to formal, written goal setting for indi-
vidual employees. .
The plans, goals, and objectives cover what the firms and their employees
are to do. Often other kinds of policies and rules cover how they are to do it.
Some organizations are explicit about policies. For instance, an organization
might clearly tell its employees, “We are a collaborative organization. Our
employees share what they know.” Another organization might say little but
instead create the kind of atmosphere that encourages this sharing. The firm
Communicating in Organizations 495
 might find ways to reward employees who share freely and discourage em-
ployees who hoard information.
Another organization might say little about information sharing and even
frown on employees who ask for or offer information on the job. Such em-
ployees might hear, “Isn’t that outside your area of responsibility?” or even
“Mind your own business,” “I’m really busy,” or “Go bother somebody else.”
Only time and experience tell employees whether the discouraging words
represent individual co-workers having a bad day or whether they reflect the
reigning corporate culture and its unwritten rules.
People readily learn meta-rules, that is, “rules about rules.” For instance,
Jones, the manager, hurries over to two budget analysts and demands, “Haven't
you got those figures yet? I gave you a five o’clock deadline! This is the last time
Some rules are unwritten and I’m going to tell you!” As the door closes behind Jones, one analyst says to the
learnable only by watching, other, “Don’t sweat it— Jones isn’t even yelling yet. And Jones’s counterpart in
drawing inferences, and
cautious trial and error. Denver says the real deadline isn’t till this Friday anyway.” The usual “rule”
says to believe what your supervisor says. The rule about what this manager
says, however, is that unless he seems very stressed, he is probably overstating
the urgency of the deadline. Employees learn whom to believe, which pro-
nouncements are real and which are window dressing, who the influential
people are, and so on.
Hard kinds of cultures for employees to learn are those of the organizations
that say one thing and do another or those that say little or nothing and behave
inconsistently. In these kinds of atmospheres, employees proceed uncertainly,
make judgment errors, and sometimes displease management despite their
best efforts.
Where “the ropes” are hard to learn, workers learn to minimize risk to
themselves. They use the CYA (cover your “anatomy”) strategy, qualify their
statements, and learn where the exits and hiding places are. Cultures of this
kind are often dysfunctional. The energy employees spend protecting them-
selves could be better spent furthering corporate goals.
Rosabeth Moss Kanter, Edgar H. Schein, and other theorists believe corpo-
rate cultures can be guided and changed.” Cultural change occurs slowly,
however, even where management desires it. Employees believe what they see
more than what they hear, and changing established behaviors and beliefs of
large numbers of people is difficult.

POWER, POLITICS, Although organizational reporting relationships can be charted neatly, much
communication and much influence travel along informal lines. Who talks to
AND INFLUENCE whom and who influences whom can depend in part on how much power
individuals are perceived to have.

Kinds of Power Most theorists discuss five kinds of power: position power (sometimes called
legitimate power), reward power, punitive power, expert power, and referent
power.
Position power is the right of superiors in organizations to expect subor-
dinates to carry out instructions and orders. The higher an individual’s position
in the hierarchy, the more position power the individual holds and the greater
his or her authority.

Rosabeth Moss Kanter, “Change Masters and the Intricate Architecture of Corporate Culture
Change,” Management Review 72, October 1983, pp. 18—28; Edgar H. Schein, Organizational
Culture and Leadership (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1985).

496 Chapter Fifteen

 People use reward power when, by conferring something that another
person values, they can motivate the person to do something. Rewards can
include money, gifts, or praise, for example.
Conversely, people use punitive power when they motivate either by
withholding something of value or by giving something disliked (for instance,
humiliation or ridicule).
Expert power comes from superior knowledge or experience about the
matter in question. As workers become more and more specialized and highly
trained, expert power becomes both narrower in its application and more
critically needed.
Referent power derives from an individual’s personality, likability, force- A knowledgeable executive
fulness, and credibility. The leadership characteristic called charisma exem- might possess large amounts of
all five kinds of power and a
plifies a strong form of referent power. People do what a person says because low-level worker only modest
they like, admire, and respect him or her. amounts of one or two kinds.

In virtually all firms, employees must learn and continue to watch organiza- Organizational Politics
tional politics. Although the word politics has negative connotations for many,
coalitions and tactics are necessary where different people see things in dif-
ferent ways. Politics can be ethically positive, negative, or neutral, but it will
exist. The organization’s work has to go on; thus, people will work out their
disagreements.
Whether organizational power is centralized or dispersed, employees can
work well and gain satisfaction from their work. In general, both organization
and employee prosper when the employee’s personal work goals are well
matched with the organization’s goals.
Different employees have different attitudes toward personal power. Some
are ambitious to direct the work of others. Some feel empowered when they
are allowed to direct their own activities without undue interference from
others.
Employees might experience conflicts in loyalty. For instance, an employee
who considers himself loyal to the firm might find himself working under a
powerful individual manager who is empire building by undermining a rival
department’s power. The manager believes she is acting in the firm’s best
interests. The uneasy employee has to decide what, if anything, he can do, what
ethical options he has, whether he can learn enough to make a sensible deci-
sion, and whether it is any of his business in the first place.

Power and the ability to persuade are intricately linked. Often the more Developing Personal Power
“clout” people are perceived to have, the less persuading they have to do.
Similarly, people’s ability to persuade is part of what creates others’ percep- Power adds weight to
persuasion, and often the ability
tions that individuals hold power. to persuade increases power.
Means of building power in organizations include (obviously) job knowl-
edge, education, competency, and productivity. But they also include the
ability to make and sustain connections. Some means of doing so are
1. Environmental scanning— paying attention to what is happening in
your industry, your profession, the economy, and so on.
2. Boundary spanning— participating in organizational activities that
let you move outside your own work group, work cooperatively with
other work groups, and learn how other functional areas operate.
Communicating in Organizations 497
 3. Networking— developing contacts in other businesses, among
professionals, with government representatives, and with others with
whom you can exchange useful information and opportunities.
People in organizations ally with others. They call on one another for support
and information. You can “create debt” by helping other people and expect
help or support in return. These many contacts put you in the right places for
hearing what is important. When you are one of the earliest people with
accurate information about what is really happening, your power grows.
The more “tuned in” you are, the less risk you run of making a CLM (career-
limiting move) or CLR (career-limiting remark). People make serious political
mistakes when they fail to pay attention to power factors, as, for instance, when
Ignoring power factors is risky. they assume they have more power than they do or when they try to use one
type of power when adifferent kind is called for. Paying attention takes time,
of course, and your work must not suffer. Somebody who knows everything
but does nothing will not be esteemed.
You also have to look the part. The material in Chapter Fourteen on non-
verbal communication will help. “Power dressing,” for instance, often gains a
person preferential treatment.

Influencing Peers Peers exert considerable influence on one another. Look on any playground to
see young children already wielding rewards and punishments. An influential
five-year-old decides who can and cannot be included in the play group that
day. Reacting to referent power, the child’s “posse” excludes the less influen-
tial child. With the exclusion, the follower children place a higher value on
being included, because they have seen how hard to get inclusion can be. As
people grow and mature, they further develop their ability to influence others.
Influence strategies and tactics become subtler but no less effective.
When you seek to get people to work with you, think hard about what is in
it for them (the WIIFM factor) to do so and where disagreement is possible.
Through active listening, find out what they want and need. If you plan your
persuasion strategy, they will be motivated to help you because they will
perceive that they are moving toward their own goals as well.
If you are developing the personal power discussed earlier, your peers are
likely to seek out your help and support. You will, of course, be glad to assist,
unless doing so will lose something for you. If you have to disagree with or
oppose someone, “fight fair.”
You lack position power over peers, but the other four kinds of power offer
many possibilities. Referent power? You “look promotable,” although you do
not discuss your ambitions. You seek common ground with those on your own
With peers, an individual might level, behave as though you respect them, give compliments as deserved, and
be able to exercise all forms of stroke egos. You treat the boss respectfully but are not servile. You're a “good
power except position power.
guy.” Expert power? You know a great deal that others need to know. Reward
and punishment power? You can give information and support (and many
other benefits), and you can withhold them as well.
You can empower peers and subordinates. By assisting them, sharing in-
formation, and promoting their efforts and goals, you can help them develop
their capabilities and self-confidence. Empowered people have more to give,
and they will be well disposed toward those who have helped them.

Influencing the Boss In the boss-subordinate power relationship, most of the influence is down-
ward. The boss says, “Jump”; the subordinate says, “How high?” To be sure,
498 Chapter Fifteen
subordinates work more willingly when bosses minimize the use of “hard”
influence tactics. Still, unless superiors have behaved previously in ways that
have eroded their influence, superiors’ position power causes subordinates to
obey orders simply because the boss is the boss.
Subordinates can direct influence upward, but their tactics are limited to
“soft” and indirect means. You have no position power, and it’s not a good idea
to try to punish the boss, but consider these possibilities. First, you can make
the boss look good. When your good work reflects well on him, you have
gained some reward power. Second, you can help him: Pay attention, read,
think, listen, learn, be a voice of reason, and be a resource for him. This gives
you some expert power. Third, you can cultivate some of the same things he
likes and avoid the things he dislikes. Learn what he knows. Find out how he
thinks and, within reason, try to think the same way. If perceived similarity
creates liking, as it usually does, you will gain some referent power.
Preparing for a business career, though, you need to analyze yourself and
your career goals to discover how much you can comfortably adapt to a boss.
Realize also that working positively toward the boss’s goals is not the same as
being a “yes” person intent only on getting ahead.

A classic definition states that a formal organization is “a system of coordinated ORGANIZATIONAL

activities of a group of people working cooperatively toward a common goal
under authority and leadership.”* Lines of communication link individuals and
COMMUNICATION
groups; without communication networks, coordination and cooperation NETWORKS
would be impossible. Most organizations operate with a formal organizational
network and one or more informal ones.

The typical business organization is a pyramid-shaped hierarchy, exemplified Formal Network: The Chain
in Exhibit 15-1 (page 500), with of Command
e A president or chief executive officer (CEO) at the top.
e Several vice presidents reporting to the president or CEO.
e Several managers reporting to each vice president.
e Supervisors reporting to each manager.
e A number of workers reporting to each supervisor.

Numerous variations in and exceptions to this pyramid pattern exist, but most
organizations have this basic overall shape.
The sequence of reporting relationships, from low to high, is called the
chain of command. The number of people reporting directly to an individual
is called that person’s span of control.
Currently, in response to competition, the pyramid in many organizations is
becoming flatter. These “leaner and meaner” organizations are paring some
middle-management positions in the hope of becoming more responsive to
customers in less time. In such organizations, fewer levels separate the CEO
from the lowest level of workers.
Project management organizations, although still hierarchical with the few
supervising the many, reconfigure reporting relationships to serve the needs of
particular projects. A senior engineer, for example, might report both to the
chief of her department and to the head of a project team. That engineer might
use the services of support workers in several departments.

3William G. Scott, Organization Theory (Homewood, Ill: Richard D. Irwin, 1967).

Communicating in Organizations 499

QXHIBIT 15-1 A Typical Organizational Chart

Employees are rarely allowed to Heavy information traffic follows the chain of command. Orders, instruc-
jump over levels in the chain of tions, specifications, budgets, and many other messages flow downward. Re-
command.
ports of many kinds—product, cost, design, personnel, and so on—flow up-
ward. Efforts to bypass levels in the chain, especially when communicating
upward, are discouraged. “Go through channels,” a person will be told.
The formal organization also supports considerable lateral communication
for the purpose of coordinating activities among departments. People in orga-
nizations do, of course, “meet informally” for the organization’s purposes out-
side their usual departments or areas. However, these meetings are not daily
occurrences for most workers.

Informal Networks The informal communication networks in an organization also carry heavy
traffic. Informal networks are composed of people who know and talk to
people. A person’s level in the organization may or may not be important; what
is important is whether the person hears what is going around. Some people—
often those with high referent power—hear everything. Others hear little or
nothing. Some people gain the reputation of being reliable sources. Others talk
a lot but are taken seriously by no one.

500 Chapter Fifteen

 QXHIBIT 15-2 The Grapevine
ee ®@
ys

The best description of an informal network is Keith Davis’s classic piece on

the organizational grapevine.* Exhibit 15-2 diagrams the travel of an orga-
nizational grapevine message. The numbers on the “heads” show the number
of people in the chain between the source (person 1) and the numbered
receiver. For instance, before the 5s heard the message, it passed through four
others.
Information might originate anywhere. People who hear it either keep quiet
or tell it to one or more others, who in turn either keep quiet or pass it on.
Once information is in the grapevine, many, many people hear it, with aston-
ishing speed. But not everyone hears it. A few people, called isolates (“heads”
marked iso in Exhibit 15—2), have no grapevine connection. Somehow they
remain oblivious while information races through the ductwork.
Grapevine content is usually high-interest material. A possible layoff, a ru-
mor, a scandal, a grievance, a pregnancy— all these are food for the grapevine.
Researchers on this informal network report that the content is fairly accurate
most of the time, although often the most fascinating part of a complicated
story is what turns out to be inaccurate. For instance, one week a firm’s
grapevine carried the electrifying news that the president’s daughter was to
marry a particularly unprepossessing company assembly-line worker. The
story had the wedding date right, the bride right, and many other details right. ©
The groom, however, did not work for the company but did bear a common
name that happened also to be the name of that particular assembly-line
worker.
Whereas chain-of-command messages flow upward, downward, and later-
ally, grapevine messages go in any direction. They travel diagonally; they leap
over levels in the hierarchy; they go from anybody with a mouth to anybody
with ears.
Managers and employees alike must access the grapevine. Without it,they The grapevine is flawed but
inevitable and often highly
miss information that could be critical to them. Managers, especially, need to useful.
stay in touch with the grapevine. Management often goes to great effort to
prepare and disseminate employee communications that, once they have ar-
rived through slow, official channels, are disbelieved because the grapevine got
there first—and more convincingly.

4Keith Davis, “Management Communication and the Grapevine,” Harvard Business Review
31 (September—October 1953), pp. 43-49.

Communicating in Organizations 561

 REAL LIFE ADVENTURES , Gary wise and tance Aldrich
I WONDER I WONDER
WHAT THE | ~ WONDER
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OUTCOME aye BALONEY
OF THE | yeere | OR PEANUT
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Out of the loop. Way out of Doesn’t know

the loop. there is a loop.
REAL LIFE ADVENTURES © 1992 GarLan Co. Reprinted with permission
of UNIVERSAL PRESS SYNDICATE. All rights reserved.

Organization members must access the informal

network as well as formal information channels, or
they risk being isolated.

Sometimes information must be deliberately fed into the grapevine. One

instance would be a need to squelch an untrue and potentially harmful rumor.
In such a case, management needs to find out exactly what the grapevine says
and feed it accurate information in a sufficiently interesting and convincing
way that the grapevine will transmit it.
Harmful rumors, in fact, typically start because employees are not getting
information they view as crucial. When they perceive that management is
“holding out on them,” their fear and anxiety levels rise. So does their eager-
ness to make much of little. Under these circumstances, a hint, doubt, or worry
becomes a certainty, and the grapevine hums. Suppose a 10 percent layoff is a
distant possibility. Suppose the work force, hearing nothing and fearing much,
believes a 20 percent layoff is imminent. This rumor might be enough to cause
a number of people to quit and look for better prospects early, before com-
petition becomes too heavy.

Barriers to Effective Any existing interpersonal communication problems are compounded when
Organizational people work in organizations. Where communication is faulty, many people,
not just one or two, may get wrong information or none at all. Additional
Communication
problems that grow out of the nature of organizations include too many trans-
302 Chapter Fifteen
fer stations, overload, bottlenecks, withholding of information, and cliques and
in-groups.

In business, ideas must move through and past many people in the course of Transfer Stations
becoming useful. These receiver-transmitters are called transfer stations.
Recall the communication model from Chapter One as you consider the way
information moves. Each person receives through the filter, decodes, inter-
prets, selects, reencodes, and sends through the filter. Human differences,
noise, bias, fears, agendas, and many other factors may influence the accuracy
of the reconveyed information.
If information passes through five people from initiator to ultimate receiver,
five people have the chance to modify it. Whether intentionally or uninten-
tionally, benignly or maliciously, people might change messages they carry. Each person receiving and
forwarding a message might
People hear and understand imperfectly, and if they miss something they do distort it, either deliberately or
not like to send an incomplete message. Often, when something is missing, accidentally.
they think, “Oh, it must be X,” and they fill in X. Extra care must be taken to
move messages accurately when there are many transfer stations.

In the course of a business day, you will process scores of messages. Some are Overload
trivial and some essential, but you get them all. Sometimes messages arrive
simultaneously. Sometimes you get messages meant for someone else, mes-
sages that require time to study, messages you have to supplement by looking
something up, messages you have to divide and pass to others, and so on. You
will get many messages just because they are routine. You will get many
messages just because you end up on someone’s “pc” list. You will get 10-page
messages that should be one paragraph. You will get messages by phone, by an
anxious person standing in front of you, by a shout down the hall, by E-mail,
by memo, by fax, by car phone. How can anybody process all that information?
Information overload is the condition of having too much information to
handle. At some point the employee’s stress level spikes, the brain balks, and
fatigue sets in. In some ways an organization is an information machine, con-
tinuously pumping data through, sometimes without any real justification. “We
sent this report because we’ve always sent this report. Of course you're sup-
posed to read this report. Do with it? I don’t know. Anyway, here. Take it.”

Many employees have excellent ideas that someone higher in the organization Bottlenecks
should see. The employees write up their ideas, give them to their immediate
superiors to pass upward to the next level, and wait for feedback. Some man-
agers, for various reasons— inattention, malice, overwork, feeling threatened,
who knows why?—create a bottleneck. They never transmit the ideas of sub-
ordinates. Often these same managers keep their subordinates undersupplied
with information from higher management.
“We would like to offer a formula for a solution, but sadly, channels are firm,
upper management supports middle management before employees, and the
problem is all too familiar. Employees with much talent typically work for such
a manager long enough to learn what he or she knows and then get a better job
in a different firm. The loss to the original firm is considerable.
A bottleneck can also occur when one transfer station cannot process in-
formation as fast as senders, receivers, and other transfer stations can. Messages
pile up. Many arrive late, and some never get through at all.
Communicating in Organizations 503
 power for
Withholding Information Information is an organization’s life blood. It is also a source of
and the need to make
people who have it. Whereas most employees underst
jobs effective ly, some
sure others have the information they need to do their
onto it. The more
Hoarding information others people are information misers. They take it in but then hold
need to do their jobs well is information becomes a centrally stored resource in a firm’s computer infor-
dysfunctional to an
organization.
mation system, however, the less any individual can hoard it.
Another occasion when information might be withheld occurs when a sub-
or
ordinate does not want to displease a superior. At times the employee edits
filters disappointing information, sometimes without realizing it, before trans-
mitting the message upward.

Cliques and In-Groups Every organization has its informal opinion leaders. Many of these people hold
no leadership position on the organizational chart but nevertheless heavily
influence the attitudes and opinions of an informal group. Some opinion lead-
ers are the steadfast friends of the company. If they are hostile to the organi-
zation or to individuals, though, trouble arises.
Negative opinion leaders gain ego gratification from keeping others out. The
group is “by invitation only” —a clique. Sometimes they make life hard for
employees whom they ostracize. Sometimes they start petty mutinies. Some-
times they merely waste time.
Managers can counsel such employees, discipline them, or ignore them.
Sometimes they can co-opt them—take them in as Genghis Khan made his
conquered tribes his faithful followers. Managers can scoop up their complain-
ers, put them to work on a special task so demanding that they lack the time
Managers must try to change to play games, and praise their output. Managers should try to modify the
the behavior of negative opinion behavior of these workers, though. Intransigent, disaffected opinion leaders are
leaders.
a source of potential harm.

Technological Local area networks (LANs) are cables connecting the computers and com-
Communication Networks puter-assisted devices within an organization. Network software permits users
to access other users, stored information, communication devices, and exter-
nal communication networks—all subject, of course, to availability and clear-
ances. ,
External communication networks and services are becoming more numer-
ous. We now have multiple phone companies, and the telephone network’s
infrastructure is being upgraded from copper wire to fiber optics.
For years, subscribers to information services such as CompuServe and
Prodigy have sent electronic mail to other subscribers, accessed weather ser-
vices and airline schedules, entertained and educated themselves with com-
puter bulletin boards and special-interest groups, downloaded public-domain
software and shareware, and used many other options. Dow Jones News Ser-
vice offers instant news. Many other services are available, most, like DJNS, at
a cost.
Businesses have numerous options for -digital communication outside the
organization. One innovation in particular holds promise: ISDN (Integrated
Systems Digital Network). This system of switching equipment for the phone
network eases the problem of obtaining connectivity among different makes of
computers and computer-assisted devices.

Electronic Mail and Chapter Two introduced electronic mail. In this section we will note some
further points about this important technology.
Organizations
504 Chapter Fifteen
 Electronic mail is fast, convenient, and unintrusive. It has reduced infor- Electronic mail reduces
mation float—the time between when a message is sent and when it is information float.
received—to near zero. E-mail boosts efficiency and productivity when used
responsibly. However, some users abuse E-mail, clogging it with trivia, per-
sonal messages, jokes, ads, or solicitations. Some fail to read their mail, which
negates the information-float gain. Some write long, incomprehensible mes-
sages with the important elements buried on the fourth screenful. In response
to these problems, some organizations have developed policy on E-mail use.
Employees and organizations have sometimes disagreed about how they can
use E-mail. Some employees have complained when managers have tried to
regulate use, calling such efforts invasion of privacy. A few cases went to court.
In one case, a woman accused her manager of opening her E-mail mailbox and
reading her personal mail. Thus far, the courts seem to favor organizations.
Companies bought their E-mail systems and can use them as they see fit. At
least for now, employees do not have a proprietary right to what they put into
their organizations’ E-mail systems.

Thanks to LANs and WANs (wide area networks), computers, phones, mo- Telecommuting and
dems, fax machines, and other technological tools, many workers need not Organizations
make a daily trip to the office. Some occupations permit businesspeople to
work in the office perhaps two days a week and work the other days either out
of a home office or on the road. They send and receive information to and from
the office in the course of the workday. Salespeople, auditors, programmers,
brokers, writers, data-entry workers, and many others report increased pro-
ductivity and lower stress due to avoiding the commute.
Not everyone is cut out to be a telecommuter, however. An ideal telecom-
muter is a motivated self-starter able to concentrate on work even if home
needs beckon. Telecommuters need equipment at home anda specific area in
the home set aside purely for work. They also need to be able to keep neigh-
bors, dogs, and other friendly creatures from making demands on their work
time.
Organizations can gain much from judicious use of telecommuting. Some-
times they can use the same office space for more than one person or purpose.
They gain good-citizen points for taking a commuter off the streets and high-
ways a couple of days a week. They reap the product of the worker’s increased
ability to concentrate on a task and sometimes all or most of the time the
worker formerly spent traveling. These and other advantages are leading more
organizations to consider telecommuting.
One drawback is possible isolation of workers. A telecommuter must work
to prevent isolation. He or she must be enough of a people person to check in
by phone frequently and to maintain a presence in the office on the days spent
there. A second drawback is that some managers need to actually see their
employees working. They worry that their telecommuters might be “toiling”
over a beer and a good book in a hammock. Several solutions are possible here.
Telecommuters should be carefully selected. Managers should put controls in
place to ensure telecommuters’ productivity. Co-workers should be able to
rely on the telecommuters to be where they say they will be and to provide
product and information on schedule.
Telecommuting can work well. Knowledge workers, in particular, will ap- Organizations can gain much
from motivated telecommuters
preciate the chance to work when and where they work best. It is essential, but must ensure that they are
however, that the workers, their managers, and their co-workers make sure integrated in the organization’s
they are integrated within the company’s network. communication networks.

Communicating in Organizations 505

 and work toward com-
Because organizations unite the efforts of many people
SMALL-GROUP mon goals, meetings are essential.
MEETINGS
that participants some-
The Cost of Meetings Meetings are such a routine part of the business day
times lose sight of their cost. Each manage r or emplo yee earns a specified
or a salary basis. Each person
Many meetings waste time amount for a workday hour, whether on a wage
one-ho ur meetin g. When you
because leaders and participants at a meeting earns that amount for the typical
do not think about their high pant, the cost mounts rapidly.
cost.
add the hour’s wage or salary of each partici
individ ual task, at a meetin g all
Instead of each person working on his or her
their other work, for which
participants center on one task. While they do this,
other work
the organization also pays them, is not getting done. When the
takes more time to complete, they are paid for that time, too.
run ineffi-
Consider also that many meetings start late, last too long, and
of with a memo crowd out
ciently. Agenda items that managers could take care
another meeting can be
necessary discussion items, which are put off until
they have always been held.
held. Finally, some meetings are held only because
attention.
Because of these costs and inefficiencies, meetings deserve extra
eye on the wristwa tch will help
Careful planning, thorough preparation, and an
ensure that the meeting is worth its high cost.

BIZARRO By DAN PIRARO

IT DOESNT WANT TO GO TO
THE MEETING...

Frouro. O©199} cneoncce Fearuarzs. 11-4

BIZARRO By Dan Piraro is reprinted by permission of Chronicle Features,

San Francisco, CA.

If meetings do not make good use of time, most

participants would rather not go.

506 Chapter Fifteen

 Jim Pickerell/Stock Boston

Meetings are essential for reaching the goals of most organizations.

Sometimes you will chair or facilitate a meeting. Most often you will be one of Participating in Meetings
the participants.
Meetings offer you many opportunities to advance both the organization’s
goals and your own. Thorough preparation will let you contribute intelligently.
You can present your ideas in front of several people at once. You can “look
promotable.”
Read the agenda and supporting materials in advance. Think the items over.
Analyze your own views, and obtain any information you will need when you
present them at the meeting. Consider who else will attend and what they will
want and need to hear in support of your views.
Don’t jump in with ideas before you understand the issue. In fact, writers on
the politics of meetings say that a smart participant waits to “see which way the
wind is blowing” before speaking. It is foolish to commit yourself prematurely
to a stand others will not support.
Don’t try to take over the meeting, but do be available to help the meeting
chair, if necessary. Avoid being an unproductive participant like those we will
discuss on pages 510—511. When action items emerge from the discussion,
volunteer for those that will permit you to use your time and strengths effi-
ciently and effectively. Watch and analyze the strengths and weaknesses of the
chairperson and other participants with a view toward strengthening your own
performance in both roles.

Some meeting chairpersons make the mistake of thinking it is their show. For Facilitating Meetings
the chair to talk all or most of the time is usually an error. Given the cost of
meetings, if the presence of the other participants is not integral to the task, the
chair should question whether to hold a meeting at all. Meeting chairs should
think of themselves as facilitators: people who elicit contributions from all
participants, clarify unclear comments of others for the group, integrate con-
tributions to create consensus, and handle turn taking.

Communicating in Organizations 307

 meeting
Because being the chair adds weight to what the person says, the
at least until other opinion s have
leader should downplay his or her opinion,
that opinion is fairly likely to
been aired. If the chair leads with an opinion,
differen t one might have more
become the group’s opinion, even when a
out
merit. The following sections will include some techniques for spreading
the input.

Planning and Organizing The success of a meeting often depends on planning that began weeks ahead
Meetings ‘ of time.

or
Deciding on an Objective A meeting should serve one main purpose, with other issues subordinated
decision -making meeting? If so, state the ob-
A meeting without a clear
omitted. Will the meeting be a
objective will rarely yield a good jective:
product.
We will discuss the two feasibility studies, the one from our internal planners and the
one from our outside consultant, and decide whether to lease 5,000 square feet more
space in December.
Will it be a brainstorming meeting? State the objective:
Revenue is down owing to adip in the economy. We will explore the possible ways
we can reduce expenses without cutting personnel.
Is it to be an information-sharing meeting? State the objective:
Marketing, finance, accounting, facilities, and production will discuss their perspectives
on the effects of offering the cleaning-product line in institutional sizes.
If the objective comprises several different issues, be sure they are ranked in
order of greatest to least importance. If a department meets monthly, for
instance, the objective might be to treat all matters of importance to the
department that cannot be dealt with in any less time-consuming way.
Take care not to try to cover too much in one meeting, particularly one that
participants will view as a typical one-hour meeting. A serious and complex
issue might require several meetings. Or it might be best explored using a
number of different communication media and channels.

Setting the Agenda With the meeting’s objective in mind, list in logical order the separate topics
the meeting must cover. Make sure the objective is clear so that participants
A clear agenda sets the stage for
an efficient and effective shape their expectations to meet it.
meeting. Schedule only the amount of time needed. If you will need less than an hour,
schedule less. Nothing is magical about the one-hour time slot. People can do
valuable work in the 15 or 30 minutes they are not sitting needlessly in a
meeting. Beyond 90 minutes, most writers on meetings have suggested, pro-
ductivity drops away rapidly. Schedule routine meetings for the customary
amount of time, but increased efficiency might permit you to begin allocating
less time even for these meetings.
Schedule the day, date, and time. Your ability to find a time when all needed
persons can meet will depend on how much position power they have com-
pared to you, how busy they and you are, and how firmly scheduled their other
duties are. The harder they are to get, the earlier you must start trying to get
them.
As you prepare the agenda, plan ways to engage others’ participation at
once, so that attenders hear voices other than yours from the very outset. If
308 Chapter Fifteen
 background must precede the statement of the objective, for example, assign
a participant the task of presenting it.
Limit sharply any extraneous items. Announcements, for instance, should
take little of a meeting’s time. Do not let any announcements become discus-
sion items. Such sidelights have run away with many a meeting.
Several days before the meeting, send all participants a copy of the agenda
and any necessary support material. (Prepare extra copies to take to the meet-
ing.) Send only what is necessary. Receiving an inch-thick stack of paper to
read will daunt even well-meaning participants, and your stack will go unread.
‘Do not send the agenda too early. Businesspeople’s days are crowded with
details on countless subjects and tasks. Too great a time lag—more than 10
days, for instance—can prevent their associating your agenda with the up-
coming meeting. They may misplace the material and show up without it.

Invite persons whose input is essential, who must take part in the decision, or Selecting the Participants
who must be informed. Outside of these people, invite only those whom it
would be impolitic to omit—for instance, an interested person whose support Group processes grow more
is needed in implementing decisions. With each added person in a meeting, complex as the size of the
‘meeting increases.
group processes can grow more complex, and hearing from everyone takes
more time.
Others, if interested, can receive a copy of the agenda and a report of the
meeting’s minutes. Typically, people are glad to keep the hour free to do their
own work.
Assign someone in advance to take minutes. Consider what each invitee can
contribute. Sometimes you will want to ask one or more people formally to
cover or present specific items. If you want specific questions asked but do not
want to be always the one asking them, tap individuals in advance to do so.

Try to find the right space for the number of people and the meeting type. Five Choosing the Physical
people huddled in one corner of a huge room will find the great space a Surroundings
barrier. The same five people crowded into one person’s office will knock their
knees and elbows together and set briefcases down on one another’s feet.
Furniture should be comfortable (“The mind can absorb no more than the seat
can endure”) but not sleep inducing.
In a meeting that is mainly informational, seat people in rows facing the
speaker. If you seat them ina circle, they will feel like discussing the informa-
tion instead of absorbing it. If they are supposed to discuss but cannot look at
one another’s faces, they will not discuss as effectively.
If audiovisual material or equipment is needed, order it. Make sure every-
thing works in advance of the meeting.

After your careful preparation, run the meeting you planned. Start on time, Conducting Meetings
follow your agenda, elicit contributions from all attenders, control nonpro-
ductive or dysfunctional meeting behavior, and end on time.

If the schedule says ‘to start at 9 am., at 9:01 the meeting should be under Start on Time
way. Stress the importance of sticking to the agenda and announce (good-
naturedly) your intention to drag digressers back to it. Do not wait for late-
will
comers, and do not stop to update them. If you start 10 minutes late, you
If this pattern es-
pay all participants one-sixth of an hour’s pay for nothing.
tablishes itself, the time wasting will continue, meeting after meeting. Starting
on time rewards those who are prompt.
Communicating in Organizations 509
Follow the Agenda Efficiently Keep the discussion to the agenda. Give each item the time you allotted. At
appropriate intervals, ask for consensus and then move on to the next item. If
you inadvertently underscheduled time for an item, permit the group to de-
Meeting leaders must keep to
the agenda. velop it as needed, but be sure the need is justified. If you have sat in many
meetings, you will often have seen the first couple of agenda items discussed
far beyond any need, leaving time for only sketchy coverage of the last few.

Obtain Productive Input from Ideally, all members will contribute ideas in a courteous, orderly, intelligible
All Participants manner. You may have to help. Some are weaker communicators than others,
but give them time, and make sure others do not interrupt them. If someone
The chair must make sure all has trouble expressing himself, try to paraphrase, but ask him to correct any-
attenders contribute to the thing you have not stated to his satisfaction.
meeting.
Make sure individuals feel genuinely welcome to disagree. Meetings at
which intelligent objections are suppressed result in bad decisions. (See the
section on groupthink on page 511.) Keep conflict constructive and nonhos-
tile. If tension arises, clear the air with some low-key humor.
Productive contributors initiate ideas, expand them, critique them, support
them, ask for clarification of them, and build on them. Because human beings
are political, playful, and competitive, some “one-upmanship,” or jockeying for
influence, may occur. This is natural, typical, and harmless unless it gets out of
hand.

Modify Nonproductive Most participants will contribute positively, but the facilitator must deal with
Behavior occasional exceptions. When a group member’s behavior interferes with busi-
ness, you must stop the behavior without losing the goodwill either of the
problem person or the group. Coming on as a “heavy” will often alienate both.
Above all, do not seem upset, defensive, or angry. Following are some familiar
problem behaviors and at least one courteous means of dealing with each.
The dominating motormouth. Is one person talking too much? Unable to get
to the point? Feel free to interrupt her courteously. Break in and say, “Eileen,
could you just summarize your main point?” Or, “Interesting, Eileen; I'd like to
hear from Bruce how your idea strikes him. Bruce?” In a serious case, say,
“Mm-hmm. Un-huh. Time is pressing us. We have three more agenda items, and
we just have to move on. Let’s talk about this after the meeting.” Then smile.
The humorist. A little humor can break tension, support group processes,
smooth embarrassment, and even make a point memorably. Too much humor,
though, especially when several people are investing costly time in an impor-
tant task, is at best wasteful and at worst disruptive. If a would-be comedian is
taking up valuable meeting time, stop the behavior even if everyone is having
fun. The clock is running. Referring to the remaining agenda items, the meet-
ing’s unmet objective, and the possible need to schedule another meeting is
usually a sobering thought.
For a tough case, some writers suggest dead seriousness. The comic cannot
continue if the chair does not “get” the joke. Courteously ask him to repeat it.
Then ask him to explain it. Then ask him how it relates to the task under
discussion. Usually he will give up, and you can continue business.
The side-of-the-mouth saboteur. Members of cliques and coalitions some-
times arrive at meetings and sit together. Sometimes, while chair and partici-
pants are trying to brainstorm or problem solve, two dissidents will be having
their own minimeeting there at the table. Their running undercurrent of neg-
510 Chapter Fifteen
ative or sarcastic comments is distracting at best; at worst, others are drawn
into their exchange, and the meeting falls apart.
Sometimes you will be able to pause, look at them inquiringly, and ask eas
to state their views for everyone. Do this (1) if you believe they are not
generally supported and (2) if they have the habit of grumbling after the
meeting to others who were there. The group will tend to unite with you and
isolate them. Peer pressure can bring them back into line.
If you suspect in advance that you might have one or more muttering
malcontents at your meeting, assign one a task that will occupy her too much
to permit the whispered commentary. Or find her ideas so indispensable that
she has to sit next to you. Are two pests already in place? Pull up a chair and
sit between them, or send somebody else to do so. If they are on the same side
of the table with someone between them, they cannot make eye contact with
each other.
You might assign one the task of summarizing the comments of others to
the others’ satisfaction. If the summarizer tries to distort the comments, other
participants, as well as the original commenter, are likely to object. This tac-
tic gets the adverse message out into the open under conditions that do not
favor it.

The shy violet. Some people are slow to contribute. They ponder, and by the
time they feel ready to speak, the discussion has moved past them. Or they are
bright but unassertive. Or they are having a bad day. They were invited for a
purpose, though, and are being paid for being there. The chair needs to elicit
good value from them.
Address a specific question to them by name. Make sure it is a question on
which they are likely to have some useful thoughts. Hitting them unexpectedly
with a question they have not thought about will only reinforce their retiring
ways. Give them alittle extra time to answer. Drawing them out in ways the
group approves will reinforce their willingness to contribute the next time.

The yes-person. A meeting chair likes to feel supported. Sometimes, though,

one group member will eagerly second everything said by the chair or by
someone else perceived as influential. This tactic adds nothing, becomes ludi-
crous, and gets old fast. If her only comment is “I agree” or “Right! Right!”
direct to her a question that forces her to develop the idea. Frame a question
that cannot be answered with yes or no: “Tell about. . . ,” “What do you see
as a result of . . . ,” “Compare what Bob said with . . . ,” “How would you
explain. . . ,” “Why do you favor Bob’s solution over Mary’s suggestion that
.” and the like.
If you know in advance about a person’s yes habit, talk with her before the
meeting. Assign her the job of finding the weaknesses in an idea you or the
other influential person will cover. In the meeting, approve her efforts.

Groupthink is a dysfunctional meeting behavior in which the group is so Avoid Groupthink

cohesive that it fails to perceive its own weaknesses, the strengths of the
opposition, and the pitfalls in its decisions. Groupthink plagues long-time work Long-term, cohesive work
groups are sometimes prone to
groups more than groups whose membership is more fluid. Group members groupthink, a dysfunctional
become cheerleaders for the group and for one another. meeting behavior.
Group members chide those who bring up negatives, indulge in excessively
optimistic predictions and value statements, and suppress their own disagree-
ment, often unaware that they are doing so. These habits lead to premature
Communicating in Organizations oll
 decisions based on faulty and incomplete information. Sometimes such deci-
sions are disastrously costly.
As William J. Altier writes, “A problem that hasn’t been anticipated can’t be
prevented.”? Fostering constructive disagreement is essential, even if the chair
has to prime a participant to act as devil’s advocate.

Wrap Up and End on Time If you have scheduled an hour for the meeting, by 10 minutes before the hour’s
end a summary should be in progress and action items specified and assigned.
Explicitly say how the meeting’s objective has been met. Finally, participants,
having worked hard for an hour, will appreciate thanks from the chair.

Following Up Make sure the minutes are prepared, checked, photocopied, and distributed
Meetings generate action. The promptly. Check with all those who received assignments at the end of the
chair and participants need to meeting so that the action items see action and decisions are implemented.
follow up.

Meetings Using Group Although decision-making meetings need every member's best input, several
Decision Support Systems elements of human nature tend to decrease members’ candor and distort their
judgment. As they sit around the meeting table, participants contemplate more
than just the quality of the decision. They think about politics, personal risks
and benefits, and other members’ status. Considerations like these make them
voice some ideas and withhold others. Good ideas from unregarded members
are undervalued; those from highly regarded members are overvalued.

Obtaining thorough Input In the late 1980s, researchers developed software for meetings to lower risk
and equalize status. Using group decision support systems (GDSSs), pat-
ticipants can offer their comments, questions, and criticisms anonymously. A
facilitator both operates the meeting software and moves the meeting through
its phases. Unlike a meeting chair, the facilitator usually does not give input to
ed the decision.
Most GDSS facilities contain a circle or semicircle of a dozen or so net-
worked computers. Because all users face the center of the circle, no one can
see any other user’s screen. The software links them.
Participants key in ideas in response to the facilitator’s prompts, which
change as they progress through the phases of the decision process. The
facilitator might first ask them to define the problem. If the problem is well
defined, the first question to be answered in the meeting might be “What are
the criteria for this decision?” The group can perform a brainstorming session,
then derive the few best ideas from the brainstorming, then select a single
A GDSS streamlines the stages strategy by applying the criteria, then decide how to implement the strategy.
of problem solving without loss The facilitator sets the group a task, watches to see when the inputting slows
of thoroughness.
down, asks them for consensus, takes their vote, and moves the group to the
next part of the task.
Any participant can respond to any other participant’s comment. Because
no one knows who said what, comments center on the ideas rather than on
personalities or status. Groupthink is unlikely because no one fears to point out
the weaknesses in an idea. No one can show off. No one can intimidate any-
body else. If the boss keys in a poor idea, the group is likely to discuss its
GDSSs remove the political risk
of contributing possibly shortcomings. As they do so, the boss does not lose face. Although they may
unwelcome ideas. suspect, no one knows for sure who keyed in the idea.

William J. Altier, “The Power of Negative Thinking,” Business Horizons, January—February

1991, p. 5.

512 Chapter Fifteen

Besides more thorough and representative input, the decision support system’s Saving Time
other great advantage is time saving. In conventional meetings, members
sometimes talk around and around a subject before finally meeting it head on.
If the issue is sensitive, they defer, hedge, banter, complain, and dance all
around it, sometimes spending hours, days, or even months before getting
down to business.
Using a decision support system, members are aware of the clock. The
meter is running. They are disinclined to respond to people with personal
agendas or issues that do not address the problem. If no one supports an idea,
the group moves around it and goes on. If several defend an idea, the group
needs to consider it.
Studies of groups using decision support systems report that making deci-
sions takes a fraction of the time that it does in around-the-table meetings.
When multistep projects use decision support systems, the time line can be
shortened still more.

After its riots of May 1992, Los Angeles appointed a committee to examine An Example ofa GDSS’s
how best to rebuild South Central Los Angeles, the part of the city hit hardest Usefulness
by the disturbances. On the committee sat representatives of all stakeholders
in the decision: Korean Americans, African Americans, Mexican Americans,
Anglos, and many other ethnic groups not in those categories. They repre-
sented business interests, government interests, neighborhood groups, reli-
gious organizations, and many other coalitions. Their problem was how to
make best use of the funds available for rebuilding. You can see immediately
that such diverse groups would have strong ideas and even stronger feelings
about the decisions to be made.
Consider the effect a decision support system might have in such a case.
Although it would not create perfect group processes, it would give all par-
ticipants an equal chance to express themselves and would diminish the fil-
tering distortion caused by bias. How good an idea sounded would not depend
on who expressed it; it would be judged on its own merits. Participants would
not always have to show “solidarity” with their own group if a good idea came
from outside it.

Business teleconferencing (te/e means “far off, distant”)began as an effort to Teleconferencing

decrease travel expenses when a number of people in locations remote from ,y, ious of telodonterencine et
one another needed to meet. The earliest form was the audioconference, people hold a meeting despite
very much like the now familiar conference call. geographic distance among
Computer conferences let computer users join any other users who share pe:
the same network, whether a company’s own network or one provided by an
external vendor. Computer conferences differ from GDSSs, which are “real-
time”; that is, all users are on the system at once, interacting with the facilitator
and the other participants. GDSS users key input simultaneously and see oth- ea
ers’ messages as they are being keyed in. Computer conferences are not real-
time. Messages are keyed in and sent to a central computer, which stores them
until other users call them up. Some computer conferences end in a few hours;
others can go on indefinitely.
Videoconferencing gives communicators much more information about
one another than audioconferencing or computer conferencing does. Seeing
others’ facial expressions, posture, and gestures along with hearing their voices
conveys meaning faster and more accurately.
Communicating in Organizations 513
 (or slow-scan),
Three kinds of videoconferencing are ad hoc, freeze-frame
use ad hoc video confe rencing to
and full-motion, fully interactive. Businesses
large number of receive rs. The
send one visual conference one way to a
opportunity to
Communication in ad hoc receivers cannot send a return video signal, but some have the
ces work well for events such as
videoconferences is mostly one- send audio messages. Ad hoc teleconferen
way video with limited two-way instanc e, have put on ad hoc
audio communication.
new-product introductions. Automakers, for
. They schedu le sales meet-
videoconferences to introduce a year’s new models
and repres entati ves in
ings in one large city in each state, gather dealers
polishe d, high-qu ality informa -
conference centers in those cities, and beam a
ns. The broadc ast is both
tional and promotional broadcast to those locatio
nces to
festive and motivating. Educational institutions use ad hoc videoconfere
interes ted schools . Ad hoc
send major events of academic meetings to other
commun icatio n is mostly
videoconferences are not meetings in the full sense;
one way.
Freeze-frame and full-motion videoconferences are meetings in which
senders and receivers interact in both directions. These two media differ in
quality of realism and in price. Freeze-frame is relatively inexpensive but not
very natural-seeming. The receiver sees a picture of a person, but it is a still
picture that changes, or “refreshes,” every few seconds. The full-motion video
is expensive, but it provides far greater realism. It offers the picture quality of
network television, although the “performances” are less polished. While peo-
ple should—and do—prepare carefully for the meeting to conserve time and
get the job done well, the video captures the everyday communication of
business professionals.
In both types of videoconference, participants sit at a half-table facing a
screen on which they see the participants in a remote location, sitting at a
similar half-table. Both full-motion and freeze-frame conferencing allow the use
of ancillary technologies. For instance, a person at either end of the conference
could say to the camera, “Here’s a copy of the contract” and send a fax
immediately. Participants in both kinds of conference have reported some
difficulty in liking people whom they met for the first time via videoconfer-
ence. The “vibes” that occur when people first meet, shake hands, look at each
other’s eyes, and smile do not seem to transmit across distance. If the people
have met before in person, liking is not a problem.
Without getting far into technicalities, we need to mention that the line
separating a freeze-frame from a full-motion videoconference is blurring. Two
changes—new and better transmission channels and better codecs (compres-
sion-decompression devices) —are making them more similar.
In the past, videoconferences had to be transmitted through whatever chan-
nel was available, often only a telephone wire. The phone wires could not
carry a very dense signal, which restricted the speed at which a freeze-frame
image could refresh. Where channels with greater capacity are available, such
as a fiber optic network or microwave via satellite, much more data can be sent
per second. The eye perceives the illusion of motion when an image refreshes
at the rate of about 30 frames per second.
The other change is the continually improving codec. This device processes
the signal to send it in its most stripped-down useful form. A full-motion
picture can lose a little of its sharpness and still be very useful and natural
seeming. Thus, the price of full motion is coming down, and freeze-frame is
becoming less and less “frozen.”
In the early 1980s, only a handful of the largest organizations had full-
motion videoconferencing, including Arco, Boeing, and Allstate. Improve-

514 Chapter Fifteen

ments and price drops are bringing this technology within reach of many
more.
Although videoconferencing is a tool and not a show, most participants feel
the need to prepare their remarks. Many even practice them ahead of time,
wishing to avoid seeming thoughtless or disorganized. Some videoconference Two-way videoconference
content, of course, is spontaneous; yet the condensed time frame intensifies participants should try to seem
the impressions made. Then, too, the meter really is running; in addition to knowledgeable, articulate, and
organized.
equipment and facilities costs, operating costs are considerable. Thus, people
tend to keep to the agenda and proceed efficiently.
Organizations with teleconferencing report productivity gains, travel sav-
ings, and increased flexibility. With the technology improving continually,
the business future of many workers is likely to hold some form of telecon-
ferencing.

Whether an organization’s culture is strong or weak, employees must learn REVIEW

both written and unwritten rules to fit in and succeed. As they learn acceptable
behaviors in their organization, they develop their own power and influence.
The chapter discussed five kinds of power: position (legitimate), reward, pu-
nitive, expert, and referent. Different kinds of power offer different means of
influencing peers, co-workers, and, to some extent, superiors.
The formal organizational communication network follows the structure of
the organization. Informal networks, notably the grapevine, are amorphous,
fast, and only partly accurate. Yet organization members must access them to
stay aware of events and sometimes to correct what they contain. Barriers to
an organization’s communication include too many transfer stations, informa-
tion overload, bottlenecks, hoarding or withholding information, and cliques
and in-groups. Technological advances in organizational communication in-
clude local and wide area networks and information services, electronic mail,
and telecommuting.
The pervasiveness of meetings should not distract from their high cost. This
chapter discussed effective means of participating in and leading or facilitating
meetings. The technological innovations of group decision support systems
and of teleconferences typically improve the effectiveness of meetings and
save on travel and time.

Communicating in Organizations 515

 APPLICATION EXERCISES
1. If you now work or have worked, consider the 9. What is information overload? Under what
culture of the organization you know best. (If not, conditions do you become overloaded? In what
think of a club or other group in which you different ways do you respond to overload?
participate regularly.) Mentally analyze the 10. In the organization you considered in Exercise 1,
culture. Is the atmosphere tense? Relaxed? Casual? a. Do cliques, in-groups, or informal opinion
Businesslike? How do people exchange leaders exist?
information? Casually? Generously? Formally? b. How does a newcomer become aware of them?
Cautiously? Who are the influential people? How c. How does a newcomer know what to do about
do you know? Consider other rules, both explicit them?
and implicit. Write a paragraph describing the 11. What is “information float”? How is it affected by
culture of this organization. E-mail?
2. In the organization you described in Exercise 1, 12. In the organization you considered in Exercise 1,
what types of power do you hold? Who holds the
a. Describe a typical meeting: agenda (Is there
most position power? Expert power? For these
one? Do you receive it beforehand? Is it
individuals, does high referent power accompany
appropriate?), effective or ineffective use of
high position and expert power? Why or why not?
time, type of leadership, members’ willingness
3. Over whom do you hold at least some reward to contribute, incidence of “political” behavior
power? Punitive power? Who holds these types of (good or bad), incidence of disruptive
power over you? Think in both tangible and behavior.
intangible terms. b. Do the meetings typically accomplish a known
4. Think of a case where you saw an individual break objective in a timely way? Discuss.
an “unwritten rule” of an organization. What 13. What is a group decision support system? What
should that individual have known, and how
are its advantages over a standard around-the-table
should he or she have known it? meeting? Do you see any disadvantages? Explain.
5. What means of developing personal power are 14. The chapter gave the “Rebuild Los Angeles” group
open to employees? Tell how they can be used as an example of a problem-solving group with
with subordinates, with peers, and with superiors. much to gain by using a group decision support
6. Explain the differences between formal and system. Think of an example from your own
informal communication networks in business or community in which a GDSS would
organizations. produce better results in less time than a standard
7. What is the grapevine? What are its advantages meeting. Discuss.
and disadvantages? 15. Differentiate among these types of
8. What grapevines do you access at present, and for teleconferencing: computer, audio, ad hoc, freeze-
what purposes? How reliable are they? frame, and full-motion.

CASES
As you analyze these cases, recall and apply the chapter's Greeley, purchasing manager, told Brian coldly,
discussion of organizational culture, rules, kinds of power “We like the morale Kirk has going in inventory
and politics, formal and informal communication networks, control. I seriously wonder how productive you
and appropriate meeting behaviors for leaders and partici- can be, if this is the way you spend your time.”
pants. 2. Don’t Look for Me to Say Anything Next
1. Junior CIA Man. Brian, an inventory control Time. A computer program was put in place at
worker, disliked Kirk, his immediate supervisor. Fidelity Liberty to generate letters notifying
Brian decided to keep a file on Kirk. Every time customers who bought travel insurance of an
he observed Kirk taking a break, kidding around, across-the-board refund ranging between $1 and
or being what Brian considered unproductive, he $9. The program had a glitch. Instead of $1 to $9,
noted these impressions in the file. His fellow the letters said $10,000 to $90,000. The letters
employees noticed what he was doing and were signed using an automatic signature machine
wondered what he intended to do with the file. and were never reviewed. No one caught the
Before he could do anything with it, the file fell mistake until the mailroom people had the good
into the hands of higher management. Ms. sense to question why a $90,000 refund would be

516 Chapter Fifteen

 due on a $200 policy. They put the letters on 5. The 10-Minute Expert. One purpose served by
hold until they ascertained whether to mail them the two-hour weekly staff meetings at Liffey Inc.
or destroy them. The letters were destroyed, of was to pass on and discuss information received
course. Once the error was discovered, the from higher management and to establish
managers and supervisors all blamed one another. requirements based on the new material.
For two weeks, little got done and the mailroom Supervisors got this information at a weekly
personnel struggled with a backlog. Other supervisors’ meeting the evening prior to the staff
employees had to pitch in and help get the new meeting. Martin, a 10-year supervisor of one
letters out. The person who had brought the error operations department, knew that Jeremy, one of
to the appropriate manager’s attention was called his subordinates, was applying for a supervisor’s
derogatory names, deemed a troublemaker, and job. Martin took Jeremy along to the supervisors’
accused of trying to climb the corporate ladder at meeting to give him more exposure to the new
the expense of the other supervisors. duties he hoped to take on. The next day, at the
staff meeting, Jeremy disagreed with what Martin
. Who Butters the Bread Around Here? Claude, said about a procedure they had both heard
a technical writer at an engineering firm, put in discussed the night before. Martin told him, “The
long days working on a proposal with several information you heard last night is general.
senior engineers and architects. Claude’s Supervisors have some leeway in adjusting it to
supervisor, Penny, reviewed their draft, made the environment and the group’s work style.”
corrections, wrote the final draft, sent it out on Jeremy pushed it: “All the same, that’s not what
time, but did not inform the engineering side or they said at the supervisors’ meeting last night.”
send them a copy. Two days after the deadline, Martin silenced Jeremy with a few sharp words
Penny wrote the vice president a long memo and continued with his interpretation of the
criticizing the engineers and architects and taking procedure.
full credit for meeting the deadline “despite the
. You Consult with Me. I Don’t Consult with
many writing problems created by the technical
You. Karen broke “the glass ceiling” and moved
side.” She did not send engineering a copy of her
into a vice president—personnel position in her
memo. Senior management laughed at the memo
manufacturing firm. Eager to show top
and faxed it to others with “Warning! The
management they had made a good decision, she
spellchecker’s [sic] are in revolt” written across.
developed and launched a new, corporationwide
the top. Penny—and Claude— sank to the bottom
performance appraisal program. Managers and
of the credibility list. “What nerve!” one architect
supervisors had deep reservations about several
scoffed. “This is a technical firm. We create the
appraisal criteria in her plan. They asked her why
value. Those writers are nothing but overhead.”
she hadn’t asked for their input. Several offered
some simple modifications to her plan that they
. But My Teammates Are Such Pros!
said would make it much more workable. She told
Consultants at Inno-Getics, a management services
them, “Look, I don’t have time to do PR for this
firm, have considerable autonomy. Professionalism
program. My job is personnel, I know the field
is a “given,” although the corporate culture is
inside and out, and my nameplate says vice
relaxed. Jake, a highly capable consultant hired
president. Implement this program.” Resistance
four months earlier, was project team leader on a
hardened. The program failed embarrassingly and
new project. He put heavy effort into the work
expensively.
and relied strongly on his teammates. He
considered the others to be just as important as . A Logical Deduction, Not an Information
he. The first Tuesday in May was the kick-off Theft. Frank, a high-ranking manager in a
meeting to launch the project. It rained heavily government agency, heard a rumor that Tom, one
that day and Jake, who had a two-hour commute of his subordinates, had accessed a personal
to the meeting site, decided his teammates could records database he was not authorized to use. In
handle the meeting without him and did not go. a staff meeting, Frank turned the discussion to
The general ledger and accounts payable team budget line items and casually inquired, “What do
members were there; so were two other Inno- you suppose Mary Kay is making?” “I'd say at least
Getics people and three representatives of the $45,000,” Tom said. “That proves it,” Frank
client. At 11 a.m., Jake’s manager reached him by snapped. “How did you crack the password code
phone. “Since you didn’t show up, we canceled on that database?” Tom turned pale, and the rest
the meeting,” the manager said. “You stood up of the staffers stared at Frank. Finally, Tom said,
your client. Just why did you think that would be “Mary Kay’s job is the same as the one being
acceptable?” advertised this week in the Star. Salary range is

Communicating in Organizations 517

 $42,000 to $45,000 to start. Mary Kay has been of both Blake and Parker, told Blake, “Nobody is
here four years. I hope you don’t really think I’ve saying you shouldn’t have arrested the kid, but
broken into the records database.” Frank glared at you could have at least let Parker know. You look
Tom and said, “Well, just watch yourself.” like a jerk.” Blake said, “I followed the law. This
8. Monkey See, Monkey Call in Before Monkey stupid culture needs changing.” “You are a jerk,”
Do. Edu-Ware sells educational products by Mabrito said.
appointment to buyers for school districts. Helen, 10. Nine x ($280 + Overhead + Travel + Cost of
a new and promising sales rep, arrived at 9:25 Undone Work) = Waste. Regional managers,
aM. for a 9:00 a.m. appointment with one of these the corporate planning officer, and corporate staff
clients. She did not seem worried. “I’ve seen support people in a large automotive parts
other people come skating in 10 or 15 minutes supplier met for a day-long strategic planning
late,” she said, “so why single me out?” “Because retreat. Harry, the corporate planner, handed out
your appointment steamed out of here at 9:15 _ an agenda. “Okay,” he said, “Let’s start with a
complaining about bad service in front of a lobby budget overview. Vera,” he said to one of his
full of customers,” the supervisor replied. staffers, “what did you bring us on budget?” Vera
“Anybody you ever saw arrive 15 minutes late handed around a paper. “Where are the
had called to let us know. Then we can reassure projections, Vera?” asked Harry. Vera said, “Was I
the client, and sometimes somebody else can supposed to get you projections?” “Well, ’'d have
cover. Didn’t you look at this client’s file? Last thought strategic planning rather implied as
year her orders totaled $20,000.” much,” Harry replied. Eddie, a regional manager,
9. And I Don’t Like Standing When the Judge glanced down the agenda and said, “Harry, these
Comes in, Either. Blake, a young police weren't the topics I thought would be on the
officer, arrested and brought in a suspect who agenda. The records I’ve brought don’t apply, and
was the son of another officer, Parker. Blake I’m not really prepared to generate ideas on what
treated the son the same as any other individual, you have here.” “This is different from what I
since he was 18 years old. Blake did not expected also,” Carrie, another regional manager,
communicate to Parker what had occurred. said. “Don’t you people know what strategic
Parker felt betrayed. The culture dictated that planning is?” Harry demanded.
officers look out for their own. Mabrito, a friend

“COMPUTERIZING” DULL MEETINGS

eading 15-1 IS TOUTED AS AN ANTIDOTE TO THE
MOUTH THAT BORED
William M. Bulkeley

Just about the most expensive and inefficient thing compa- called VisionQuest from Collaborative Technologies Corp.,
nies do is hold meetings. Talkers filibuster. Dreamers day- Austin, Texas, finished a computerized meeting room last
dream. Everyone walks out complaining that nothing was fall. In two months, 1,000 people used the room to gener-
accomplished. ate and organize 10,000 ideas, he says. Mr. DiPietro and his
But evidence is accumulating that computers can make associates estimate traditional meetings would have taken
this most human of activities much more productive. Some nine to 12 times longer to accomplish as much.
professional meeting facilitators are using numeric keypads Advocates of computerized meetings say the computer
connected to a personal computer to let everyone at a helps leaders stick to an agenda, partly because people di-
meeting secretly vote on issues. A few companies and uni- gress less with a keyboard than they do orally. Meetings
versities are building meeting rooms costing $50,000 to typically include some oral discussion, but most of the
$200,000 equipped with a dozen or more connected per- progress occurs on computer screens. Voting on the im-
sonal computers; those at the meeting hammer away on portance of each issue means those at the meeting often
keyboards instead of jabbering at each other.
“We're having the quietest, least stressful, most produc-
tive meetings you’ve ever seen,” says Carl DiPietro, vice Source: William M. Bulkeley, ““Computerizing’ Dull Meetings
president, human resources at Marriott Corp.’s architecture Is Touted as an Antidote to the Mouth That Bored,” The Wall
and construction division. Marriott, which uses a program Street Journal, January 28, 1992, p. B7.

518 Chapter Fifteen

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(hapler Satege

A usiness
Communication With
People From Other
Nations
Business is no longer merely national. International markets, employees, suppliers,
and many other components of business make it increasingly important for business
people to think beyond national borders.
This chapter addresses some basics of dealing with business people in and from
other cultures. You will read about the problems caused by ethnocentrism, culture
blindness, and stereotype and will study the ways culture shapes the beliefs,
attitudes, and values of its members. The chapter will cite some specific differences
among cultures, but it's important to remember that cultures contain much internal
variation, and the people within cultures are still individuals.
The chapter will offer guidelines for writing for international audiences. It will
discuss high-context and low-context cultures, individualist and _ collectivist
cultures, high and low power distance cultures, and monochronic and polychronic
cultures. Nonverbal communication differences will be examined.
Finally, the chapter discusses ways to communicate successfully with foreign-
born workers, especially those with limited English proficiency, to integrate them
into a functional and supportive work environment.

521
 Build Slowly
From the desk of... and It Lasts Forever

The market in China for what we manufacture -- ceramic bath fixtures -- is

huge. More Chinese have discretionary income now, and home improvements
are a favorite way to use it. But we had read that American companies had had a
hard time getting any kind of business started there. They came home
complaining that the red tape never ended, that the Chinese didn't want to get
down to business, and that contracts meant nothing. We decided to study and
learn everything we could before trying. We had much better luck.
The two most important things we learned were patience and being
Rita Carmody
connected. It turned out to be important that our CEO's sister had traveled to
Technical Services
China with the Friendship Force in 1978. It was important that we belonged to a
Manager
quality standards group for ceramic fixtures. It was important that we had two
Chinese-Americans on our engineering staff — especially when everyone
realized that Henry Eng's father-in-law was from the same Chinese town as our
joint venture partner's cousin. Starting up in China took longer, but we're up and
running and we feel confident. Contracts? The contract is more like a work-in-
progress. Trust is the essential.

China. Mexico. Pakistan. Thailand. Germany. Australia. Turkey. Canada. India.

Nigeria. Egypt. Qatar. Japan. Chile. Norway. Zaire. Korea. Any of these and
dozens of other economies could be significant in your business life in the next
few years. Business is global now and will become even more so.

International and intercultural communication compnisse too much "terntory" to

BUSINESS
cover in a chapter. Still, Chapter 16 will make a start on what U.S. business per-
COMMUNICATION sons need to know to communicate effectively in today's global marketplace and
WITH PEOPLE the increasingly diverse domestic marketplace.
FROM OTHER Business with people from other nations is based on negotiations. Although
NATIONS specific negotiating techniques are beyond the scope of this book, communi-
cation issues always affect negotiations. When negotiations are international,
skillful communication becomes even more important.
One comment at starting: This book has used “American" and "U.S."
throughout to refer to people who live in the United States of America. Strictly
speaking, though, everyone is American who lives between the polar reaches of
Canada and the southern tips of Argentina and Chile. Also, the full name of
Mexico is Los Estados Unidos de Mexico - the United States of Mexico. We
have to call ourselves by some name or other, but we also need to realize that
we are neither the only Americans nor the only United States.

Trust Underlies Most People do business for mutual benefit with people they trust. Laws and contracts
Business Communication protect business interests, to be sure, but where trust does not exist first, con-
tracts are less likely to get signed. People observe behavior, listen to words, and
draw inferences about others’ trustability. New business acquaintances within a
culture tactfully probe to test each other's reliability, even when the stranger
seems similar in outward ways. (Look again at the Johari Grid diagram in Chap-
ter Fourteen.) When the stranger is dissimilar, trust comes more slowly. When

522 Chapter Sixteen

the stranger is from an entirely different country, sometimes communication
cues differ so much that trust does not come at all.

Human beings do — and must — make assumptions and generalizations. Gener- Generalizing Is Okay
alizations are perfectly okay if the people who make them always remain willing but Stereotyping Is Not
to revise on the basis of new information. Discrimination stems from
generalizing too quickly on the basis of limited information and from refusing to
process new information that might change the generalizations. Rigid, un-
revisable generalizations are stereotypes. They create major communication
barniers.

Sometimes we must force ourselves to perceive and then process the new infor-
mation.

e Wesee what were acculturated to see.

e Impressions based on externals — things people can notice — are
powerful.

Some sociobiologists have observed that racial categories are arbitrary. Race is
based (loosely) on color of skin, eye color, shape of eyelid, and a handful of
other externally visible physical characteristics. All kinds of "should," "shouldn't,"
"Don't marry a ...," and "They always..." statements are based on these categories.
Yet far more definite and meaningful distinctions involve characteristics not out-
wardly perceptible: For example, a problem really could develop if a husband
with Rh positive blood type and a wife with Rh negative blood type have a child
whose blood is incompatible with the mother's. Until the age of blood transfu-
sions, many such babies died. The sociobiologists say categories of humanity
could be based as meaningfully on Rh factor — or resistance to heart disease, or
ability to digest milk, or density of bone structure — as on the outwardly visible
things that categorize races at present.
Also, every society contains all levels of intelligence and talent, great varia-
tion in personality, and all the other kinds of human difference. A culture rein-
forces some behaviors and discourages others, and some observable differences
among cultures can be startling. Yet there are more human differences within
groups than between groups.

Understanding of others grows slowly, with "two steps forward and one step
back.” For any action there's often a reaction (or overreaction), which causes a
counter-reaction, and so on into infinity.
For example, as Russia has moved toward capitalism and democracy, Rus-
sians have struggled with organized crime and disorganized law enforcement,
poverty among the aged, nostalgia among some for "the good old days" of Com-
munism, and newly rich entrepreneurs’ indulgence in wealth without the con- A Giles ie the tale
siderable discipline that underlies most successful versions of capitalism. Slowly system of learned beliefs
capitalism will become functional there — unless the old pattern is too strong. and behaviors shared by the
Another example can be found in South Africa's gradual move toward racial people within a society. It
encompasses the rules,
equality. Everyone has so much to learn, and the old patterns change slowly. values, attitudes, roles, and
views of life and the
Prejudice, culture-blindness, failure of empathy, and blunders are everywhere. universe that identify and
On average, America is no worse and no better than most other societies. But characterize a given
"You can change no one's behavior except your own" - so we start with our- society.
selves.
International and Intercultural Business Communication 523
 Three mistaken assumptions are common when people start studying cultures:

Firor: “Really, they’re just like us.”

Reality: All human beings share basic needs - belonging, love, freedom
from pain, and the like, but they define these things very
differently. Outward behaviors will differ greatly as well. Seeking
common ground is a good communication strategy, but assuming
similarity when it's not present will cause misunderstanding.

Error: “Because I see them doing___, that means they feel ___ 4
Reality: A culture determines what is meant by a given behavior and which
behaviors are permissible. A relaxed posture, such as leaning far back
in a chair, could mean "I hold you in contempt" in one culture but "I
feel we have an excellent rapport" in another.

Error: “One of those neat little ‘Dos and Don’ts’ books will keep me out
of trouble no matter where I go.”
Reality: You can never know enough. To deal effectively with business
persons from cultures different from our own, we all need to be
lifelong learners.

Nonbusiness elements of culture constantly influence business elements of cul-

The Functions of ture. We will examine briefly the functions of culture. Domg so requires our
Culture attention to elements that have shaped us since our earliest childhood. The
influence of culture is so pervasive and is instilled so early that many members
of a culture do not realize that the shaping has occurred or that any other way of
thinking exists.

In what areas does culture shape us? According to Terpstra and David, the
culture in which we hive shapes our expectations about these elements of life:

How food, clothing and shelter are provided.

How people are protected from human enemies and natural disasters.
How sexuality is regulated.
The correct ways to bring up children.
How human work is divided.
How the product of work is shared and exchanged.
How deviant behavior is discouraged.
How to get people to want to do what they have to do anyway.
How to distribute power for regulating laws and the social good.
What is important and meaningful in life.’

Let's examine and bnefly compare what Americans take for granted about
these elements with what some other cultures take for granted. (It is also in-
structive to look back 50 or 100 years in the U.S. culture to see how some of
our cultural assumptions have evolved, but space does not permit our doing so
here. Be aware also that there are "pendulum swings" in a culture's attitudes
toward many things, and that cultures themselves change over time.)

'Vern Terpstra and Kenneth David, The Cultural Environment ofInternational Business. 2™ ed.
(Cincinnati: South-Western Pub. Co., 1985), pp. 6-7.

524 Chapter Sixteen

 How food, clothing and shelter are provided. Whose responsibility is it? "We" in this chapter is
The U. S. has ample supply and great variety, and tacit agreement exists that all usually used to refer to
citizens are entitled to these things at least at subsistence level. Where families mainstream American
cannot feed, clothe, and shelter their members, government agencies distribute culture. However, America
limited amounts of money from collected tax revenues. Charitable contributions contains multiple co-cultures.
might supplement the payouts, but most Americans tend to prefer to offer their
charity at a distance and not get personally involved. Other economically devel-
oped nations have approximately the same arrangement. People don't starve in
the U.S., although poor nutrition exists in some circumstances. The problem of
homeless people is profoundly disturbing to Americans; yet it seems an
intractable problem. No ready solution is apparent.
In some have-not nations, homelessness is so common as to be unremark- The size and comfort
able, there are numerous beggars, and starvation is one of life's common little level of the middle class
tragedies. Some nations’ religions explain the existence of the poor. Many Hin- makes adifference in a
dus, for example, believe that a very poor person will be reborn to a better next culture's ideas on what
the poor should receive.
life if he lives virtuously in this one. Relieving suffering is a good deed, but there Why is this so?
are so many, many poor that one cannot assume responsibility for them all.
In less developed nations, international relief associations provide some of
the poor's necessities, but some cultures feel people are responsible only for
their own families. Some other cultures, however, instill a much greater sense of
responsibility for others than does the U.S. Most East and Southeast Asian cul-
tures honor and cater to elderly family members and view as shameful
Americans' tendency to warehouse the old. Mexican families, too, help each
other in countless ways.

How people are protected from human enemues and natural disasters. US.
citizens take for granted flood-control dams, federal disaster insurance, and the
police and fire departments. We take out insurance on life, health, and acciden-
tal loss, damage, and injury. We worry in advance and take precautions, con-
fident that if we plan carefully enough we'll be okay. We feel critical toward
other adults who don?t take the same precautions.
Many other cultures view us as absurdly optimistic. They might believe a
human being has little or no control over what happens to him, and that human-
kind prospers or suffers at the whim of random fate or the will of a deity.

How sexuality isregulated. This topic involves not only sex (whether, when,
and under what circumstances) but also the social position of women and a
complex set of related attitudes. Consider what you have read about plural mar-
riage: Old-Testament kings had multiple wives and concubines; some moderm-
day Arabs may have more than one wife if they have the means to support them;
well-to-do Chinese had multiple wives and concubines until the overthrow of the
last emperor. In the U.S. plural marniage is illegal and not tolerated, but pros-
titution is illegal and tolerated. In the Netherlands prostitution is legal, regulated,
and controlled. In some Arab nations a prostitute, if found, will be killed.
There is enormous cultural variation on the subjects of modesty and contact
between the sexes. The U. S. can deal with bikinis; Souther Europe has nude
beaches; the Middle East has the chador (the all-covering black veil women wear
Most
in public). In each of these cultures, the understood rule "feels night."
Americans would disapprove of nudity on the beach; a bikini at the pool is fine;
skimpy clothing in the office would communicate the wearer's bad judgment.
The wearing of the chador came about originally because it was a mark of good

525
International and Intercultural Business Communication
 social status: The woman garbed that way was not to be stared at by common
eyes, whereas a woman without the veil had no particular status.

The correct ways to bring up children. Whose job is it? In cultures with
extended families, grandparents often take care of the children, but the U. S.
emphasizes the nuclear family. Mothers bear the main responsibility for child-
ren, although since about 1960 fathers have been doing more of the child care
than was previously the norm. Some other cultures are far ahead of the U. S. in
early-childhood education and child care for working parents. American par-
ents who must work often feel very conflicted about the child-care options
available to them. Some U.S. children receive substandard care, a subject most
Americans would rather not think about. Hillary Rodham Clinton published a
book entitled Jt Takes a Village [to raise a child], arguing for greater com-
munity responsibility for the welfare of the nation's children.
How should children behave? What is the best education? What are the
right values? In each culture, a kind of consensus develops. A range of opinion
and attitude exists, but people within a culture tend to stay within a given range
and to think critically of cultures whose attitudes might be different.

How human work is divided. \n the U. S. and in other first-world nations,

work is specialized and finely divided. In third-world nations, subsistence farm-
ers or herders may have to do virtually all the kinds of work themselves. Spec-
ialization increases efficiency, quality, and other benefits, but it requires organ-
ization and interdependence that in turn require many other variables to be in
place, such as supply of materials, transportation network, availability of
training, and safety standards.
What jobs in the U.S. Different cultures esteem work — and kinds of work — differently. Manual
have the least prestige? labor has different levels of dignity in Chinese eyes, American eyes, and Mexi-
Which ones carry the can eyes. The U.S. "talks a good game" of respect for elementary schoolteach-
most? Is prestige ers, but does not pay them well and frequently puts them in impossible situ-
invariably linked to ations between parents, pupils, and administrators. In China, Korea, and most
salaries and wages?
of the rest of Southeast Asia, culture insists that children be extremely defer-
ential toward teachers.

How the product of work is shared and exchanged. Although the U. S. has
seen periods of inflation, Americans have not experienced what Russia, Mexi-
co, Brazil, and numerous other nations went through when it became necessary
to devalue the monetary unit. In mainstream American culture, people make
most of their life decisions without ever thinking how it would be if the dollar
were suddenly worth 10 cents — and then one cent. We have a whole set of
mostly-unexamined assumptions based on saving money: More is better; thrift
is virtuous; spendthnifts are suspect.
Some cultures use barter extensively; we use it minimally; and the Internal
Barter is trading goods or Revenue Service hates barter. The IRS wants a percentage of all earnings,
services for other goods or
whether by the law-abiding or by criminals. Taxation concerns pervade many
services instead of money.
career and investment decisions in the U.S. and other first-world nations. In
U.S. culture, tax minimization strategy is virtuous but tax evasion is evil.
The U. S. gives tips but not bribes. Many other cultures perceive very little
distinction between the two. Indeed, the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act puts
U.S. negotiators abroad at a disadvantage relative to negotiators from countries
that have devised a means by which the expected monies can change hands.
"Baksheesh," "la mordida,” a "present," or some other fee may be essential to

526 Chapter Sixteen

obtaining a needed introduction, license, or permit. It may in fact be a part of
the wage and income structure of a culture, and withholding it, where it is
expected, is offensive.

How dewant behavior ts discouraged. Deviant behavior includes crime, of

course, but it also includes such things as rudeness and even bad personal hy-
giene.
Cultures differ greatly on what is considered deviant and on what to do
about it. The U. S. views capital punishment as extreme but permissible as de-
terrent and retribution for especially abhorrent crimes. Some nations have out-
lawed it and view U. S. practice as savage. Some nations use it fairly readily.
For lesser offenses we, like other cultures, have a range of options: criticism,
ridicule, avoidance, social ostracism, legal process, fines, loss of privileges, com- —
pulsory community service, loss of freedom, hard labor, expulsion, and many
other possibilities. Oddly, the U. S. legal system does not condone the use of
outright corporal punishment except for capital punishment. When Singapore
caned a young man (a U. S. citizen) recently for vandalism, many Americans
were outraged.

How to get people to want to do what they have to do anyway. With few ex-
ceptions, in the U.S. we have to hold a job, pay taxes, pay our bills, keep our-
selves and our families out of trouble with the law, and behave respectably. We
have in place a number of social structures that make it worth our while to do
those things. Civic organizations, fraternal organizations, religious sects and
other influences shape and reinforce desired behaviors. The mass media hold
up examples of successful people and advertise products that the good jobs pay
for. Elsewhere the inspiration might be "Mother Russia," "It's God's will,” or
"Your parents will be shamed if you do not. . . ."

How to distribute power for regulating laws and the social good. \n the U.S. What are the advantages
we elect officials, usually for four-year terms. People vote based largely on im- and disadvantages of
America's ways of
pressions made by candidates’ appearances and "sound bites" broadcast by the
choosing elected leaders?
mass media. The U.S. tends to elect photogenic, articulate, educated people.
They need not have come from wealthy families, though they are usually well
connected to people with money and power.
England still places some emphasis on candidates’ having come from the
right family and, even more, attended the right schools. This is changing, but a
marked difference still exists between English and U. S. leadership choice.
In Iran, the clergy wield a great deal of power. A few nations, such as Jordan,
Tonga, Sweden, Saudi Arabia, England, and Spain, retain some form of royalty,
though ruling monarchs have largely yielded to elected parliaments and con-
gresses. In some nations, "strongmen" — military dictators — rule by force. Some
nations, such as Vietnam and Cuba, are still communist, although communism
itself is evolving. (So is capitalism.) Americans tend to view free elections as
essential to the social good, not merely for their own nation but for all nations.
That not all cultures agree is hard for many Americans to understand.

What is important and meaningful in life. Terpstra and David put the word
"religion" in parentheses in their definition. This last area of cultural shaping ad-
dresses the most profound questions: Do human beings have a purpose in life?
What is it? Is there an afterlife? Of what does it consist? What does it mean to
be good? Is humankind perfectible? Does free will exist?
International and Intercultural Business Communication 527
 How people answer these questions determines many of their other actions,
and culture both creates events and interprets their meaning. The Puntan resi-
dents of 1691 Salem, Massachusetts, "knew" that God wanted them to hang
witches. Recent TV commercials encourage consumers to "grab all the gusto"
because "you only go around once." Monks in Tibet will try not to step on an
insect because it is a life in a series of lives. Chinese adults and their children go
faithfully to clean and adorn the graves of ancestors. A Japanese family in Amer-
ica keeps a picture of the deceased father in a niche and, at mealtime, places
food there. Some rural Irish dislike going out after dark because the spinits are
out then. All these behaviors reflect beliefs about life's meaning as embodied by
the surrounding culture.
None of us, probably, can realize the extent to which we have been shaped
by culture. Wisdom recommends that we avoid judging other cultures by our
own standards. U.S. culture sometimes looks quite strange to those from other
backgrounds.

It is our belief that contemporary business persons need to be informed, know-

Numerous aspects of U.S.
culture seem odd to others.
ledgeable global citizens. The variety of humankind is fascinating in itself: It's
Can you think of some? an endless, changing story. And the extra advantage is this: When you can
show understanding of another's beliefs and ways, that person will appreciate
your open-mindedness and overlook the oddities of the culture you embody.
Trust can grow, and people from different cultures can do business to their
mutual benefit.

Many Americans Are Some researchers on intercultural communication say most Americans don't
Culture-Blind understand their own culture very well and are therefore unprepared to under-
stand any other. Examining the functions of culture can make us more aware of
our own cultural assumptions and to make us less ethnocentric.
Ethnocentrism means the
Culture-blindness and ethnocentrism hurt us
tendency to believe one's
own culture to be superior ' * at home, * abroad
to all others. we discriminate we fail to adapt
and thus lose productivity and therefore blunder
Culture-blindness means
unawareness of cultural Business people in Japan, Germany, and several other nations work harder to
shaping and unawareness
that there are any other
understand and adapt to other cultures than we do. We're starting to improve.
right ways besides one's
own. Even if learning a foreign language is not required for a degree, business stud-
ents should study at least one other language besides their own. Language and
culture are closely bound together. Learning another language gives learners at
least minimal insight into a different culture and increases their awareness of
their own cultural blind spots.

One of the most instructive moments in foreign-language learning is the time

when a learner realizes that a given word or phrase is untranslatable. A word
might embody a value or attitude with no real counterpart in English. To trans-
late it would take several paragraphs and even then the meaning would only be
approximate. The Korean word "jung," for instance, "refers to a combination of
love, compassion, sympathy and sentiment" and is an essential factor in a suc-
cessful personal or business relationship.” An American business person would

Edward Taehan Chang, "An Emerging Minority Seeks a Role in a Changing America," Los
Angeles Times, May 31, 1994, p. BS.

528 Chapter Sixteen

be unlikely to describe the sense of a successful business relationship in anything
like those words.

True, the English-speaking business person who studies German might be sent When you visit a foreign
to a non-German-speaking country - say Brazil — to do business. He or she will country either for business or
at least be able to say, “I'm sorry; I don't speak your language, but I have studied personal travel, it's courteous
German." The Brazilian may have studied German, too. Whether he has or not, to learn at least the common
he will esteem this person for having worked on language and cultural awareness polite expressions: Good
morning, thank you, etc.
more than he will someone who has never even thought past his own language
and culture.

The language barrier is part of many intercultural problems but rarely the whole Same Language,
story, and nations that speak the same language can have communication diffi- Different Rules
culties as well. This business communication course has urged reader adapta-
tion, courtesy, and naturalness, but we use U/.S. ideas about these things. Study
the letter given below. It exemplifies preferred British practice. You'll notice a
much less familiar tone as well as several expressions we avoid in writing to U.S.
business readers.

The following example derives from a presentation given by Hudson’® at an

Association for Business Communication convention.

Dear Madam,

We would like to thank you for your letter dated the 11th September Some familiar objects and
in which you wrote to tell us of an error in the issuance of an ideas are named very
International Money Order made out to you for the sum of US differently in American and
$750.00. British English.

Please accept our apologies for the inconvenience that this error has Ors: England
caused you.
Cookie Biscuit
We can now confirm that a corrected Intemational Money Order has Truck Lorry
already been posted. Elevator Lift
Curb Kerb
Before we make any refund to you, would you please be so kind as Gasoline Petrol
Jail Gaol
to send us documentary proof that a charge has been levied by your
French Chips
American bank.
Fries
Chips Crisps
Upon receipt of such, we will be pleased to consider your case. Freeway Motorway
Vacation Holiday
Yours sincerely, Diaper Nappy
Trashcan Dustbin
Sidewalk Pavement
J. A. Smith Wrench Spanner
Oatmeal Porridge
Sweater Jumper
Hudson says our business communications can be a shock to English business Candy Sweets
Pal Mate
people and other Europeans. She points out that our communications can seem
Cail me Ring me
flippant and not sufficiently respectful. Our brevity can seem arrogant, impa- Sunny Fine
3For this information in this section we are indebted to Glenda Hudson, "Internationalizing College
Business Communication Courses: Addressing the Expanding Outer World," 55" Annual Convention of
the Association for Business Communication, November 7 — 10, 1990.

International and Intercultural Business Communication 529

 tient, and uncaring. To end an application or sales letter with "I will call you
next week for an appointment," she says, would be viewed as effrontery. The
English business community is more formal and class-conscious. They use
phrases such as "We would be most grateful..." and "May I ask you to....”

European business wniters are attentive to matters of hierarchy. The U.S. ten-
dency to deemphasize differences in status makes them uncomfortable at times.

European business correspondence tends to be wordier and more indirect.

Spanish and Italian business letter writers tend to digress from the main subject
of the letter in order to communicate their own intelligence and expertise. Thus,
if USA writers do not do so when writing to these readers, the writers might be
viewed as inexpert.

Most Americans are aware of some differences between British English and
"Englishes"
American English. Some are familiar with the sound of Irish English and Aus-
tralian English ("Strine’). There are even minor differences between U.S. and
Canadian English.
Many nations, such as India, use English as the country's common lan-
guage. India contains at least 18 major separate languages (Hindi, Dravidian,
Urdu, and Bengali, for example) and many dialects of those 18. Indians use
English for many purposes that unite the nation. But Indian English is strikingly
different from British or American English. Singapore, too, uses English, be-
cause three separate languages (Malay, Tamil, and Chinese) are native to Singa-
pore. Singaporean English is different from the other "Englishes" mentioned.
There are still others. English is an official language in 29 countries, such as the
Philippines, where many languages and dialects are native to different regions.
In fact, the scholarly journal World Englishes is devoted to studying the many
variants.
The cultural values underlying some English words may be quite different
where English is a common language grafted for convenience onto another lan-
guage or languages. The Arab who uses English for business is still very much a
product of his culture. He might transfer into his fluent English the Arabic ten-
dency toward figurative language and rhetorical overstatement.

In written messages to business readers with little or no English, we need to

Different Language,
make their reading task as easy as possible. We should avoid slang, figures of
Different Rules
speech, acronyms, and any attempts at humor. We take extra care to choose
familiar words.

Especially in Asian nations, business readers appreciate the use of Intemational

English, sometimes called Controlled English. This is a small set of basic Eng-
lish words - about 3,000 plain, clear, common words. When U.S. writers revise
their drafts of business messages to such readers, the writers should, wherever
possible, use words from the Controlled English vocabulary to replace those that
might be less familiar.
Whiting English for readers in other countries, communicators should also
select words that have one or a very few common meanings rather than multiple
meanings. Many English verbs are combinations of a short, common verb and
an adverb. Many of them show up in idiomatic expressions, and native speakers
Chapter Sixteen
530
of English use them heavily. Depending on the adverb chosen (and the context),
the meaning ranges widely. Consider the verb "come" when an adverb or phrase
accompanies it:

Come by sometime. Come up sometime. Come out and see us sometime.

Come over sometime. He was overcome. He got his comeuppance. She
comes on too strong. She didn't know whether she was coming or going.
When insulted, he crushed his critic with a witty comeback. The aging
actress made a triumphant comeback. Oh, come off it! She came on to
me. Something came up. He came out. Let me know how the meeting
came out. The stars come out at night. His teeth come out at night. He
came down in the world. Come down to earth. He came through. He came
at him with a knife. He came of age. Where do you come from? | don't
understand where you're coming from. The subject never came up. How
come? | came upon an interesting thing the other day. | just came across
it. How did that come about? Come again? She was out cold, but she
came around. At first she opposed it strongly, but she came around. How
do you come up with these great ideas? He had it coming. How did you
come by that information? He came down with flu. That'll come in handy.
He really came into his own. The boss came down hard on him. That low
price is just a come-on. I'll do it come hell or high water. You're going to
come in for a reward. He came into some money from his grandmother's
estate. Come to your senses. We came to terms with it. It won't come true.
Come to think of it, yes. | don't know what came over me! You'll have to
come to grips with it sometime. He's an up-and-coming trainee.

In place of these multi-word expressions, wherever possible writers should

choose a single verb with the appropriate meaning, or a phrase that a reader can
understand literally. "Come over" would become "visit." "Come down to earth"
would become "be realistic.” "He had it coming" would be ‘he deserved it."

Even simple words can be misunderstood. People beginning to study a second

language tend to assume at first that translation is simple: What could be hard
about words like “price,” “pleased,” “contract,” or “agree”? Good language
classes, however, introduce the elements of the second language’s culture as
well. As students begin to absorb the differences in the cultural assumptions that
underlie common words, the difficulty of translation begins to emerge.

Until an international business relationship is well established, most experts say,

each side should bring its own interpreter even when the negotiators have some
knowledge of each other's language. The interpreter can explain, for example,
that although the other party has said, “I agree,” what he actually means is, “I
agree in principle, but we still have dozens of specifics to work out,” or “I agree
with the last thing you said (but not the first four things).”

When negotiators from different languages conduct important business orpolit- lives s paneer
cal negotiations, they sometimes employ double translation. This technique re- message. Give the
quires that, for example, a document written in English for a Korean reader be translated message to,
translated into Korean, given to a different translator, and translated back into another translator to re-
English. translate into the original
language. Some
aria Wa unexpected
eee
Double translation quickly reveals areas where clear understanding is miss-
ing. Even when both translators are skilled, the differences in understanding can
be surprising. If the English-speaker knows some Korean and the Korean-
speaker knows some English, and if each depends on his own knowledge alone,
International and Intercultural Business Communication 531
 major misunderstandings are almost certain to arise. Financial consequences
could be serious.

Recommendations Conventions for written business messages vary greatly depending on where you
for International are in the world. You will need to study the conventional writing preferences of
Written English the nation where you'll be doing business. Try to learn about the cultural back-
ground of the reader(s) before writing, and be guided throughout. Here are
some guidelines on what to watch for, however, based on the work by Varner
and Beamer“ on writing for non-English speakers.

e Ifareport is not really needed, do not send it. Spare the foreign-language
speaker the burden of dealing with it.

e Be even more simple and concrete than usual. Never show off.

e Use headings, especially in longer communications such as reports.

e _ Leave plenty of white space so that they can make marginal notes and
translation queries.

e Donttry to make jokes. Humor translates weakly or not at all. Sometimes it

translates offensively.

e Avoid folk expressions (e.g., "We're up a creek without a paddle’) and

metaphors - especially for sports that are not played everywhere else ("We
really sacked their quarterback.’)

e Keep paragraphs short and simple, with only one main idea per paragraph.

e Be aware that not all languages use punctuation and paragraphs the same
way. Some (Japanese, for example) do not use them at all. Arabic is wntten
right to left, not left to nght as English is.

e Be aware that dates and decimals might be expressed differently.

e For dates
U. & practice: Much of Europe:
October 9, 1998 9. October 1998
or 10-9-98 or briefly, 9. 10. 1998.
or 10/9/1998
e For sums of money
U.S. practice: Continental Europe:
$49.95. $49,95.
e For large numbers
U. S. practice Many other places:
commas divide thousands. _ periods divide thousands.
5,280 5.280
1,000,000 1.000.000
6,585,700,000 6.585.700.000

‘Iris Varner and Linda Beamer, Intercultural Communication for the Global Workplace. (Burr Ridge,
Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1995), pp. 49-60; and Iris Varner, Contemporary Business Report Writing.
(Chicago: Dryden, 1987).

532 Chapter Sixteen

e Find out what organization patterns are expected. For example,

e French business readers want a presentation and discussion of theory

before considering practical application. They also respond favorably to
elegance of style and language.
e Germans want to know what a new machine will do for them before
they read the engmeering theory.
e Both French and Germans are both very big on background. Americans
aren't.
e Readers from Chinese-influenced cultures don't organize linearly, but rather
by the relationships among ideas.
e Japanese business readers prefer chronological arrangement of data but
spend time early in business messages s building rapport.

e Avoid exaggeration and superlatives. Justify. Prove. Demonstrate.

e’ Many abbreviations will be meaningless. Spell them out.

e Use visuals liberally (because they transcend language) but with great care
(because not all images connote the same thing to all viewers).

e Know your limitations and don't get beyond them.

An international joke goes as follows:

Spoken Language
"What do you call a person who speaks three languages?" "Tnilingual."
"What do you call a person who speaks two languages?" Bilingual."
"What do you call a person who speaks one language?" "An American."

Most Americans - even college-educated Americans - avoid learning a second Some college majors may be
able to avoid learning a
language. In many other nations, children are taught a second language and in
second language, but
many cases more than one additional language. (In fact, in much of Europe, business students who do that
"first language” means “first language besides one's native language.") The ac- are not preparing themselves
quired language is often English. ideally.

According to scholars, English is the most widely studied language in the coun-
tries in which it is not the native language. About 75 percent of the mail sent in
the world is written in English. About half of the world's newspapers are printed
in English. (But the language used by the most people is Mandarin Chinese.)

Just because your receivers speak and understand some English, do not assume
they understand the full intent of what you say. Translation is full of hazards.

© Wedon't necessarily hear" the same sounds. Phonemes differ. (In the word
"terror," for instance, the English, American, and F)rench /r/ sounds are very
different. Spanish does not differentiate between the "ch" and the "sh"
sounds or the short "i" and the long "e" sound - this creates confusion among
the English words "chip," "ship," "cheap," and "sheep." For still another
example, concentrate on the placement of your tongue as you pronounce
the // sound in like,” "silk," “label,” "black," and "palm." As tongue placement
International and Intercultural Business Communication 533
 changes, the sound changes as well. Yet we "hear" the sound /I/ in all those
instances. Others might not. Some other languages use sounds that are not a
part of English. Native speakers of English have a very difficult time learning
to hear and interpret those sounds.)

Voice intonation might not mean the same thing.

Many English words came Because English has borrowed words from countless other languages,
from Germanic source words, English has an enormous and various lexicon (total vocabulary of a
but English has borrowed language). Sender and receiver might not share the same set.
heavily from French and Latin
as well. English contains words
from all over the world, Weare a “low context,” not a "high context” culture. This means that we
though. tend to zero in on the words we are using here and now. In contrast,
"Kiosk" came from Farsi via receivers in a high-context culture, as they process those words, place heavy
Turkish and French. emphasis on the situation, the existence (or nonexistence) and kinds of
"Memorandum" came from relationships between the speakers, the business organizations, the cultures,
Latin unchanged. The phrase
"marketing blitz" owes its and even the nations.
origin to "blitzen," which is
"lightning" in German. "Cycle" Nonverbals and paraverbals that support the spoken words may differ.
comes from Greek. So does
"synthesis." Some cultures express ideas in few words. In Japanese culture, for instance,
As you read, watch for new
people can express important meaning through implication and silence.
words of Asian origin, like
"chaebol" (Korean), "guanxi" Other cultures might prefer a lengthy, ornate, rhetorical style of speaking
(Chinese), and "nemawashi" and wmiting. The Arabic language, especially, is full of metaphor and
(Japanese). elaboration.

Whole categories of language may carry important meaning in one language

but have no importance in others. For example, English does not change
pronouns based on the relative status of the speakers. In many other
languages, the pronoun you use to refer to another carries the exact level of
respect that person is due from a person at your level. The differences may
Familiar Respectful
"you" "you" be based on age, authority, familial relationship, and many other variables.
Even the relatively familar Western-European languages - the ones
German du sie Americans have tended to acquire most frequently — mostly differentiate
French tu vous between the familiar "you" and the respectful "you," and to have rules and
Spanish tu usted expectations about who will use which one to whom, and how early ina
We capitalize the "I" pro-
relationship the familiar pronoun may be used. Japanese and Vietnamese
noun. Some other western have a much more complex set of pronouns. Japanese women use some
languages' first-person that are different from those that Japanese men use.
pronouns use lower-case. But in Mandarin Chinese and also in Spanish, the distinction between
German "ich," French "je," the words "he" and "she" is relatively unimportant.
and Spanish "yo" are In Thailand, "different classes use different pronouns, nouns, and verbs
lower-case. to represent rank and intimacy. There are at least forty-seven pronouns,
including seventeen T's’ and nineteen ‘you's'.”

Word play and slang characterize informal American English. Without

thinking much about it, we say, "Well, I crashed and burned on that deal,"
or "Okay, let's get cracking. Put the pedal to the metal,” and forget how
utterly bewildering the expressions are to the person with limited English.

*Larry A. Samovar and Richard E. Porter, Communication Between Cultures (Belmont, CA:
Wadsworth, 1991), p. 153.

534 Chapter Sixteen

e Different world-views underlie words and meanings in different cultures.
This hazard is perhaps the more troublesome because it is so often
unperceived: A word like "parental" carries very different connotations in a
culture where the aged are highly respected than it does in the US, where
we throw around expressions like "Don't be so paternalistic” or "Get alife.
You sound just like my mother."

e Different cultures feel very differently about authority, the value of human
life, social hierarchy, ownership of property, and hundreds of other very
basic ideas. We tend to take it for granted that non-native speakers of
English understand the same thing we do by words like "contract,"
"responsible," "angry," “cooperate,” "cheat" —- common words - but given
different meaning by the assumptions of different cultures. A person from a
culture that values initiative more than group harmony might feel dismayed
at being asked to cooperate — to share credit for his or her pet idea with
others, for example. Meanwhile those others might feel they are
complimenting the outsider by asking him or her to join with them.

The last section mentioned high-context and low-context cultures. Other ways Some Continua for
cultures differ are degree of individualism versus collectivism, degree of power Describing Cultures
distance, and degree of monochronism versus polychronism. These are con-
tinua, not discrete categories, and of course, they address only four of the many
characteristics that differentiate cultures.

Hofstede, ° a Dutch researcher whose work is widely cited by writers on inter- High-Context and Low-
national business communication, placed nations on a continuum ranging from Context Cultures
very high context to very low context. At the low-context extreme is the German-
speaking section of Switzerland. At the high-context extreme is Japan. Arabs and
Greeks are relatively high-context. Scandinavians (but not Finland) and
Germans are more low-context than Americans.
The low-context culture concentrates on the words and does not take much
account of other signals. High-context cultures understand the words in light of
the situation, the relationship between the communicators, the history of the
exchange, the tone of voice, the facial expression and other nonverbals, and the
things that could have been said but were omitted. These additional signifiers
exist in low-context cultures, but communicators rely on them less in encoding
and decoding.
Low context cultures seek information directly, prefer to have a lot of data
and hard numbers, and view matters in discrete chunks. High-context cultures
seek information but also already Aave information, which they obtain from
extensive networks of sources -- relatives, friends, buyers, suppliers, etc. More
hearsay, facial
factors are connected, and more things "mean something’: hints,
a high-
expressions, feelings, and silences, for example. A business person from
clear to him, while the
context culture might drop several hints that seem
"Why are you telling
business person from the low-context culture is thinking,
me this irrelevant information?"
and power distance we
For information on high and low-context, individualism and collectivism,
Culture's Conseque nces: Internati onal Differenc es in Work-Related
are indebted to Geert Hofstede,
Values. (Beverly Hills, CA: Sage, 1984).

International and Intercultural Business Communication

535
 A person from a high-context culture might have a request to make of
someone. With that person, for most of the time he might talk of other matters,
gauge the overall level of goodwill, and mention other things the two communi-
cators have done for each other in the past and experiences they have shared.
After a time he has figured out the "felicity conditions" for the request - Le.,
whether the other will do what he wants. If he senses that the other is unwilling,
he will probably not even make the request. If the other is probably willing, the
request might be made as a small matter, toward the end of the conversation.

Individualist and
Another of Hofstede's continua ranks nations between individual orientation
and group (collectivist) orientation. Not surprisingly, the U.S. is at the top of the
Collectivist Cultures
"individualism" list. Australia, Canada, England, the Netherlands, and Scandina-
via (excluding Finland) are near the top. At the opposite end of the spectrum,
group orientation is strongest in several Central and South Amenican countnies.
In collectivist cultures people's uniqueness is secondary. The group gives
them most of their sense of well-being. It takes care of them. They owe high
loyalty to the group and seek harmony within it. The society contains groups
within groups, as well as "in-groups" (people who are "like us") and “out-groups"
(those undesirable others).
Other strongly collectivist cultures include Pakistan, Indonesia, Taiwan, and
South Korea. Japan and Mexico are near the middle, with Japan the more indi-
vidualistic of the two. One culture's most significant group might be different
from another's. For instance, in Mexico the family is primary. In Japan the
business organization takes precedence over family.
The centrality of the self or the group influences the understood rules for
communicating. In collectivist cultures, the person who talks early and often is
viewed as superficial and conceited. In individualist cultures, that same person is
viewed as a leader.

Americans are more casual about position power, on average, than many other
Power Distance people are. Although most Americans behave respectfully toward the boss, most
and Attitude will speak up if they believe the boss is wrong about something important. Sull,
Toward Authority every savvy U. S. worker knows what the limits are. Our phrase "the "career-
limiting remark" demonstrates that co-workers can tell when someone is too out-
spoken toward the boss.
Exactly how much "better" is the boss than the subordinate? The answer
differs from culture to culture.
In much of Latin America, what the "patron" (boss) says is right because
bosses are right. Subordinates would not talk back to a boss. In high power-
distance cultures people accept the fact of others' power. Where power distance
is high, however, being candid in work teams is hard.
Mexico, the Philippines, and India are high power-distance cultures. Aus-
tria, Israel, most of Scandinavia, and Germany are low power-distance cultures.
The U.S. is a moderate-to-low power-distance culture.

Monochronism and
Cultures have been characterized as being monochronic (people do one thing at
Polychronism
a time) or polychronic (people do many things at a time).’ Consider this element
a continuum also, with various cultures arrayed between the extremes. Mono-
chronic cultures place a value on time. They spend it, conserve it, schedule it,

’The definition of monochronism and polychronism relies on Edward T. Hall, Beyond Culture (New
York: Doubleday Anchor Books, 1976).

536 Chapter Sixteen

and sometimes, guiltily, waste it. The U.S. is monochronic (but less so than
Switzerland and Germany).
Polychronic cultures are relaxed about scheduling. Spending time convers-
ing with others is one of the purposes of life, valuable in itself. Events start later
and last longer. The U. S. practice of putting end-of-event hours on invitations
(You are cordially invited to attend Acme’s Grand Opening Reception from 3 to
7 p.m.) would be rude - a host would never tell a guest when to leave.
Unaware American businesspersons visiting a polychronic Arab culture are
bewildered to see time commitments viewed lightly and handled with great flexi-
bility. An American with an appointment for 9 am. might have to wait two
hours. No excuse or apology is due, in that culture. Then, all during the meet-
ing'’s discussion, the American might see the Arab manager deal with other
work, take and send messages, leave briefly and return, and answer subordin-
ates' questions.
Business people in monochronic cultures create and stick to agendas. In the
most monochronic cultures, monochronism even carries over into personal life.
An Asian-American student told of hosting a visiting German college student.
They made a plan to see a movie on the following day. A little later the Amer-
ican was given two day-passes to Disneyland, which she knew the German stu-
dent had not experienced. With great pleasure she told the German student
about the new and preferable option. The German insisted that they go to the
movie because they had made the decision already.
People in polychronic cultures spend more time, but the relationships they
form tend to last a long time. Monochronic cultures are comfortable with know-
ing others just well enough to get the business accomplished and then distancing
the relationship. Clearly, businesspersons need to know where their culture and
the foreign manager's culture lie on this "chronism" continuum.

Words are only one of the “languages” that can differ. In Chapter Fourteen you
Nonverbal
read about Americans’ typical nonverbal patterns and some contrastive exam-
ples of other countries’ patterns. Many nonverbal signals Americans use con- Communication
stantly carry different and sometimes dangerous meanings in other cultures.
The examples we'll give in this section are only that: Examples. Before go-
ing to any different country, read, study, and sensitize yourself to any nonverbal
patterns different from those of the United States. Winking an eye, for instance,
is relatively harmless in the U.S., but rude in Australia. Seated American men
sometimes rest one ankle atop the other knee. This shows the sole of the raised
foot - which is a serious insult in Saudi Arabia, Thailand, and a number of
other nations. Our "A-OK" sign (thumb and index finger make a ring, other
three fingers extended) is an insult in Brazil (but means money in Japan and the
number zero, as in counting, in France).
Gestures, facial expressions, smiles, and other pattems are automatic for
most of us. They are part of the meaning we express as we speak, and we learn
them very young. Like most habits, they can be very hard to control. Awareness
at least gives us a chance to control them.
Facial Expression
Facial expressions and the degree to which people display emotions differ from
culture to culture. It is true that within cultures people differ greatly in the de-
gree of expressiveness they display. Still, a society imposes some expectations in
the range of emotions or meanings one may show. Most Japanese, for instance,
mask negative feelings behind a bland or even a smiling facial expression. Arabs
International and Intercultural Business Communication 537
 tend to show strong facial expression and to gesture broadly. This is not to
suggest that you will never see an Arab use a "poker face," but rather to describe
an overall average pattern that the culture tends to reinforce.
Germans (except in the south of Germany) smile much less than Americans
do. The German waitress who comes to take your order might simply look at
you sternly and say, "Ja?!" There will be no "Hi, how are you this evening? Wel-
come to Fritz's. My name's Hefi and I'll be your server tonight."
When people are not used to a lot of smiling, they may think Americans’
smiling is insincere. In Sweden, although many people speak English, their
greeting behavior doesn't include "How are you?” The American who uses this
formula may be surprised to hear the Swede say, "Oh, really, you don't want to
hear how I am." (And it's perfectly true. Americans are dismayed when some
lonely person begins actually to describe his symptoms or his low mood.)

Gestures and Meaning Gestures are expressive motions of the hands and sometimes other parts of the
body, suchas the head or shoulder. In the U.S. we spread our hands, palms up,
and sometimes shrug our shoulders for "I don't know." In one's own culture ges-
tures are nearly automatic. When someone waves "hi," Americans wave back,
palm out, moving the whole hand.
When we see a hostile gesture, we react. When we see one that is seemingly
at odds with the verbal message, we're uncertain but tend to believe the
nonverbal message. When we see an unfamiliar gesture we're puzzled.
The same is true of other cultures, but when people's habits cross borders
unexamined, trouble can occur. The wave we associate with "hi" is threatening in
Greece. When a Greek man waves his hand that way in front of another man's
face, he is hostile. The closer to the other's face, the more insulting.
Italians and Israelis use frequent gestures, but Italians gesture broadly and
Israelis closer to the body. Japanese do not gesture much. When a Greek, a
Turk, or a Bulgarian tosses the head backward, others might not realize that it
means "No." In fact, to some it looks like a head nod, which usually means "Yes."
Exhibit 16 — 1 shows a few common gestures and the sort of trouble an
American can get into if he makes them in the wrong culture. We cannot ex-
haust here the full repertoire of human gesture. Remember, though, that non-
verbals are even more habitual than speech. We need to be aware of what we
are sending, and to realize, as we decode others’ nonverbals, that the language of
gesture can differ culturally just as other communication elements do.

Eye Contact and Length Two Americans, conversing, look each other in the eyes much of the time. They
of Gaze are conveying respect and attention. If two Americans who do not know each
other look each other in the eyes silently for a long time, consequences will en-
sue. The individuals would not be able to tell you exactly how long is too long to
look, but by the time they reach adulthood, everyone except a social misfit
knows when he or she should look away. If the dyad of strangers is two males, at
some point one of them will say, "What are you looking at?" and the challenge
will have an edge of hostility. If the dyad is a man and a woman, the implication
of extended gaze is "I find you attractive."
Direct gaze and "looking time" differ greatly from culture to culture. Japan-
ese do not look each other in the eye; respectful gaze settles on the other per-
son's neck. Navajos look away respectfully while another person is talking. Chin-
ese give high eye contact. In fact, strangers will be stared at. Arab men use in-
tense eye contact. "Looking time" is longer than it is in America. Italian men will
stare at a woman a long time but do not mean anything offensive by it.
538 Chapter Sixteen
Exhibit 16 - X Some Gestures and Their Different Meanings

US.: "Good luck."

U.S. "Bye." U.S.: "Come here" (for people).
U.S. (behind the back): What I'm
Asia and Middle East: "Come Many other places: "Come here" (for
saying isn't exactly true, but I'm not
here" (for people). dogs and despised people).
exactly lying either."
Some parts of U.S.: Friendship.
"We're tight."
Some other places: "They're
sleeping together."

Palm faces
sender.

U.S.: NOT SEEN, except in U.S.; "Good!" "Okay!!"

U.S.: "Victory!"
some ethnic neighborhoods France: "One" (as in counting)
WESa beace..
U.S. "Two, please." Various other locations: "What Parts of South America: a sexual insult
England: " you!" (rudest do you mean? Get to the point!"
expression) "Good!" "Lots and lots!"

International and Intercultural Business Communication

 The Meanings and Uses In Chapter Fourteen you read that the American "bubble of space” is about 18
of Space inches (closer than that is reserved for intimates) to about four feet from the per-
son. Most business interactions occur within the 18" - 48" zone. Latin Amer-
icans and persons from the Middle East stand closer together. Japanese and
Northern Europeans stand farther apart than Americans do.
People seek the interpersonal-distance comfort level their culture has
instilled. If the other persons stand closer than is comfortable, they draw away.
The other might think, "They don't like me.” If the other seems to be standing
too far away, they move in, which might make the other uneasy. We draw
inferences about liking, disliking, intentions, and sometimes our safety, based on
how far away another person stands. The inferences are seldom voiced and
sometimes not even realized. But they exist, and they influence interactions.

Americans also draw inferences about a person's importance from the amount
of space he or she commands. In U.S. business a cubicle is better than a desk in
the "bull pen"; a private office is a status symbol; a big private office is even bet-
ter; and one with rich furnishings andafine view is best of all. In many other
cultures, the most important person works in the same area with subordinates,
perhaps in the center of a large room. Some quite important people work in
spaces that seem tiny to Americans but spacious to the people who work there.
Culture determines whether work-spaces have doors, and whether doors
are open or shut. In Germany office doors are generally shut. In the U.S., if a
person is in, the door is probably open (unless the person is conducting a pmi-
vate meeting), but people usually rap on the door anyway or wait for the
occupant to notice them and invite them in.
Touching as a Culture- In business, the U.S. is a hands-off culture. We don't touch others very much. A
Determined Signal
man can throw an arm around another's shoulders, but the arm should not stay
there long. A touch on the hand or the forearm is okay.
‘Touch between women and men, other than a handshake, is risky in Amer-
ican business. Sexual harassment lawsuits are all too frequent and very expen-
sive. Neither our laws nor the social rules give entirely reliable guidance, and not
all organizations have formulated policy on the subject. Thus, a good rule is,
"When in doubt, don't touch."
Americans shake hands at meeting and at departure, with medium to firm
pressure. French people shake hands more frequently and more briefly, with
considerably lighter pressure. When they enter a meeting, they shake hands with
everyone in the room, not just the one or two people seated closest. Japanese
bow at greeting, and the depth of the bow depends - with precision - on the
relative status of the two people. Business people in countries like Japan, how- |
ever, are used to dealing with foreigners and are comfortable with a handshake.
Russians hug at greeting. So do some Latin Americans. Friends may greet each
other with a light kiss on both cheeks. A newcomer will usually have ample op-
portunity to observe what is done. The essential thing is not to seem surprised
or uneasy.
Some cultures touch more: In Southeast Asia and in the Middle East
persons of the same sex often walk holding hands or arm in arm. (In both these
areas homosexuality is a serious taboo, and no one associates the contact with
homosexuality.)
In much of the Middle East and Southeast Asia, the left hand is associated
with anything unclean that a person needs to do. Thus, you would not hand
something to another person using just the left hand.
540 Chapter Sixteen
The dark-colored, tailored business suit with a plain white shirt or blouse will Business Attire
serve you well in most countries. Closed, polished shoes (no sandals), neckties when Abroad
(for men), and minimal jewelry are also good choices. Although various coun-
tries may have different norms than these, they will usually find Americans ac-
ceptable who dress this way.
In the Middle East, norms vary from country to country but modesty is ap-
preciated throughout the Middle East. In Saudi Arabia, women do not partici-
pate in business with men. If a U.S. businesswoman manages to gain entree
there, she should be exceedingly conservative in dress. When U.S. Secretary of
State Madeleine Albright visited Saudi Arabia in fall 1997, she wore a long-
sleeved, long black dress. (She did not cover her hair.) Her Saudi hosts were
gracious and respectful, according her fully equal status.’ By her dress, though,
she made reasonable and gracious observance of their customs. Each side adap-
ted alittle to the other's expectations.
Saudi men wear suits, but often wear the long, loose robe and headdress.
Sometimes they wear the robe over Western-style clothing, especially out of
doors. For ceremonial occasions, robes might be richly decorated. Americans
should refrain from admiring the robes - or any other specific object. A Saudi
will feel obliged to make a gift of an item that a guest admires. Saying "I have
never seen such a beautiful robe" is like saying "You should give me that robe."
Businesswomen in Europe dress in a more "feminine" way than U. S. busi-
nesswomen do. It's instructive to recall, however, that more women have risen to
higher levels of authority in the U. S. than in most of Europe. The more sober
style of dress appears to connote a woman's good preparation, self-discipline,
and seriousness of purpose. We continue to recommend it.
If a person will be working in a different country long-term, however, he or
she will want to make some accommodation to prevailing norms. A U.S. busi-
nesswoman working long-term in Europe will probably adopt the more stylish
and feminine dress norms while she is there.
In Indonesia, businessmen sometimes wear a neat but loose-fitting, short-
sleeved shirt that's not tucked into the waistband of the pants. Sometimes the
shirt is batik - batik is an art form. Batik fabrics have intricate printed designs
busi-
that make them one of Indonesia's most distinctive products. If Western
they can dress that way
nessmen know that their hosts will be attired in this way,
this garb comforta ble in
too. Their hosts will like it, and the Westemers will find
Indonesia's hot season.
or
"Face" is a person's dignified public image. People lose face when someone Honor and Face
s them publicly. Amen- '
something seriously embarrasses, humiliates, or disgrace
around is common ,
cans, on average, don't think about "face" much. Kidding
even in business, and even when the kidding gets a bit rough.
of face
In much of Asia and Latin America, face must be preserved and loss
ive commun ica-
is damaging. Where surface harmony is highly valued, support
ents, favors, or
ion maintains face. People "give face" to others by giving complim
face, for example , if
presents: Honor accompanies what is given. People lose
Peace" Los Angeles Times,
®\Jorman Kempster, "Arab Leaders Endorse Albright's Approach to
September 14, 1997, pp. A8-A9.]

International and Intercultural Business Communication 541

 someone insults or ridicules them, if they look foolish, if they lose control of
their emotions or behavior in public, or if they fail at something. If a family
member is disgraced, the family is disgraced. There are degrees of loss of face.
A firing or demotion would be serious. Not receiving a token gift when one was
expected is minor, but still a loss of face.
America's low-context culture makes "face" less important. To illustrate, sup-
pose that, in a business meeting, a boss or co-worker says someone's error was
pretty stupid: "So did you leave your entire brain in Hawaii when you came back
from vacation?" In response, the maker of the mistake might voice agreement
and say something humorously critical of herself. After all, she made the mis-
take. Being "roasted" about it in the meeting wouldnt be unexpected, and it
wouldn't be a matter of face. Any worry she might have about the mistake would
have more to do with its effects on her career than on her immediate dignity.
Obviously nobody wants to be seriously embarrassed, humiliated, or dis-
graced in public, but most Americans get over most embarrassments quickly. In
fact, in U.S. culture a quick recovery sometimes leaves a person farther ahead
than before. A businessman was coming down some stairs to meet a group in
the lobby of a Hilton. Four steps from the bottom he lost his footing, grabbed at
the rail but missed it, and landed on his backside at the feet of the group await-
ing him. He looked up and said, "And! I'ma really good SINGER, too!" The
others laughed, helped him up, and thought, "You're an okay guy!"
Americans must be especially sensitive about matters of face, both their own
and others’. They can tink, "Boy, these people are sensitive! But they must not
say so, and they do well to be careful in the areas the others are sensitive about.

These few pages barely begin to uncover the complexity of cultural differences
Issues You Should
internationally. We have spent no time on differences in laws governing inter-
Follow Up On
Your Own national business, partly because it is not our area of expertise but also because
the laws governing international business are still developing. For example, since
about 1978 the People's Republic of China has been completely rewriting the
code of law. The Republic of Vietnam is also developing a set of laws for inter-
national business. The General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) will go
through further iterations. We are seeing articles about international accoun-
tancy standards.

The subject of women in international business would take much longer than we
have had room for here. The extent to which women participate in business de-
cision making is culture-specific - and in many countries, it is evolving. Most
Americans know that U.S. businesswomen enjoy more authority, and more ex-
plicit authority, in business than the women of most other cultures do. Many
international business persons are aware of that, as well. Most of the time,
though not always, women will be accepted as business people rather than
viewed as women.
It is essential that U.S. women keep in mind the norms of other cultures
when they go abroad. Occasionally a woman in charge may need to appoint a
lower-ranking male as spokesperson for her. If she wants to do business there,
this might be an appropriate adaptation. If she cannot bring herself to adapt, she
might need to reconsider whether she really wants that business.
Also, women should not carry with them any indignation about perceived
treatment of women by the host culture.

542 Chapter Sixteen

We have spent little time on the "rules" for gift-giving, entertaining and being en-
tertained, tipping, and many other customs. We've set these aside partly because
they get very specific and partly because rules change. The right gift in 1996 may
be the wrong gift in 2002. A non-tipping country may become more relaxed
about the custom. Underlying values do not change rapidly, but the outward
signs might.
If you are sent abroad, prepare carefully. Read everything you can find
about that country's business customs, and observe others' behaviors when you
arrive there. Try to do things right; apologize and learn if you do something
wrong. Be patient, be observant, be careful not to give offense, and be slow to
take offense.

The USA is, and will continue to be, multi-racial and multi-ethnic. According to INTERCULTURAL
a much-published study by a major think-tank, by the year 2000, the USA will BUSINESS
have 65 million nonwhite residents. Nonwhites now compose 20 percent of the COMMUNICATION
work force. By 2000, they will make up 25 percent. By 2000, the work force will HERE AT HOME
be 64 percent female. By 2000, only 15 percent of new entrants to the US.
work force will be Caucasian males. Because of the Baby Boom and the
ensuing Baby Bust (and the children of these two very different age cohorts), the
U.S. cannot count on having stable numbers in the work force before at least
2050, if then.

Discrimination is not good business. To compete successfully in the global mar-

ketplace, ethnic, racial, gender, and other subsets of the work force must view
each other as allies, not opponents. Enlightened self-interest says, "We are all
RY

This brings us to the topic of workplace diversity, an important topic for the
U.S. but especially so for the destination cities for large numbers of immigrants.
In Greater Los Angeles,.for example, elementary school teachers are working to
educate children whose birth language might be one of several dozen different
languages.

People with little exposure to those from different cultures tend to

e fail to understand how much newcomers have a/ready adapted to the

U.S. mainstream culture

focus on newcomers’ differences from U.S. culture and ignore their

similarities

e observe the behavior of one member of a given culture and assume

that all members of that culture are just like that one member.

variations in
Within any ethnic, racial, gender (etc.) category, there are huge
There are
temperament, intelligence, talent, and virtually every other factor.
greater differences within categories than between categories.
es are every-
All people are prejudiced, to a greater or lesser extent. Prejudic
ves prejudiced.
where, and the ethnic (racial, gender, etc.) subgroups are themsel

International and Intercultural Business Communication

543
 Within every group, some members unfairly suspect and distrust other sets of
members and also unfairly suspect and distrust outsiders.

The antidote to prejudice is the willingness to learn — the willingness to revise

the "Everybody knows that all___—s are ___" statements that prevent under-
standing. Empathy is essential: No one can truly put himself in another person's
shoes, but everyone can try. Humility is essential: To learn, we have to realize
what we don't know.

Examples of Inter- This section will summarize examples, some generated by students in past
cultural Workplace semesters’ classes and some gleaned from articles or experience.
Problems
A Caucasian sales clerk at a major upscale department store waits on Mr.
Hosakawa, who comes twice a year from Japan to purchase his business
clothing, spending from $2000 to $5000 each time. The store, which we'll
call Ekstrom's, prides itself on exceptionally good customer service. Each
time, Mr. Hosakawa calls to make an appoimtment ahead of time. He likes
dealing with Jum. Jim, in keeping with Ekstrom's customer attitude,
generally tries to schedule the appointment on one of his days off so that his
chent will not feel rushed in any way. At the end of the several-hour
appomtment, Mr. Hosakawa generally offers a $100 gratuity and says,
"Please accept this as a thanks for your great helpfulness.”
Jim must decline
it. Employees are not allowed to accept tips from customers. Each time, Mr.
Hosakawa feelsalittle disgraced — as though his money isn't good enough —
and Jim feels he has been disrespectful. Offering a gratuity is fairly common
among the store's foreign customers. Jim feels that his commission is
sufficient pay but wishes his manager would let him accept the tip and
contribute it to the already existing Employee Relief Fund. He believes
continuing to make customers lose face in this way might cause them to
cease shopping at this store.

An African-American stockbroker likes to jog. His jogging clothes are

exactly like those of any other jogger, yet he noticed that people looked at
him warily when he would do his running. To ward off trouble, he began
carrying a small tape player on which he would play classical music while
running. He wrote of his feelings about having to send this additional "I am
not dangerous" signal while other runners did not have to deal with negative
assumptions.

Two Caucasian college students worked as greenskeepers and maintenance

personnel at a golf course. Though they thought the job was beneath them,
they put in what they considered to bea fair day's work for their pay. Three
Mexican men were hired to work the same jobs. They were not illegal; they
had green cards and were entitled to work in this country. They worked fast
and very diligently. This angered the Anglo men, who felt that the Mexicans
were trying to make them look bad. This was not the case. The Mexicans
did not think the job beneath them, since hard work and the dignity of any
work are cultural values in Mexico. They prided themselves on the ability to
do hard work rapidly. Also, since they were not educating themselves for a
better job, they wanted to excel at this one. The two sets of workers became
more and more polarized. Eventually the anger erupted in a fist-fight.

544 Chapter Sixteen

Tony, a Vietnamese engineer, worked hard at his job in an Orange County
industry and wanted very much to fit into the group. He saw that jokes were
well received, so he listened hard for new jokes and told them - sometimes
without being fully aware of what was funny and why. One day he told a
joke he had heard from another man earlier that day. He thought the joke
was amusing because he had heard that American women do not take
orders from American men. The joke turned on a double meaning for the
word "come." He did not know of the dirty meaning or that he could offend
someone by telling this type of joke. A female engineer in the group
complained to management and Tony was reprimanded. He felt disgraced
and betrayed. For a long time after the incident Tony did not talk to the
others unless it was absolutely necessary.

A Korean-American, John, supervises at a movie theater. One day John

noticed Pat, the box-office person, having a language problem with a
customer. Pat couldn't understand what movie the man wanted, when he
wanted to see it, or how many tickets he wanted. They both began speaking
louder and trying to use gestures to clarify meaning. Both were getting
frustrated. Pat looked imploringly at John, who had grown up in the U.S.
and spoke very little Korean. John came over and offered, in broken and
ungrammatical Korean, to help. John's embarrassment grew as the man
tried in halting and heavily accented English to answer John's halting
Korean. Because John was used to his own grandparents’ accent, he was
able to understand: The man did not want to see a movie at this theater, but
instead to find out where a different movie was playing. John thought hard
and fumbled around with the Korean words he needed to give the man
directions. As the man went on his way, he told John, "You are Korean. So
you must learn Korean." John didn't feel exactly happy about the incident.

May, a very intelligent Chinese woman, applied for her first job in the U.S.,
an office position at a trucking firm. The interviewer, Martha, a Caucasian
woman, looked the application over and asked May to stay for an interview.
During the whole interview Martha was bouncy and casual, which made
May uncomfortable. To Martha's question "What do you expect to be doing
in five years?” May had trouble formulating an answer because her culture
believes individuals do not control their fate to any great extent.
Nonverbally the interviewer seemed to urge May to look happier and more
enthusiastic. But May's culture values serenity, harmony, silence,
conciseness, and listening. Martha asked, "What are your strengths?" Of
May's many strengths, the best were in conceptualization, logic, and theory.
She did not see any real connection to the job opening, though she could
do the office job easily. Also, in May's culture boasting is frowned on. May
managed to come up with one strong point, patience. The interviewer
looked disappointed. Soon afterward the interviewer told May she did not
get the job - she was "too shy."

Steve, a U.S.-born Caucasian, works LLR, a large service organization

,
catering to Asians in the U.S. Steve is an extrovert — friendly and outgoing
es.
fond of kidding around, eager to make people feel good about themselv
Ninety percent of the workers at LLR are Asians or Asian-Americans. Most
of these have gradually gotten used to Steve's breeziness. Though calling
you
female co-workers "Baby" or "Honey, giving little hugs, and saying "Hey,
545
International and Intercultural Business Communication
 look really hot today" are notacceptable ways for Asians to display
friendship, most of the organization's women workers have made
allowances for Steve. "He doesn't mean any offense," they remind each
other privately. One of the brightest, Lily, had a hard time overlooking
Steve's behavior. Their work brought them into frequent direct contact.
When Lily was new to the firm, she appreciated Steve's exceptional patience
in teaching her. As Lily learned so quickly, Steve praised her and soon
relaxed and began joking around with her. He began calling her "Sweetie,"
and Lily found it unbearable. She would not eat lunch if he was the only
one in the lunchroom. She avoided dealing with his business queries — she
would be "too busy" with other work. Steve felt frustrated and helpless. He
stopped calling her "Sweetie" and things improved for a while; however, one
day she solved a complicated billing problem for him. He was so happy that
he kissed Lily on the cheek to show his appreciation. Lily says that it is
unforgivable, that she will never talk to Steve again, and that she is thinking
about leaving the company.

Cindy works with Lita, who does many things co-workers in this government
agency find "ethnic." She speaks Spanish instead of English with anyone who
speaks Spanish (sales representatives, other Latinos in the department,
people on the phone who are of Latino descent). Her supervisor
appreciates the personal touch that her Spanish-speaking ability can offer to
callers more comfortable in that language.
Soon after Lita joined this office, Cindy noticed that Lita had a brother
working in a related office in the same agency. Soon after that, Cindy
noticed Lita working on a job application for her cousin. Cindy kidded her,
"Your brother? Your cousin? Before you know it your whole family will
work here." Lita bristled. "I help my family as much as I can. I take care of
my brother. Since my mother and father are not living with us, he is my
responsibility. If I help him he has more time to concentrate on his studies."
Cindy said, "Don't get all upset. I was only kidding. But your brother is
22 and you are only 19. Why do you need to take such care of him? He
should be taking care of you. And what about your cousin?" Lita answered,
"No, that is not the way it is done. My mother taught me that women help
the men because men face a lot of problems just being men. And my cousin
is family. Of course I should help her."
Cindy had nothing more to say and, thinking it over, left Lita's cubicle.
After two days, Cindy asked, "Why are you not talking to me?" "Because
you do not understand. I thought you were my friend," Lita said. "I am your
friend,” Cindy told her, "but I didn't understand the way things are done in
your culture. I'm sorry." Lita said, "Well, a friend, a real friend, would not
have talked to me that way." Cindy apologized again and Lita accepted the
apology.

Good guys? Bad guys? Do not cast any individuals in these incidents as "the good guys" or "the bad
Irrelevant questions. People guys." In general, all were well intentioned - and all should be viewed as indivi-
mostly try to get along. duals — not as "the way all those people are."

Many other incidents could exemplify the stresses on business relationships

caused by cultural differences and mistaken assumptions. The kitchen and bus
staff of most restaurant are immigrants (many undocumented); the wait staff are

546 Chapter Sixteen

mostly U.S.-born. Conflicts abound, especially when the restaurant is busy and
employees feel rushed.

A Vietnamese student told of her boss's patronizing a wealthy, elderly potential

investor on the phone by “showing off" how much he knew (it wasn't much)
about Vietnamese. He spoke to her with his few words of Vietnamese but suc-
ceeded only in addressing her incorrectly and. disrespectfully. He thought he was
being friendly but was asking her questions she found offensively personal. She
took her investment money to a competitor.

A student from the Middle East had a hard time understanding that average
Americans were not corrupt, vicious, and promiscuous, as were so many of the
Americans in television series and movies he had seen abroad.

The building and real estate industries must understand some strong preferen-
ces on the part of their Asian customers, especially the Chinese. "Feng shui” is
the name of a system of specifications for dwellings and places of business — the
site, the direction the buildings face, the location of the door, the location of the
stairs, and many other things. Some configurations are viewed as lucky; others
are considered unlucky. Ignoring this information set is costly.

Getting Around
Some foreign-born workers bring good English skills with them to the U.S. Foreign-Born
More commonly, however, the newly-arrived foreign-born workers are still in Workers' Limited
the long, frustrating process of achieving English fluency. They want to work, English Proficiency
and we need their work. How can we get past the language barriers?
Thiederman’ offers useful communication strategies. This section integrates her
suggestions with the authors’ own information on the subject.
ro-
U. S. managers and co-workers sometimes make unwarranted and counterp
ductive assumptions about people who do not speak English well.

Mistake #1 They do not understand English well.

Reality: People who are learning a language by immersion (that is, by being
as they
wholly surrounded by the new language community and having to learn
usually get what others say
go) usually understand better than they speak. They
ability. In speakin g they will
but do not feel confident about their own encoding
vocabula ry than they can
use a smaller array of grammatical forms and a smaller
unfeelin g people (as-
actually understand. This is especially significant when
in their
suming that the remarks won't be understood) criticize them to others
and talk down to them.
presence, or when people behave in a patronizing way
uneducated or dim.
Mistake #2 Not speaking English well means that they are
Reality: Especially when they have come from areas where political upheaval has
displaced them, many immigrants to the U. S. previously worked in high-level,
high-skill positions in their home countries. The language barrier prevents their
exam (in English, of
doing the same jobs in the U.S., especially if a certification
they can obtain.
course) is needed before licensing. So they take whatever jobs
medical assistant, or a
You might encounter an M.D. from China working as a

h Foreign-Bom Employees," Management World, Vol. 17,

°Sondra Thiederman, "Breaking Througto
(May-Ju ne 1988), pp. 22-23.

International and Intercultural Business Communication 547

 former librarian from Vietnam working asa library aide, or a former school
principal from the Philippines working as a home-care giver.
Even when an immigrant is not highly educated, he or she has usually
overcome barriers just to get to the United States. Immigrants tend to have quite
high motivation.

Mistake #3 When they nod and smile, they understand.

Reality: Face and attitude toward authority have to be considered here. Saying, "I
don't understand" isn't always easy, especially if the explainer's nonverbals imply,
"I've explained it clearly and any idiot ought to be able to understand." As you
have read, for most U. S. natives losing face is not a very important consider-
ation. If somebody's playfulness or criticism makes us look foolish, in this cul-
ture it's not a big thing. Losing face is serious in many of the countries whose
citizens have moved here - Southeast Asia, especially, but also Latin America.
As one foreign-born employee put it, "I used to smile and nod so I could get
away and figure out myself how to do it, or ask a co-worker who speaks my
language."
In many of those countries, too, considerable power distance separates the
boss and the subordinates. Between American managers and American
subordinates the power distance is relatively low. For instance, Americans might
challenge what a boss says, or argue, or make a suggestion. Subordinates ask
questions of superiors freely. In many cultures, the boss is far above the
subordinates. The boss says - once - what he wants done; the subordinate goes
and does it. To question is to suggest that the boss hasn't communicated well or
doesn't know what he is doing.

Mistake #4 They will speak up ifsomething is wrong.

Reality: Especially in Latin American cultures, "something wrong" is bad news,
and no one wants to carry bad news. In many countries, bringing up problems is
for managers, not subordinates, to do. The manager who doesn't interact unless
she hears that there's a problem is going to find out after the fact - perhaps too
late to solve the problem.

Mistake #5 Initiative can be expected.

Reality: Americans are individualistic. They like to be the first one to think of
the best idea. They like to stand out. When the boss singles them out for praise,
it feels like a reward. In group-oriented cultures none of these feels like a
reward. If an individual seeks attention, it could be an implied insult to the
group. Individuals from these cultures value beinga part of their group and
tend to credit the group for good ideas.

These communication strategies work well with employees who have limited
English proficiency: The list is adapted from Thiederman's article.

e Speak slowly and clearly but do not patronize.

e Be patient.
e Avoid slang and kidding around.
e Never ridicule.
e Share responsibility for the communication.
Ask for paraphrase.
Monitor their nonverbals.
e Teach the needed vocabulary for the job
548 Chapter Sixteen
e Use nonverbal communication to reinforce the verbal.
Written instructions, diagrams, pictures
Showing as well as telling
Walking them through a process.
e When you get the desired communication behavior, reward it.
Asking necessary questions
Asking for assistance
Being willing to try again after errors
e Make the whole work group, not just the manager, responsible for
communication.

Most of these techniques are good practice with all new hires, but they as-
sume extra significance with employees who have limited English proficiency.
For instance, no American-bom worker enjoys being ridiculed - but where face
is important, ridicule is even more damaging. Also, even a U.S.-born worker in a
new job has new vocabulary to learn: new terms, new acronyms, etc. Where a
newcomer is struggling with overall English language acquisition, the new job
terms are another burden. Managers and co-workers need to help them with the
new terms.

We live and work in an infinitely varied world. With technology that gives us the REVIEW
option to communicate instantly with receivers at great distances and of different
cultures from ourselves, it becomes even more critical that we analyze receivers
with care and adapt messages to the needs of those receivers. As the US work-
place becomes more culturally varied, we need, more than ever, to allow for and
adapt to the cultural differences of our co-workers, The most compelling motive
is economic. We will lose money and opportunity — as individuals and as a na-
tion — if we do not.
For global business to be profitable, business people must understand inter-
cultural communication issues. Different communication patterns can impede
development of the trust that is fundamental to successful long-term business
relationships. Ethnocentrism and culture-blindness interfere with people's ability
to function interculturally.
As business people learn about other cultures, they can make generaliza-
tions if they remain constantly willing to revise them on the basis of newer, bet-
ter information. Culture shapes all people, and cultures differ. This chapter
treated ten ways in which culture functions to shape its members.
Even when cultures share a common language, such as English, their cul-
tures may be different. Where language differs as well, business people need to
use interpreters and sometimes double translation.
The chapter offered recommendations on writing for international readers.
It also differentiated between high-context and low-context cultures, individualist
and collectivist cultures, high and low power distance, and monochronic and
polychronic cultures. Nonverbal communication patterns differ among nations
and cultures, and they accompany and affect verbal communication.
In the domestic workplace, people from many different cultures work to-
gether. The chapter offered recommendations for easing workplace intercultural
communication, especially with workers with limited English proficiency.
To succeed, business people need to develop both their understanding of
culture's effects on communication and specific information on the nations and
cultures with which they expect to do business.
International and Intercultural Business Communication 549
 APPLICATION EXERCISES

1. Apply the Johari Gnd (Chapter F*ourteen) to a 8. What is a high-context culture? What problems
situation in which two people from different might arise when someone from a low-context
cultures wish to do business. Which one or culture wishes to do business in a high-context
ones of the quadrants become even more culture?
important in intercultural communication than
in ordinary communication? Why? 9. What are the typical U.S. business person's
responses to silence? Why do you think that is
2. Define stereotype. Think of a stereotype you so?
(or someone you know) may once have held
and then revised. What are some common 10. Although the U.S. is an individualistic culture, it
stereotypes? Think in terms of specific nations, makes heavy use of group processes in
cultures, or other groups. business. How do you think U.S. business's use
of groups differs from the function of groups in
3. Refer to the list of the functions of culture. In collectivist cultures?
what ways has the U.S. mainstream culture
changed during the last 50 - 100 years? 11. How much "power distance” exists between you
and your boss? Is it about the same as for most
4. In the U.S., what are some forms of "deviant U.S. people and their bosses? Greater? Less?
behavior” that are not against any laws or
explicit rules? How does the U.S. culture tend 12. In the U.S., what would make an American
to regulate them? lose face?

5. What aspects of U.S. culture do you think 13. What do you know about gift-giving customs in
seem most strange to people from other other nations?
countries? (Your answer will depend on which
other countries you think of.) 14. What is your reaction to the statement "All
people are prejudiced, to a greater or lesser
6. What is "International English” and what is its extent”?
value to business?
15. Have you ever seen an unfamiliar gesture and
7. What principles should writers observe when been unable to interpret it? Was it in this
writing for business persons in other nations country or in a different one? (Omit any
whose first language is not English? reference to obscene gestures, please.)

CASES
1. Inasmall group containing representatives of c. If four adults from different families are having
more than one culture, discuss the variety of ways to a conversation about cars or sports, would a
answer any or all of these questions, depending on ten-year-old boy be welcome to join inP
one's culture: d. What does an average person do for poor
people?
a. What is the nght way to settle a dispute over a e. How "related" do you feel to your cousins?
relatively minor traffic accident? What is the most distant cousin (or other
b. Which jobs are really men's jobs? Women's? relative) that you know at least moderately well?
Either men's or women's?

550 Chapter 16
f. What possessions or how much money does a He has a big head.
family need to be considered "comfortably off"? Your goose is cooked.
g. When and over what issues should a If the shoe fits, wear it.
subordinate disagree with a boss? We bent over backwards to help.
h. How large or heavy a thing should a woman He's from the wrong side of the tracks.
carry? Nice guys finish last.
i. By what age should a boy be living on his own Fat chance.
and able to provide for all his own needs? By The comment was made tongue-in-cheek.
what ages should agirl be doing these things? Were in amt.
j. |What topics are NOT okay for small talk when She's a basket case.
people have first met? You're barking up the wrong tree.
Let's have a nightcap.
Well have to play it by ear.
2. Following are some values toward which Out of the frying pan, into the fire.
different cultures’ attitudes differ. For any that your
instructor selects, try to characterize the attitude of Talk with a student whose parents or grandparents
mainstream U.S. culture. Then try to think of a speak a different language. Try to explain the
different culture that holds a different attitude on meaning of any one of the sayings listed here (or
that particular value. any other that you know) and why we use those
words to express the meaning. Wnte down your
optimism gratitude explanation. Ask the other student to think of a
hierarchy fate saying in his or her parents’ or grandparents’
language. (For example, do they have a saying that
peace karma means "Life is unpredictable" or "She is conceited"
punctuality respect for elders or "That person is too easily offended"?) What are
the "old sayings” about luck? Lying? Beauty?
being first respect for youth Money? Silence? Music? Gold? Friendship?
hospitality color of skin Work? Get the student to translate exactly what the
words mean, and then to explain the figurative
inherited property efficiency meaning. Write those things down, too. Last,
human dignity authority describe in writing any difficulties you experienced
in the conversation and how you resolved them.
materialism frankness
aggressiveness education 4. Gather in groups of four or five, making sure
that one or more international students are in each
honesty collective responsibility group. Trade experiences in language and culture
formality learning. International students could be very
environment
helpful by describing aspects of American language
owning land concept of God and culture that seemed most different, at first,
premarital chastity social class from those of their country of origin, what was hard
to get used to, what was easy to get used to, etc.
Those who have always lived in the U.S. might
3. U.S. English has many familiar folk think how they would complete these sentences:
expressions. For example, "When I was learning [_language_], I was surprised
to find what they meant by [_word or expression_].”
Looks like your nose is out of joint. "When Ifirst traveled in [_country_], I noticed
_________.." Students who have lived abroad
He's a big frog ina little pond.
Don't borrow trouble. should describe cultural differences they observed
He went for it, hook, line, and sinker. or culture/language-based mistakes they might have
A rolling stone gathers no moss. made, did make, or saw someone else make. Write
up the results of the conversation.
You can't judge a book by its cover.
551
International and Intercultural Business Communication
 Discuss color symbolism in different cultures: stable has it been over the last fifteen years?
white, red, black, yellow, green, etc. Which, if What laws regulate foreign business people
any, are good-luck colors? What colors are there? What, if any, protections are there for
worn for what occasions? Are any colors to be foreign investors? What is the currency
avoided? When? conversion rate in U.S. dollars, and how stable
has it been over the last fifteen years? For what
Choose a country where you believe you might products and services would there be.a market
one day do business. In the library, look for there? What is the supply and skill level of
books and article about the business culture of workers? What are wages? How do business
that country. What is the political system? How people there view Amenicans?

552 Chapter 16
 Ce ee Se ee oe —_ - - —,
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 ppendix A FORMATS FOR BUSINESS MESSAGES

BUSINESS LETTERS: PARTS AND FORMATS

Readers of business letters have certain expectations. Letters must present a clean,
attractive, professional appearance. They should be centered on the page, with ade-
quate margins. They should present an open, readable appearance, with no lengthy,
gray paragraphs. The appearance of a letter creates an impression of its writer’s care and
pride in workmanship. It also reflects on the organization from which it is sent.
Reader expectations also determine a letter’s parts and their placement. A letter’s
parts are the heading, the inside address, the salutation, the body, the complimentary
close, and the signature. After the signature, several abbreviations sometimes appear.
Exhibit A—1 labels these parts.
Readers also expect to see an acceptable business-letter format. Business letters may
appear in a traditional format such as full block style, in the simplified format developed
by the Administrative Management Society, or in a newer format allowing for several
variations, often called the creative format.

The Parts of a Business Letter

The heading contains the writer’s address and the date (see Exhibit A—1). Most
business letters appear on an organization’s letterhead stationery, which usually in-
cludes the address in preprinted form. In these letters, the heading contains just the
date and starts two or more spaces below the letterhead, either at the left margin—full
block style—or at the center of the line— modified block style (see Exhibits A—2
and A—3).
The inside address contains the reader’s name, title, and full address. Its vertical
placement varies with the length of the letter. If the letter is long, only a couple of lines
separate it from the date. For a short letter, the writer inserts as many lines between
date and inside address as will center the letter attractively on the page. The inside
address always appears at the left margin.
The salutation greets the reader or readers and is traditionally followed by a colon.
Traditional salutations include the reader’s name, if known, or a courteous substitute:

Dear Ms. Casey: Dear Sir:

Gentlemen: Dear Sir or Madam:
Dear Mrs. Maxwell: Dear Mr. and Mrs. Peterson:
Dear Col. Carter: Ladies and Gentlemen:
Mr. Higgins: Dear Dr. Bishop:
Punctuation is sometimes omitted in a style called open punctuation. Less frequently,
the colon is replaced with a comma. The comma, though, is usually associated with the
format for personal letters rather than that for business letters.
The main part of a letter is called the body. The body of most business letters is
single-spaced, with a blank space between paragraphs. Today’s practice favors block-
style paragraphs, but paragraphs may be indented if the writer or the firm prefers that
Style.
Paragraphs in business letters should be short. Long paragraphs in letters discourage
readers from reading the letter completely and carefully.
Two vertical spaces below the body and four vertical spaces above the signature, the
complimentary close appears. Typical complimentary closes include Sincerely, Yours
truly, and Sincerely yours. Less frequently used are Respectfully yours, and Very sin-
cerely yours. Thank you and Best wishes are gaining acceptance as complimentary

Source: Adapted from Jeanette W. Gilsdorf, Business Correspondence for Today

(New York:
John Wiley & Sons, 1989), pp. 361-370.
554 Appendix A
|Q@xuit A-1 The Parts of the Business Letter (Modified block style, plain stationery |
[no letterhead]) —

4622 North Basswood Drive

Heading St. Louis, MO 63116
January 2, 19—

Inside Jordan L. Tomlinson

Personnel Director
Anheuser-Busch, Inc.
One Busch Place
St. Louis, MO 63118

Salutation Dear Mr. Tomlinson:

Your advertisement in Sunday's St. Louis Post-Dispatch for an

area distributor matched my qualifications closely. Two years as
college rep for Anheuser-Busch, an associate's degree
emphasizing transportation and marketing, and entrepreneurial
experience make me an ideal candidate for this position.

Much of my energy propelled Anheuser-Busch's marketing

efforts on the campus of Santa Ynez Community College, where I’
combined A-B's excellent materials and promotions with what
my marketing classes were teaching me.

Because a beer distributor must be a planner, a self-starter, and

a motivator of others, my experience operating my own business
is pertinent. I ran a lawn and pool service April through October
1990 and 1991, with seven people working for me during the
high-volume months. Profits enabled me to upgrade my truck
and equipment while maintaining high customer satisfaction and
repeat business.

The attached resume will show my other work experience and

my education more fully.

Working and attending college in California, I observed some

interesting things about area preferences in beers. In particular,
I have some ideas I'd like to discuss with you about how ~
Anheuser-Busch can market to those who seem to prefer some of
the imported beers over domestics.

Since I'll be in St. Louis until January 21, I'll call later this week
to arrange a convenient time to meet and talk. I'll surely
appreciate a chance to show you why Anheuser-Busch needs to
hire me as an area distributor.

Complimentary “Et p
close
| th
prett=
Typed signature Robert*J. Galbraith

Enclosure Enclosure
line

Appendix A 555
|QxuiBiT A-2 Faull Block Style |

Pact-Wel Foods
QLF INTERNATIONAL
A QLF GROUP COMPANY
Kaywood Plaza
Mankton Gardens, RI 00711

eT November 17, 19—

Mr. James E. Marantz
8549 E. San Gabriel Drive
Shawnee Mission, KS 66287

Dear Mr. Marantz:

Please use the enclosed full-price coupon to replace your

container of delicious Cheddar-Creme spread, in accordance
with our guarantee.

From your description, we think that the container may have

had a defect in the actuator button. We're enclosing a
postage-paid label for your convenience in returning the can to
our Quality Control department. With the product for
examination, we can determine why it may not be operating
properly. This helps us a great deal—we want to make sure
nothing about the product interferes with people's enjoyment
of it.

Thanks for getting in touch with us. We're glad to have the
opportunity to help you enjoy our popular Cheddar-Creme, and
to make sure that the next purchaser can do so as well.

Sincerely,

Jessamyn Rooney
Consumer Service Representative

Jr: ac

Enclosure

c: Quality Control

556 Appendix A
|QXHIBIT A-3 Modified Block Style |

Pact-Wel Foods
QLF INTERNATIONAL
AQLF GROUP COMPANY
Kaywood Plaza
Mankton Gardens, RI 00711

November 17, 19—

Mr. James E. Marantz

8549 E. San Gabriel Drive
Shawnee Mission, KS 66287

Dear Mr. Marantz:

Please use the enclosed full-price coupon to replace your

fomeowd container of delicious Cheddar-Creme spread, in accordance
indent with our guarantee.

From your description, we think that the container may have

had a defect in the actuator button. We're enclosing a
can to
postage-paid label for your convenience in returning the
our Quality Control departm ent. With the product for
g
examination, we can determine why it may not be operatin
. This helps us a great deal—we want to make sure
properly
nt
nothing about the product interferes with people's enjoyme
of it.
the
Thanks for getting in touch with us. We're glad to have
our popular Chedda r-Crem e, and
opportunity to help you enjoy
make sure that the next purcha ser can do so as well.
to

Sincerely,

Jeoacury? Keonay
Closing

= Jessamyn Rooney
Consumer Service Representative

Jr: ac

Enclosure

c: Quality Control

Pee AEs

Appendix A 597
 Mt
|Q@xuit A-4 Page Layout Examples |

A: Full block style, mixed punctuation B: Modified block style, open punctuation

C: No letterhead, block.form, indented D: Memo form

paragraphs, mixed punctuation

closes. Traditional punctuation after this letter element is a comma. In open punctua-
tion, no punctuation appears.
The signature block, typed four spaces below the complimentary close, shows the
writer’s name and often his or her position in the firm. In the four-line space between
complimentary close and typed name, the writer signs his or her name in ink.
The complimentary close and the signature block start at the left margin if the letter’s
date does so (full block style), but start at the center of the line if the letter’s date starts
there (modified block style).

558 Appendix A
 Several symbols may appear after the signature. Two more vertical lines separate the
signature from whatever follows. The symbols may include the initials of the person
who originated the letter, the initials of the person who typed it, the word Enclosure,
and the symbol c (copy) or pc (photocopy) and one or more names of recipients of
these copies.
A business letter written on plain stationery—stationery that has no preprinted
letterhead— might look like Exhibit A— 1. This letter uses the modified block style with
no paragraph indention. Note vertical spacing of the element in Exhibits A— 1, A—2, and
A—3. Exhibit A—4 gives a quick comparison among layout types.

Today’s traditional format is either full block style or modified block style. (An older Format Variations
format, the indented style, is rarely used.) The letter in Exhibit A—2 is in full block
style. Notice that all elements begin at the left margin. Full block style is quick and easy
for typists. The appearance is crisp.
In the modified block style, shown in Exhibit A—3, the date, the complimentary
close, and the signature start at the center of the line. This letter does not indent
paragraphs. A different variation of modified block style does indent paragraphs.
Not every letter must have the dictator’s initials (JR). Often just the typist’s initials
a
(ac) appear. Sometimes the two sets of initials are separated by a slash instead of
colon. Sometimes no typist’s initials appear. Not all letters have enclosures. Similarly,
copies or photocopies (indicated by ¢ or pc) are not always necessary.’
The simplified style omits the salutation and the complimentary close (see Exhibit
“dear”
A-—5). You may have asked yourself just why every recipient of every letter is
every writer must claim to have written “sincerely” or must affirm that
and why nearly
“very truly
he or she is “yours.” The effect of telling someone who is both “dear” and
if anyone ever
yours” how annoyed you are with a bad product would be comic,
thought hard about it.
yester-
The Administrative Management Society thought hard about it and decided
forms could be dispensed with. Their recommen ded simplified format has been
year’s
solves another
gaining popularity. It not only does away with archaic language but also
problem: avoiding sexist language.
unknown letter
Forty years ago, so few women held high positions in business that
s could safely be addresse d as Dear Sir, Dear Sirs, or Gentleme n. Assuming
recipient
safe. But what do we do if our best
unknown business recipients to be male is no longer
we need to write to? Or what if we have
effort has not discovered the name of a person
whether T. R. Cadwalla der or Terry R. Cadwalla der is male
the name but do not know
or female?
Madam, To whom it may
We do have some options. We can write, Dear Sir or
Ladies, Dear Chairper son, and the like. We
concern, Dear Committee, Gentlemen and
ader, or Dear T. R. Cadwall ader. But most of the
can write Dear Mr. or Ms. Cadwall
to the eye and ear.
solutions that avoid the sexism pitfall are graceless and a bit strange
es and thus to the fact that
Because of their unfamiliarity, they call attention to themselv
the writer doesn’t know the recipient.
business message.
The simplified style usually uses the salutation position for a useful
Sometimes it’s a subject line:

SUBJECT: Your order for silk brocade.

Sometimes it’s an attention line:
ATTN: Freight Expediter

Xerox is not a generic word for

1although photocopies are often referred to as “xeroxes,”
is protecte d by law. Therefore, avoid using “xc” as an
photocopy. It is a trademark, and its use
abbreviation at the end ofa letter.

Appendix A 599
|@xumerr A—5 Simplified Style |

Pact-Wel Foods

A QLF GROUP COMPANY

Kaywood Plaza
Mankton Gardens, RI 00711

November 17, 19—

Mr. James E. Marantz

8549 E. San Gabriel Drive
Shawnee Mission, KS 66287

Please use the enclosed full-price coupon to replace your

container of delicious Cheddar-Creme spread, in accordance
with our guarantee.

From your description, we think that the container may have

had a defect in the actuator button. We're enclosing a
postage-paid label for your convenience in returning the can to
our Quality Control department. With the product for
examination, we can determine why it may not be operating
properly. This helps us a great deal—we want to make sure
nothing about the product interferes with people's enjoyment
of it.

Thanks for getting in touch with us. We're glad to have the
opportunity to help you enjoy our popular Cheddar-Creme, and
to make sure that the next purchaser can do so as well.

Gacy Kray
Jessamyn Rooney
Consumer Service Representative

Jr: ac

Enclosure

c: Quality Control

360 Appendix A
A sales letter could say, where the salutation usually appears,

DISKETTES FOR LESS— GUARANTEED!

and then begin the body of the letter.
At the end of the letter’s body, the writer simply leaves four vertical spaces for the
signature and types the signature block as usual. The omission of the complimentary
close is not as noticeable as the omission of the salutation.
The creative style develops the simplified style one step further. As the term sug-
gests, this format permits the writer some freedom.
Not all letters are suited to format creativity. The creative style suggests lightness,
even playfulness at times. The writer’s judgment about the communication task comes
into play.
Instead of the standard salutation, the writer of a favorable adjustment letter might
Say,
Here is your $30, Mr. Parker. ..
and continue with the body of the letter.
A job offer might begin,

Schilling Associates likes your ideas, Ms. Larson. . .

. . . and we'd like you to start putting them to work for us on March 3, the date you said you'd
be available. Starting salary for someone with your excellent experience and qualifications is
$41,500...
A writer might choose the creative format for any letter whose content is basically
positive. The creative format is not suitable for bad-news letters, collection letters,
letter reports, transmittal letters for formal reports, or any letter whose content is not
light. Using the creative format for an auditor’s letter report, for instance, would detract
from the seriousness of the content. The letter’s credibility would suffer. Exhibit A—6
shows a letter that appropriately uses the creative format.
As you can see, business communicators have many letter format options. Unless
your organization has a set policy on letter format, consider which format best suits
each letter you write.

BUSINESS MEMO FORMATS

Many organizations have preprinted forms, in half-sheet or whole-page length, for mem-
orandums. If yours does, use its forms. Readers become accustomed to looking for the
same information in the same place. You will save memo readers’ time by putting
information where they expect to find it.
Some organizations do not have preprinted memo forms but do follow a set memo
style. If yours does, follow that style.
Memos are written either on plain stationery or on letterhead designed for internal
use.
Most memos contain four elements near the top of the page:

TO: [name of receiver, and title, if needed]

FROM: [name of sender, and title, if needed]
DATE: [date sent]
SUBJECT: [phrase concisely describing most important idea]
Placement and order can vary, but all four of these elements are important. Exhibits
A—7 and A—8 show two'common memorandum formats. Others can be found in many
chapters in this textbook and in Exhibit A— 4,
most
Both letters and memos are generally folded for insertion into envelopes. The
Exhibit A—9. The first is for a “business- size” (number 10)
common folds are shown in
measures 9/2" X 4Va". The other is for a smaller envelope (number
envelope, which
6%«). This envelope measures 6¥2" X 3%".

Appendix A 961
|Q@xuit A-6 Creative Format |

GENTLEMEN'S BIMONTHLY MAGAZINE |

700 Talbot Avenue — Suite 601

Hartford, CT 06100

June 20, 19—

Help the American Cancer Society,

the American Heart Association,
the United Way, or the March of Dimes-—

For your 5 minutes, your favorite charity gains... .

We'd like to ask a favor of you. And to show our appreciation,

we'll make a contribution to the charity of your choice.

Surveying GENTLEMEN'S BIMONTHLY MAGAZINE subscribers

will help us make the magazine exactly what you want it to
be. If you'll take a minute or two to fill out and return the
enclosed questionnaire, you'll help us make your magazine
more valuable to you.

... and you'll also lend a hand to the American Cancer

Society, the American Heart Association, the United Way or
the March of Dimes—the choice is up to you.

To let us know which organization you wish to receive the

contribution made possible by your reply, please check the
appropriate box at the end of your questionnaire.

Naturally, the answers you give will be held in confidence. So

won't you complete your Subscriber Survey and return it
today? We've enclosed a postpaid envelope for your reply.

Help improve YOUR magazine, and assist your favorite

charity. ...

J R. Shelley

JRS/lf

Enclosures

562 Appendix A
|Quer A-7 Memorandum Format A |
Syodeae MEMORANDUM
altobeat: March 5. 19--
loftmangin
To: District 7 Sales Force
g _ From: Bert Wong, District Director
mms Subject: Four District 7 Champions Gain Honors for February

lold orall Your effort made district 7 the sales leader for February.
caps a
No other district had more than two sales reps on the OVER FIFTY-K list.
Ours had four: Ollie Bellmar, Beverly Harris, Amy Potter, and Ken Swain.
Two others, Harry Abraham and Patricia Wildde, were very close to
reaching the $50,000 sales figure.

You made February a month to be proud of. Nice work!

pe: M.C. Pitmann

Southeast Region Sales Manager

An alternative way to fold an 812" X 11” page into a number 10 envelope is the Z fold,
the
which allows the top of the page to show when the recipient takes it out of
envelope (see Exhibit A— 10).

ENVELOPES AND OCR HANDLING

As with stationery, the quality of the envelope paper should contribute to your firm’s
image. The sender’s return address, usually printed like the letterhead (or typed),
main
should appear in the upper left-hand corner of the envelope. Traditionally, the
address— blocked the same way as the inside address, and with the zip code— should
ely five
go in the lower half of the envelope, with the address beginning approximat
spaces to the left of the horizontal center point of the envelope.
and
Ifyou want the letter to get to the attention of someone, type the word attention
name in the lower left-hand corner of the envelope (Attention : Anthony
the person’s
Boggs or Attn: Anthony Boggs), or put it under the company name:

Shearson Lehman Hutton, Inc.

Attention: Anthony Boggs
has moved
To speed up and economize on mail handling, the U.S. Postal Service
machine sorting of mail—LS M (letter-s orting machine) and OCR (op-
steadily toward
letter will determin e its
tical character recognition) handling. How you address your
whether it goes out in today’s mail!
handling—and the difference could determine
for the main
For the faster OCR handling, you must follow specific requirements
and illustrat ed in Exhibit A-11 ona number 10 envelope :
address, as explained
style.
1. Single-space, capitalize everything, omit all punctuation, and use block
or script, and no spelling out
No proportional spacing of characters, no italic
lines, with the
of numbers. All address information must be in the last three
street address or box number immediately above the city—state—zip code
the
(which should be the last line). If the zip code will not fit, it may go in
next line immediately below the city and state.

Appendix A 563
|Q@xuit A-—8 Memorandum Format B |

O-RING INTERNATIONAL
—ESEEEEoEoEo
yee

INTEROFFICE MEMORANDUM

To: All Production Personnel

From: Plant Maintenance Supervisor
Subject: Scheduled Maintenance
Date: November 16, 19—

This notice reminds all production personnel that scheduled cleaning,

lubrication, and safety inspection will be performed on line machinery
the Friday after Thanksgiving.

So that the maintenance can be completed rapidly, please shelve all

tools and clear your work area completely at the end of the
Wednesday before the holiday.

If the maintenance crew has to clear work areas, the work may run
into Monday, causing production downtime.

But with your cooperation, the maintenance can be completed within

one day's time—Friday—which is a paid holiday for production
personnel.

Enjoy your four-day weekend and come in Monday to an

up-and-running line of safe, clean machinery.

564. Appendix A
Q@xuir A-—9 Two Ways to Fold Business Messages

Y Y
mel
Aea
ee
a

Q@xaisit A-10 The Z Fold

far a Se q

|
|
v F
Letterhead |

ante | <a
| |

aa

Put a minimum of two to four spaces between the state and the zip code.
The two-letter state abbreviation is preferable for OCR. Put apartment
numbers, suite numbers, and so forth on the same line as the street address, if
possible. For mail addressed to a foreign country, follow the same rules.
Include the postal delivery zone number (if any). The name of the country
must be the last item in the address.
2. Put nothing to the left or right of or below the address. The address must
begin at least an inch from the left edge and be more than half an inch from
the bottom. Any codes should be part of the address and go immediately
above the addressee’s name.
3. Use both the zip code plus four figures and the two-letter state abbreviation.

Appendix A 365
 |QXHIBIT A-11 Number 10 Envelope Addressed for OCR |
Handling

390 North Main Street Postage

Decatur IL 62521-1907

(Address must be inside this area for OCR processing)

MR. HARRY P. GILES

FIRST NATIONAL BANK
212 COMMERCE STREET
MINNEAPOLIS MN 55403-2521

Enjoying the economies of window envelopes (gained largely by typing the ad-
dresses only once) requires folding the letter so that only the inside address shows
through the window. For OCR handling, window envelopes must follow additional
rules. Consult your postmaster.

366 Appendix A
 ppendix B WRITING HANDBOOK

This alphabetical list of short, easy-to-remember symbols will save instructors time in
marking papers and will help students by giving brief explanations of many writing and
business communication problems. Note that all forms of punctuation (period, comma,
colon, etc.) are discussed under the symbol Punc.

Abbreviation Before using an abbreviation, make sure it is appropriate, understood,

and standard (including capitalization, spacing, and punctuation).

Accuracy Get facts, names, addresses, and statements right.

Adapt Adapt to your reader’s interests, reading ability, and experience.

Personalized messages written for and adapted to specific readers are more effective
than mass broadcasts. What seems to be for everybody has less interest to anybody.
Even form letters should give the feeling that the message is directed to each reader.
Expressions such as “Those of you who. . .” and “If you are one who. . .” give
just the opposite impression.

Adj/Adv Be sure to use the right form of a word for its function in the sentence.
For the comparative and superlative forms, see Compr 3.

Agreement Agreement of subjects with their verbs and of pronouns with their
antecedents is essential to clear, inconspicuous communication. Don’t be confused
by other words that come between two words that are supposed to agree.

1. Notice that the first sentence about agreement is an illustration of the first
point: Agreement (singular) is the subject of the verb is, but between them is
a prepositional phrase with four plurals. Consider the following other
illustrations:

Selection of topics depends on the reader's knowledge and interests.

Lee also tells how important the arrangement of the records offices is.
Part, series, type, and other words usually followed by plural phrases are
frequently pitfalls to the unwary writer:

The greatest part of their investments is in real estate.

A series of bank loans has enabled the firm to stay in business.
2. Anyone, each, every, everyone, everybody, either, and neither all point to
singular verbs (and pronouns), except that in an either-or situation, with one
noun singular and one plural, verbs and pronouns agree with the closer noun:

Each of the women in the group is willing to give some of her time to helping the group when
asked.
Either board members or the president has power to act on the point.
Neither the mayor nor the council members are allowed to use city-owned automobiles in
transacting their own business.

Source: Adapted from Gretchen N. Vik, C. W. Wilkinson, and Dorothy C. Wilkinson, Writing
and Speaking in Business (Homewood, Ill: Richard D. Irwin, Inc., 1990), pp. 600-630.

Appendix B 567
 or
3. Two separate singular subjects combined by and require a plural verb
well
pronoun; but when combined by besides, either-or, together with, or as
as, they take a singular:

Mrs. Davis and her secretary do the work in the central office.
Considerable knowledge, as well as care, is necessary in good writing.
But note:

The honorary president and leader of this group is Mr. Anderson (one person, two titles).
4. Be sure pronouns agree in number and gender with their antecedents (words
they stand for):

Find out whether Coronal Supermarkets is dissatisfied without emphasizing its (not their)
possible dissatisfaction.
The benefits students get from studying the practical psychology, writing skills, and ways of
business in good courses like letter writing and report writing will help them throughout life.
5. Relative clauses beginning with who, that, or which require that verbs agree
with the antecedents of those words:

The manager is one of those persons who expect unquestioning loyalty.

The actions in the life of any animal that interest a biologist are those concerned with food,
shelter, protection from enemies, and procreation.

6. Plural-sounding collective subjects take singular verbs and pronouns when the
action is that of the group but plural verbs when the action is that of two or
more individuals in the group:

The board is having a long meeting. (Board acting in unison.)

The board have been arguing and disagreeing on that point for months. (Board acting
divisively.)
7. Beware of letting the complement tempt you to make the verb agree with it
instead of with the subject:

Our main difficulty was errors in billing.

The biggest cost item is employees’ salaries and wages. (In most such situations, however,
rewriting would be better.)
8. Certain words deserve careful attention because their form is an uncertain or
misleading indication of their number:
a. The meaning of the whole context determines the number of any, all,
more, most, some, and none.
b. Acoustics, economics, genetics, linguistics, mathematics, news, physics, and
semantics are all singular despite their look and sound; deer and /ish are
both singular and plural; and mice, like men, is plural.
9. Beware of words whose forms are in transition, like data. The original forms,
from Latin, were singular datum and plural data, In modern usage, datum is
disappearing and data is coming into use as both the singular and plural form:

All the data are in.

All the data is in (commonly seen in modern usage).

Ambiguous This means there is more than one possible meaning and confusion
might result. Usually you can clear up the temporary confusion by (1) correcting a
faulty pronoun reference (see Ref) or (2) rewording to straighten out a modifier so
that it modifies only what you intend (see Mod).

568 Appendix B
 He took over the management of the business from his father when he was 55. (When his father
reached 55, Carl took over management of the business.)
We agreed when we signed the papers that you would pay $100. (When we signed the papers, we
agreed - you would pay $100 or We agreed that you would pay $100 when we signed the
papers.
And And is a strong coordinating conjunction—one of the most useful and most
troublesome words.
1. It should connect (in the sense of addition) only things of similar quality and The symbol @ alerts you to a
grammatical form. Used otherwise, it produces faulty coordination between an bad example.
independent and a dependent clause, misparallelism, or sentence disunity. See
Subord, Para, and Unity.

The plans call for a new four-story building, and which will cost $4.5 million. (Omit and; it can’t
connect an independent clause to a dependent one.) See Coh.
In this course you learn the ways of the business world, the principles of practical psychology,
&Q and to write better. (The infinitive to write is not parallel with the nouns ways and principles.
Make them all the same form before connecting them by and.) See Para.
We feel sure that the saw will serve you well, and we appreciate your order. (The two ideas
are not closely enough related to appear in the same sentence—probably not even in the
same paragraph.) See Unity.
2. And is properly the most often used connective, but don’t overuse it to
connect a series of independent clauses into a long, stringy sentence. If the
clauses deserve equal emphasis, you can make separate sentences. If not,
subordinate the weaker ones. See Subord.

The consultant first talked with the executives about their letter-writing problems and then took
a sample of 1,000 carbon copies and classified them into two groups and 45 percent of them
were for situations that could just as well have been handled by forms. (After talking with the
executives about their letter-writing problems, the consultant classified a sample of 1,000
carbon copies from the files. Forty-five percent of them were for situations that could just as
well. . . .)
3. And may properly begin a sentence, but only if you want to emphasize it.
4, And is not proper before etc.; the et in et cetera means and.
5. Except in formal writing, and/or is acceptable to mean either or both of two
mentioned possibilities.
Appear The appearance of a written message (as of a person) should be pleasant
but unobtrusive and should suggest that the writer is competent, accurate, neat, and
alert. Because of the many choices of typefaces, special characters, boxes, and lines
available through word processing and desktop publishing software, creating a
document that confuses rather than communicates is all too possible. Here are some
tips from design experts:

e Don’t overdo the design of a document. Readers are distracted by too many
typefaces, lines, boxes, colors, and types of exhibits. Remember the ransom
note newsletter in Chapter Two.
Help the reader move through your document with headings, transitions,
itemized lists, and graphics. Use layout to convey meaning and emphasis.
Turn off right justification for better readability of a document.
In a single-column document (such asa letter, memo, or report), use short
paragraphs, frequent headings, and adequate margins to make the document
easier to read.
For documents other than letters, memos, and reports, choose a grid that
contains columns of different widths. Off-centered column formats give white
space in a scholar’s margin, which can appear always on the left, always on the
Appendix B 369
 right, or always on the outside of the page.’ Use a consistent grid for similar
pages.
e Consistently unequal margins (wide right, wide outer, wide left, wide top)
make pages more interesting than one-inch-all-around margins.”
e Make column dividers narrower than margins.*
e Encourage reading by using wider top margins and ragged bottom margins
(where all columns don’t end at the same line).*
e For reading ease, limit the number of typefaces used in a document to two: a
serif for text and a sans serif for headings. Since a typeface is a family of type
that includes different sizes and styles such as bold and italics, this still gives
you variety within a long document.

Apostrophes An apostrophe (a punctuation and spelling problem) should

appear in

1. Possessives (except its and the personal pronouns): before s in singulars

(man’s); after the s in plurals if the s or z sound is there to make the word
plural (ladies’ but women’s).
2. Contractions: to mark the omission of a letter (isn’t, doesn’t, it’s— meaning “it
is,” quite different from the possessive its).
3. In decades (in the ’60s) to show omission of 79 but not in temperatures (in
the 60s).
4. Plurals of symbols: figures (illegible 8’s), letters of the alphabet (one o and
two m’s), and words written about as words (too many and’s and but’s),
though some authorities now restrict this use to avoiding confusion.

Awkward An awkward expression calls attention to itself, and it may confuse the
reader. Reconstruct your sentence or change word order for a more natural flow.
A so-called split infinitive (putting a modifier between fo and a verb) is not
incorrect as much as it is awkward. It calls attention to itself and often emphasizes
the infinitive much more than the writer intends.

Capitalization Capitalization is pretty well standardized (except that newspapers

set their own practices and hence are not guides for other writing).
1. Capitalize the names of specific things, including the titles of people, but not
general words. For instance, you capitalize the name of any specific college,
university, or department, but you write:

A university education may well cost $22,000, regardless of the department in which one
studies.
L. W. Wilson, president of the University of. . . . When President Wilson came. . . .

You capitalize any specific course, room, lake, river, building, and so on, but
not the general words. So you might write:

| am taking Economics 215.

| am majoring in engineering.
Now | must go to a history class in the Liberal Arts Building, after stopping to see a professor
in Room 115.

‘Jeanne L. McLaren and Judy Stopke, Do’s and Don’ts of Desktop Publishing Design, 2nd ed.
(Ann Arbor, Mich.: Promotional Perspectives, 1992), pp. 5—6.
2McLaren & Stopke, p. 7.
>McLaren & Stopke, p. 10.
4McLaren & Stopke, p. 11.

570 Appendix B
 Next summer | may fish mostly in Portage Lake and some in the Ausable River, although |
prefer river to lake fishing. :
Of course, you capitalize languages—English, French, German—because they
derive from the names of countries.
2. In titles of books and articles, capitalize the first word and (although library
materials don’t) all others except articles (a, an, the), prepositions (of to, in,
on, for), and conjunctions (and, but, or, nor, although).
3. Capitalize the seasons (spring, summer) only when you personify them (rare
except in poetry).
4. Capitalize sections of the country (the South, the East Coast) but not
directions (east, west).
5. Capitalize people’s titles (Mr, Mrs., Ms., Miss, Dr., Colonel, Professor, Judge,
Governor, President) and terms of family relations (Uncle Jim) when used
before names, but only to show a high degree of respect when used in place
of or after names.
6. Capitalize the first word after a colon only if it starts a complete sentence. (In
an itemized listing, you may capitalize the first words of items even though
they are incomplete sentences.)

Case One form serves for all cases of nouns except the possessive, and the only
problem there is remembering correct use of the apostrophe. For personal
pronouns,
1. Use the nominative case (J, we, he, she, they, who) for the subject of a verb
(other than an infinitive) and for the complement of a linking verb (any form
of to be except the infinitive with a subject).
2. Use the objective case (me, us, him, her, them, whom) as the object of a verb
or a preposition and as the subject or object of an infinitive (except to be
without a subject). In informal speaking and writing, however, who is
acceptable as the object of a preposition (especially if it is in the usual subject
position) unless it immediately follows the preposition:

Who was the letter addressed to?

3. Use the possessive case to show possession and to serve as the subject of a
gerund (a verb form ending in ing and used as a noun):

His accusing me of dishonesty. . . .

My thinking thata... .

4. Watch case particularly after than. and as and in compounds with a name and
a personal pronoun:

He is better informed on the subject than | (am informed implied).

| am a more cautious man than he (is understood).
Virginia and she went. . . (subject).
|am to pick up Virginia and her . . . (object of verb).
He told the story to Virginia and her (object of preposition).
Remember that myself is not used in place of me.

Choppy Jerky, short sentences are slow and awkward. Usually the trouble is
(1) incoherence (the sentences don’t follow each other naturally —see Coh);
(2) poor control of emphasis (all the ideas in independent clauses, although of
different importance—see Subord); or (3) lack of variety (all the sentences of the
same pattern, usually all beginning with the subject or nearly the same length—
Appendix B 571
 see Var). Try combining several of the sentences, subordinating the less important
ideas and stressing the important ones in the independent clauses.
Clarity Immediate clarity is a fundamental of good writing. Make sure your reader
can get your meaning quickly and easily.
Coherence Coberence means clearly showing your reader the relationships among
ideas. It is usually achieved from a logical sequence (proper organization), with
major emphasis on the important ideas, less on the related but less important ideas,
and any necessary conjunctions to indicate what relationships exist. Incoherence
comes from mixing unrelated ideas together in the same sentence or paragraph, but
particularly from (1) using a causative word when the named cause is not the whole
cause of the named effect and (2) linking unrelated ideas or ideas of different
importance by and.
1. Plan ahead—get your ideas in logical sequence before you write. You can
group seemingly unrelated ideas with a topic sentence such as “Three factors
deserve special consideration.”
2. Give your ideas proper emphasis (see Emph and Subord). Important ideas
should be in independent clauses or separate sentences. Two closely related
and equally important ideas can be together in a compound sentence. Put a
less important idea in a dependent clause attached to an independent clause,
making a complex sentence.
3. Carefully choose transitional words or phrases if you need them to smooth the
natural sequence of ideas (see Trans). Consider the following as examples:

And. . . moreover, besides, in addition, also, furthermore.

But. . . however, nevertheless, yet, still, although, while.
Either-or . . . neither-nor, else, whether.
Therefore. . . consequently, hence, as a result, accordingly, so, thus. (Check for true cause-
effect relation.)
Because .. . since, as, for, the reason is.
Then. . . after that, afterward, later, subsequently.
Meanwhile . . . during, simultaneously, concurrently, while.
Before . . . preceding, previously, prior to.
If. . . provided, assuming, in case, unless.
4. In papers longer than a page or two—and even more so in oral presentations
—you probably will need even more than the three preceding means of
showing the relationships of ideas and thus keeping the reader on the track.
(See Topic and Summary Sentences and Headings and Subheads in the Index.)
Compr Comparisons require special attention to these points:
1. Things compared must be comparable. Usually the trouble is omission of
necessary phrases like that of that on, other, or else.

The markup on Schick razors is higher than that on Gillettes. (If you omit that on you'll be
comparing the markup on Schicks—a percentage—with the height of a Gillette—measured in
inches.)
Frank Mosteller sells more Fuller brushes than any other salesperson. (Without other, the
statement is illogical if Frank is a salesperson; he can't sell more than he himself sells.)
2. Incomplete comparisons mean nothing; complete them.

You get more miles per dollar with XXX. (More than with what?)
This material has a higher percentage of wool. (Higher than what?)
572 Appendix B
 3. Be sure to use the correct form of comparison words. Comparisons involving
two things usually call for adding -er (the comparative) to the simple form
(cold, slow become colder, slower). Those involving more than two usually
require the -est (or superlative) form (coldest, slowest, fastest).
For words of three syllables or more —and for many with two and some
with only one—the preferred form is more plus the simple form (for the
comparative) or most plus the simple form (for the superlative): more
frequently, most hopeful. Some words can go either way: oftener or more
often; oftenest or most often.
4, Watch these idioms: Complete the as much as phrase and use to after
compare when pointing out similarities only, with when pointing out any
differences:

Price increases may be worth as much as, if not more than, the dividends on a common stock
purchase.
Comparison of X to Y shows that they involve the same principles.
Comparison of sales letters with application letters shows that they have minor differences.
5. Some words (unique, empty, final, for example) are logical absolutes and
hence cannot take comparative or superlative forms.

Conciseness Conciseness, which is not necessarily brevity, depends on leaving out

the irrelevant, leaving unsaid what you can adequately imply, and cutting out
deadwood.

Connotations Connotations, the overtones or related meanings of words, are often

you use
as important as the denotations, or dictionary meanings. Be sure the words
well as in denotation . Consider the connotati ons in
are appropriate in connotation as
inexpensiv e, economica l; secondhan d, used, previousl y
the following: cheap,
basement,
owned; complaint department, customer service department, bargain
thrift store, budget floor.

or from other people

Copy Copying from the assignment, the case’s wording,
produces writing that doesn’t sound like you. Put your ideas in your own words.

are in series or are

CS Comma splice This a serious error. Except when they
separation by a period,
short and parallel, two or more independent clauses require
semicol on (which may or may not
a comma and a coordinating conjunction, or a
is or one of the conjunct ive adverbs).
require a following transition like that

of course, iswhether
Diction This means use a more suitable word. The big test,
g its connotat ions, conveys your thought accurate ly. Consider
the word, includin
nd; whether they give a
whether your words are easy for your reader to understa
fresh instead of pompous , jargonist ic, or
sharp, vivid picture by being natural and
of a fuzzy or dull
trite; whether they give a specific, concrete meaning instead
they are general or abstract; and whether they are appropriately
concept because
according to the topic and the
informal, formal, standard, technical, or nontechnical
reader.
except; adapt, adopt;
Watch especially the following often confused pairs: accept,
er, allude, elude; almost, most;
affect, effect; all ready, already; all together, altogeth
beside, besides; capital,
among, between; amount, number, appraise, apprise;
e; copy, replica; disinterested,
capitol; complement, compliment, compose, compris
formally, formerly; imply,
uninterested; farther, further, fewer, less; flaunt, flout;
lose; marital, martial; may be,
infer, in regard to, with regards to; it’s, its; loose,
oral, verbal; paramet er, perimet er, personal, personnel;
maybe; moral, morale;
l, principle; reign, rein;
pinch hitter, substitute; pore over, pour over, principa
Appendix B 573
 respectfully, respectively; stationary, stationery; some time, sometime; your, youre;
and to, too, two.

Date Date all messages-in the standard form (November 2, 1994) unless you have
good reason to do otherwise. Your most likely good reasons could be: (1) You are
in the armed services, where the form 2 November 1994 is standard; or (2) you are
writing a formal notice, where you use words with no figures; or (3) you are writing
an informal note and may well use the form 11/2/94; or (4) you are writing to
someone in a country where practice differs (2 November 1994). Modern business
writing usually does not abbreviate months and does not use the ordinal forms.

Deadwood Deadwood phrases add nothing to the meaning but merely take up
writing and reading time.

Develop You need to develop your point more thoroughly with more explanation,
definition, specific details, classifications, comparisons, or examples to make it
clearer, more interesting, more convincing, or more emphatic. See Spec.

Directness By being direct, you save words, speed up reading, and make your
ideas clearer. Don’t waste words by beginning too far back in the background of
the subject or stating what the reader already knows. Write direct, active-voice
sentences beginning with the important word as the subject. The expletives “Jt is
. .” and “There are. . . ” are indirect and unemphatic (see Expl).

Dng Dangling modifier See Mod 1.

Documentation When you use the ideas of others, telling your sources is
necessary to avoid plagiarism and show your reader that what you say has the
backing of cited authorities.

Emphasis Dividing emphasis among your ideas according to their relative

importance is basic to good communication.
1. When you state important ideas, give them deserved emphasis through length
of discussion; placement at beginnings and endings of documents, paragraphs,
and sentences; use of headings and itemized lists; and use of underlining, bold
type, larger type, or a different font where appropriate. Writing something in
all capital letters makes it emphatic but more difficult to read than capitals and
lowercase letters, so save this method for headings or other limited uses.
2. When you have negative, unimportant, already known, or other ideas that do
not warrant emphasis, avoid overemphasizing them:

Spring is just around the corner. You'll be needing. . . . (With spring just around the corner,
OQ you'll. . . .)
On October 3 you asked me to write a report on. . . . | have finished it and am. . . . (Here is
O the report requested in your letter of October 3. . . .)
| have your letter of April 20 in which you ask for quotations on X. | am glad to give you our
O prices. Our present prices on X are. . . . (Just omit the first two sentences. They're implied in
the third.)
3. Transitional words like and and but usually do not deserve the emphasis they
would get at the beginning of a sentence.

Etc. This abbreviation of the Latin et cetera, meaning “and so forth,” is appropriate
only when the reader can easily fill out the incomplete list (as in “Please take even-
numbered seats 2, 4, 6, etc.”), Otherwise it can mean only “Reader, you guess what
else I mean to include.” Because etc. is an abbreviation, it takes a period. In no case
should you write “and etc.” (et means and) or “etc. . . .” (the middle three dots
mean the same as etc. here).
574 Appendix B
 Exaggeration Exaggeration creates distrust, especially in intercultural
communication.

Expletive Expletives (it is, there are) slow the reader up in getting to significant
information and, overused, make your writing unnecessarily wordy, weak, and
passive. However, sometimes expletives help soften a command, avoid
presumptuousness in a recommendation, or ease reader acceptance of bad news:

OQ It was thought that you would prefer. . . . (Ithought you. would. . . .)

QO There are four important factors involved. These are:. . . . (The four important factors are. . . .)
© It will be necessary to have your. . . . (“You must send. . .” might be too commanding.)
Figure Use figures if the quantity is above nine, but observe these exceptions and
guidelines.
1. If a quantity comes as the first word of a sentence, write it in words or recast
the sentence.
2. When a sentence involves two different series of quantities, use figures for one
and words for the other to avoid confusion; if more than two, use atable.

On the qualifying exam, ten percent of the applicants scored 90- 100; thirty percent, 80-89;

Please make six 2” x 3” and three 5” x 7” black-and-white prints.

3. The old longhand practice of stating quantities twice— in figures followed

parenthetically by words—is unnecessary and undesirable in type or print,
although it still sometimes appears in legal documents, and always in checks,
for double certainty and security.
4, Except in dates, street numbers, and serial numbers, use a comma between
groups of three digits, counting from the right.
5. Except in tables involving some cents, periods and zeros after money
quantities are wasted typing and reading.
6. Cardinal numbers (1, 2, 3, 4 etc.) are preferable to ordinals (1st, 2d, 3d, 4th)
in dates except when the day is separate from the month.
7. Since ordinals are either adjectives or adverbs, an -ly ending is never
necessary or desirable (not secondly or thirdly).
Flattery Flattery, especially if obvious, is more likely to hurt than to help.
) are
Fragment Fragments (phrases or subordinate clauses posing as sentences
show ignorance of sentence structure ) except when
serious errors (because they
and intentiona l. Attach them to the independ ent clauses to which
perfectly clear
independent
they belong, or change their wording to make them the complete,
sentences they pretend to be.
comma to
The latter being the better way. (This is a phrase fragment that should be attached by a
7%) the preceding sentence. Or you could simply change being to is).
is easy to do.
One job in revising any paper is checking for and correcting any fragments. Which
is a dependent clause and hence a fragment unless attached —by a
(The second “sentence”
comma—to the preceding.)
Gobbledygook Avoid big-wordy, roundabout, long-winded, or stuffed-shirt
language.
to make the
Graphic Graphic devices of various kinds can often supplement words
them where they will help, but
information clearer, easier, or more interesting. Use
only if they will.
a basic requirement of a
Gw Goodwill The symbol indicates that goodwill,
business letter, is lacking or poorly handled.
Appendix B 575
 Headings Heads and subheads can improve coherence and transitions.

Idiom Idiom violated. Follow the natural, customary (idiomatic) way of expressing
your idea. An error in idiom can be use of the wrong preposition, omission of verb
endings, or misuse of articles. Consider possibility of, possible to, necessity of, need
for, and ability to.

Itemize Itemize complex series and lists (like this) and make them parallel to (1)
emphasize the points, (2) avoid complex punctuation, (3) force yourself to state
your points more precisely and concisely, and (4) grab your reader’s attention. This
“point is particularly important in oral communication.

Jargon Jargon is the specialized technical language of an occupational group. It is

inappropriately used if the reader is not a member of that occupational group.

KM Keyboarding Mechanics If you are an untrained typist or keyboarder,

these tips may help:
1. Use standard within-line spacings.
a. Use five spaces (Tab) for paragraph indentation. Or use the first-line
indent command on a word processor, which will indent the first line of
each paragraph if you signal a paragraph by hitting Return. (Other lines in
the paragraph will be wordwrapped without hitting Return.)
b. Use one space after a colon or end-of-sentence punctuation (including an
enclosing end parenthesis) if using any proportional-spaced type.
c. Use two spaces after a colon or end-of-sentence punctuation (including an
enclosing end parenthesis) if using Courier or other monospaced type.
d. Use one space after all other punctuation except as explained below.
e. Don’t put any space after an opening parenthesis or before or after a
hyphen or dash.
2. Abbreviations pose a spacing problem. Some, like HEW, IRS, SEC, UN, AFL-
CIO, are solid. Others have internal periods but no spaces, such as B.A, J.D.,
MBA, Ph.D., U.K, R.N. Initials used in a person’s name have a period and a
space, as in 7. S. Eliot. Since a set rule does not exist for which abbreviations
are solid and which have periods but no spaces, learn the ones you use most
often and look the others up in a dictionary or style manual.
3. Do not put a space on either side of a hyphen when joining words, as in
compound adjectives such as follow-up activities. A suspension hyphen
joining the first of a series of compound adjectives made with one element in
common hasa space after it, as in two- and four-year colleges.
4. An en dash (a printing mark that is the width of the letter 7) is used between
words indicating duration, such as Monday—Friday. A thin space or no space
can be inserted on each side of the en dash. According to Robin Williams,
author of A PC Is Not a Typewriter,® “Also use the en dash when you have a
compound adjective and one of the elements is made of two words or a
hyphenated word, such as: San Francisco— Chicago flight, pre—Vietnam War
period, and twenty-three—purple-toed Venutians.” This is a fine distinction
that will not come up much in business.
5. An em dash (which is the width of the letter m) is used in place of the old
typing dash made up of two hyphens. Desktop publishing experts vary on
spacing. Robin Williams says that the old typing rule holds: Use no space on
either side of an em dash. Others use a small space on each side. When

°Robin Williams, “A PC Is Not a Typewriter” (Berkeley Cal.: Peachpit Press, 1992),

pp. 19-20.
°Williams, p. 20.

576 Appendix B
 using two hyphens for a dash, if you do not put a space on each side, the
computer may separate the hyphens when wordwrapping. You can easily
correct this by proofreading for line divisions and hyphen use.
6. For quotations of more than four lines, space above and below, indent from
each side, single-space, and use no quotation marks.
7. Check your word processing software manual for features such as
right-aligned tab, used to align numbers ina list by tens; centered tab, to
automatically center lines on a page; and‘ decimal tab, to align decimal points
or periods.
8. Create quotation marks, apostrophes, and special characters such as
superscripts, subscripts, and bullets on your word processor by using special
key combinations or codes. For example, a WordPerfect solid square for your
résumé is Control V 4,2. See your manual or A PC Is Not a Typewriter for
details. The usual typed quotation and apostrophe marks are the characters
for inches and feet. Thus, one sign of professional word processing is using
real quotation marks and apostrophes.
9. Set your word processor to avoid widows and orphans. A widow is fewer
than seven characters on the last line of a page; an orphan is the top line of a
page that is the end of the previous page’s last paragraph. Both look like a
small “lost” bunch of type.
10. Generally, choose a type size of 9 to 14 points for text and 15 or larger for
headings. Overhead transparencies usually require still larger type sizes for
good readability.

Ic Lowercase Indicates that the student should use lowercase instead of a capital
letter. See Cap.

Logic Avoid statements that will not stand the test of logic or for which the logic
is not readily clear. Perhaps you need to supply a missing step in the logic. Maybe
you need to state your idea more precisely. Or maybe you need to complete a
comparison to make it logical.

Modifier Make sure that each modifier relates clearly to the thing it is supposed to
modify. As a general rule, the two should be as close together as natural sentence
construction will allow.
1. Participles (usually phrases including a verb form ending in -ing or -ed and
usually at the beginning of a sentence) require careful attention lest you relate
them to the wrong word (or nothing at all) and produce “dangling modifiers”
(Dng).
Smelling of liquor, | arrested the driver.
QR After soaking in sulfuric acid overnight, | set the. specimen up to dry.
Infinitives can dangle the same way:

To enjoy the longest, most dependable service, the motor must be tuned up about every 500
hours of operation. (The motor cannot enjoy dependable service.) '

In order to assist you in collecting for damages, it will be necessary to fill out a company blank.
(The two infinitives dangle because they do not relate to any proper doers of the actions
indicated.)
and
But absolute phrases (a noun pius a participle) and participles, gerunds,
rather than the action of any particula r
infinitives that name an accepted truth
person or thing do not need to relate to any subject:

The sun having set, the fish began to bite.

All things considered, Steve is the better man.
Appendix B
 2. Misplaced modifiers, like danglers, can also make you look silly.

© The girl riding the horse in the blue sweater is my sister.

There is a meeting at 3 this afternoon about morality in the president's office.
Watch especially where you put such limiting qualifiers as only, almost, and
nearly, Consider the varied meanings from placing only at different spots in at
can approve payment of a $30 adjustment” or in “He mourned for his
brother.”

Natural Natural writing avoids triteness, awkwardness, and pomposity. Clichés,

hackneyed expressions, and inappropriately used jargon suggest that you are not
thinking about your subject and your reader; awkwardness suggests carelessness; and
big words and pomposity suggest that you are trying to make an impression. Think
through what you want to say and put it simply, smoothly, and naturally. Although
you cannot write exactly as you talk, try to write with the same freedom, ease,
simplicity, and smoothness.

Negative In letter and memo writing, negative means anything unpleasant to your
reader. Avoid the negative when you can and subordinate it when you can’t avoid it.
Insofar as possible, stress the positive by telling what you have done, can do, will do,
or want done instead of their negative opposites.

Objectivity Use of emotional words suggests a prejudiced rather than an objective

view and therefore causes the reader to lose faith in the writer— especially a report
writer.

Obvious Obvious statements—when unnecessary as bases for other statements—

waste words and may insult the reader’s intelligence. When you need to establish an
obvious fact as the basis for something else, put it in a dependent clause or imply it.
(See Emp and Subord.)
New York is America’s biggest city. Therefore, . . . (Since New York is America’s
O biggest city,. . . .)

Paragraph ({) Paragraphs in letters and reports are the same as in other writing—
unified and coherent developments of topics— except that they tend to be more
compressed and shorter for easier readability. Six to eight typed lines are a good
business paragraph length.

1. Keep paragraphs reasonably short. Long ones are discouragingly hard to read.
Especially the first and last paragraphs of letters and memos should be short
(rarely more than three or four lines). Elsewhere, if a paragraph runs to more
than about eight lines, you should consider breaking it up for easier
readability. Remember that a paragraph can be merely one sentence if you
want to emphasize an idea.
2. Still, develop your paragraphs adequately to clarify and support your points—
by explanation, detail, facts and figures, or illustrations and examples.
3. Make each paragraph unified and coherent by taking out elements irrelevant to
the topic, organizing carefully, and showing the interrelationship among the
ideas. Consider beginning with a topic sentence and/or ending with a
summary.
4. Show the relation of the paragraph to the preceding one (by following logical
sequence, carrying over key ideas, and/or using transitional words) and to the
purpose of the whole paper or section (by pointing out the significance and/or
using transitional words or sentences).
Paragraph unity also includes. . . . (Also means that some of the
explanation has preceded.)
978 Appendix B
 Carrying over key words and using transitional words are both means of
providing unity between paragraphs as well as within them. (As well as
means we have discussed unity in paragraphs and now will discuss it
between them.)
5. Para with No before it means “No new paragraph needed here because you
are still on the same topic and within reasonable paragraph length.”

Parallelism Parallelism means using the same kind of grammatical structure for
ideas that you use coordinately, as in pairs, series (including lists), comparisons, and
outlines. These structures state or imply relationships usually indicated by and, but,
or or and hence should relate only full sentences to full sentences, nouns to nouns,
verbs to verbs, active voice to active voice, plural to plural—indeed any
grammatical form only to the same grammatical form in the related part. Watch for
parallelism with not only. . . but also, as well as, larger, less expensive, and the
like.

One of the duties of the flight attendant is to offer customers magazines, pillows, and hang their
coats (two plural nouns and a verb improperly connected by the coordinating conjunction and).
The No-Skid knee guard is long wearing, washable, and stays in position (two adjectives
improperly connected by and to a verb).
John Coleman is 39, married, and a native (two adjectives and a noun).
If we fair each side of the arc, we produce a more practical airfoil section and an increase in
performance is attained. (Active voice related to passive. Rewrite the last part as “increase
performance.”
The next step is baking or catalyzation. (Use “baking or catalyzing.”)
Q®
&
QQ
VR Swimming is better exercise than to walk (a gerund compared with an infinitive).

Parallelism in pairs, series, and comparisons is largely a question of logic; you can add
together and compare only like things. See Logic.

Passive Passive voice, in which the subject of the sentence is the receiver of the
verb’s action, is often wordy, awkward, and weak. Use it when subordinating who
took the action, as when you wish to avoid blaming someone directly. Also use
passive voice to convey negative information, to avoid blaming, and to soften
commands. ;
Active voice, in which the subject of the sentence is the doer of the verb’s
action, is livelier, more vivid, and easier for the reader to picture mentally. Writing -
that uses much passive voice, such as government writing, is dull and heavy because
nobody exactly ever does anything; things just are done.
People prefer to read about people doing things: “The Snow Valley branch
reports increased walk-in business for July.” If it is not possible to write about
people doing things, let the reader see things doing other things: “The low default
rate frees up more funds to lend at lower risk.”

Pompous Try to express the thought simply, not to impress the reader.

Preposition Prepositions indicate relationships within a sentence.

1. Be sure to use the right prepositions for your construction. Some words
require certain prepositions; others vary prepositions for different meanings.
Ability to; agree to, with, or in; compare to (for similarities only) or with
(for likenesses and differences); different from (not different than).
2. When you use two words that require different prepositions, use both:
Because of your interest in and aptitude for... .
ina
Pt. of V Point of View Insofar.as possible, keep the same point of view
sentence, a paragraph , or a whole letter. Make only logically necessary shifts, and
Appendix B 579
 alert your reader by providing the necessary transitional words. Watch carefully for
shifts in time, location, and those whose eyes you seem to be looking through.
* * * * *

Punctuation Punctuation that follows the conventions of written English is a

helpful device for both reader and writer in communicating clearly, quickly, and
easily. Here are the conventions most commonly violated.

@ Brackets Brackets [ ] are useful for two purposes:

1. To make a comment inside a quotation.
2. To enclose a parenthetical expression that has parentheses or a pair of
dashes inside it.

@ Colon The colon is either an anticipating or a separating mark. As an

anticipator, it appears after introductory lead-ins to explanations or quotations,
especially if the lead-in includes such formalizing terms as the word following or
if the explanation is lengthy or itemized.

The X Company's ink was even redder: its third-quarter loss of. . . .
Three main benefits deserve your attention: . . . . (Enumeration follows. Notice that you do not
need a word-wasting expression like “these benefits are” before or after the colon!)
On the use of the colon, Perrin says: . . . . (Long quotation follows.)
Because the colon is also a separating mark, however — used to separate hours from
minutes and volume numbers from pages, for example—it should not serve as an
anticipating mark when the lead-in phrasing fits well as an integral part of a short,
informal statement.

The three main advantages are (colon would be obtrusive here) speed, economy, and
convenience.
Perrin reports that (no colon; not even a comma) “Will has practically replaced shail in. . .”
Almost invariably words like namely, that is, for example, and as follows are wasted
when used with a colon. The introductory phrasing and the colon adequately an-
ticipate without these words.

We have several reasons for changing: namely the . . . (Omit namely.)

We had several reasons for changing. These reasons are: . . . (This is worse. Omit These
reasons are; put the colon after changing.)
Although practice varies, usually you should capitalize the first word after a colon
only if it begins a complete sentence. But if itemizations follow, you may capitalize
even though each item depends on the introductory statement for completeness.
The same idea applies to the end punctuation of items following a colon. If the
items make complete sentences, put a period after each. But if all are to be consid-
ered one sentence, use a comma or a semicolon at the end of each (except the last,
of course) as in other series. Or you may use no end punctuation if the items listed
are fairly brief.

@ Comma i1_ Use a comma between two independent clauses connected by and,
but, or, or nor if no other commas are in the sentence. But be sure you are
connecting two clauses rather than a compound subject, verb, or object.

You may buy the regular Whiz mixer at $78.75, but |think you would find the Super Whiz.
much more satisfactory (two clauses).
We make two grades of Whiz mixers and sell both at prices lower than those of our
competitors’ products (compound verb; one subject).
580 Appendix B
Be sure too that you don’t use obtrusive commas before the first or after the last item
in a series or between a subject and its verb, a verb and its object, or a noun and its
adjective. Also, you do not usually need a comma after and, but, or, nor.

Comma 2 _ Use a comma after first-of-sentence dependent clauses longer than

five or six words, long phrases, or other phrases containing any form of a verb.
But when these forms or appositives or transitional words appear elsewhere in a
sentence, use commas only with nonrestrictive (nonessential) ones.
Nonrestrictive statements add descriptive detail about an already identified word
and are not necessary to the logic or grammatical completeness of the sentence.
Restrictive statements define, limit, or identify and are necessary to convey the
intended meaning or complete the sentence. If, on reading aloud, you naturally
pause and inflect your voice, the statement is nonrestrictive and requires the
comma(s).
Because the dependent clause comes at the beginning, we have to use a comma in this
sentence.
We do not need a comma in a complex sentence if the dependent part comes at the end or in
the middle and restricts the meaning the way this one does.
Having illustrated the two points about dependent clauses at the beginning and restrictive
clauses elsewhere in the sentence, we now use this sentence to illustrate the use of a comma
after a long phrase at the first of a sentence. (Because it includes a verb form, it would require
a comma even if it were short, like “Having illustrated the point, we now leave the topic.”)
The three points already illustrated, which are certainly important, are no more important than
the point about using commas to set off nonrestrictive clauses anywhere, which this sentence
illustrates. (In fact, it illustrates twice: you could omit both the which clauses; they are
nonrestrictive because they merely give added information unnecessary to either the meaning
or the grammar of the basic sentence.)

Sometimes you need a comma to prevent misreading— especially after a gerund,

participle, or infinitive:

In the office, files were scattered all over the floor.

By shooting, the man attracted the attention of the rescue party.
Thinking that, he was unwilling to listen to reason.
Seeing the foreman’s unwillingness to help, the men gave up.

Comma 3. Use pairs of commas, parentheses, or dashes as needed to mark off

parenthetical expressions within sentences. The “as needed” in the preceding
sentence is a reminder that some parentheticals need no surrounding
punctuation. Like dependent clauses, some appositives are restrictive or so
ive
closely related that they require no punctuation, while others are nonrestrict
or so loosely related that they do.

Our starting point that good punctuation is a matter of following the conventions has not had
enough attention.
Our second point—the importance of writing letters so smoothly and naturally that they require
litle internal punctuation—would preclude most punctuation problems.
ated
1. Commas are normal for short, unemphatic, and otherwise unpunctu
direct addresses like “Yes, Mr. Thomas, you may... . ,” tucked-in
transitions like however and on the other hand, and brief appositives.
nt
2. As the length increases in a side comment or an appositive (a restateme
like this one, following immediat ely to explain a term), the call for stronger
marks like parentheses becomes more likely. Commas within a
ize it
parenthetical (as in the preceding sentence) or a desire to deemphas
also make parentheses necessary around it.
Appendix B 581
 contains
3. If you want to emphasize a parenthetical expression—or if it
complicated punctuation or is long—a pair of dashes such as we are using
here will be your best punctuat ion to fence it ‘in.
.

for
© Comma 4 Use commas to separate coordinate adjectives. As two tests
coordinacy, see if you can put and between the adjectives or invert their order
without producing awkwardness. If so, they are coordinate and require a comma.

Proper punctuation can help greatly in writing a clear, easy-to-read style.

Fairly heavy white paper is best for letterheads.

Comma 5 A comma is the usual punctuation between (but not before or after)
items in a series (preferably including one before the and with the last item,
because it is sometimes necessary for clearness and is always correct). But if any
item except the last has a comma within it, use semicolons at all points between
items. (Suggestion: If only one of a series requires an internal comma, consider
putting it last and using commas between the items. )
Make your writing clear, quick, and easy to read.
Use commas between independent clauses connected by and, but, or, or nor; semicolons
between independent clauses with other connectives or no connecting words; commas for
dependent clauses and verbal or long phrases at the beginnings of sentences, for
nonrestrictive ones elsewhere, and for simple series; and semicolons for complex series like
the one in this sentence.

Dash _ Dashes are also acceptable (in pairs) around parenthetical expressions
that interrupt the main part of the sentence.
If the parenthetical part contains internal parentheses, dashes must surround
it; if it contains commas, then dashes or parentheses must surround it. (Of
course, only a pair of parentheses can surround a sentence giving explanations,
relatively unimportant additional detail, or side information, as this sentence does.
In that case, the period goes inside the closing parentheses, although it goes
outside otherwise.)
Except as explained in the preceding paragraph, the choice depends on the
desired emphasis and on the other punctuation.
1. Two dashes (called “bridge dashes”) emphasize most:

Your main weaknesses in writing—misspelling, faulty punctuation, and

incoherence—deserve attention before you write letters.
2. A single dash— made by two hyphens without spacing before, between, or
after— may mark an abrupt change in the trend of a sentence or precede
an added statement summarizing, contrasting, or explaining the first part. In
this second function, it is the “pickup dash.”

Errors in spelling, punctuation, or coherence—all of these mar an otherwise good letter.

A letter writer must avoid the common errors in writing—misspelling, bad punctuation, and
incoherence. (Of course, a colon could replace the dash here; but ordinarily it should not
unless the preceding statement is a formal introduction, usually indicated by the word
following, or unless it is an introduction to an itemized list.)
3. The em dash used in word processing may use spaces before and after to
make computerized spacing easier.

@ Ellipses Ellipses (three spaced periods) mean that you have left out something.
You must use this mark when giving an incomplete quotation. Note that if an
omission comes at the end of a sentence, you need to add the appropriate end-of-
sentence punctuation—a fourth dot for the period, a question mark, or an
exclamation point. Ellipses are also coming into wide use, especially in business,

582 Appendix B
 as an additional way to mark parenthetical expressions, but this practice has not
yet achieved total acceptance.

“We the people of the United States . . . do ordain and establish this Constitution. . .”
® Ends of Sentences
1. Use a period at the end of a sentence unless it is a question, is
questionable, or is an exclamation. Less than full-sentence expressions used
as outline items may end with periods or remain open-ended.
2. Use a question mark at the end of a question and (in parentheses) after a
spelling or statement about which you can’t be sure.

Though I've heard of Mrs. Muennink’s (?) varied interests and accomplishments, I've never
met the lady. (The question mark means only that I'm not sure of the spelling.)
When Colby first moved to Miami in January 1981 (?), |thought. . .
3. Use exclamation marks (sparingly) after sentences or (in parentheses) after
lesser expressions that you want to give dramatic emphasis.

He said he wanted (!) to be the first to... .

The general's succinct reply was “Nuts!”
© Hyphen Hyphenate two or more words (unless the first ends in -ly) used to
make a compound adjective modifying a following noun.

Fast-selling product, wrinkle-resistant material, long-wearing soles, never-to-be-forgotten

experience, high-level executive.

Note that you do not hyphenate when the adjectives follow the noun.

The material is highly wrinkle resistant and long wearing.

Certainly it does not apply when the adjectives modify the noun separately.

These slacks are made of a hard, durable material.

s
The compound-adjective principle does apply, however, to double compound
made with one element in common, where the “suspensio n hyphen” follows the
first: three- and five-pound cans.
The hyphen also marks the break in a word at the end ofa line.
mod-
Other less frequent uses of the hyphen include (1) spelling of fractions as
or syllables to names (post-
ifiers (three-fourths majority) and (2) prefixing words
Bush Washington).
the
®@ Question Mark Besides its well-known use at the end of a question,
a statement or spelling
question mark (in parentheses) immediately following
, it
indicates that the writer is uncertain and unable to determine. Obviously
for laziness; but if you have only heard a difficult name,
should not be an excuse
off using the
for example, and have to write to that person, you will be better
mark than misspelling the name.
is unnecessary
A question mark should not appear after indirect questions and
form, but some writers feel that it further
after commands softened by question
softens commands.

We need to know what your decision is. (This is an indirect question.)

(This is a
Will you please ask the secretary in your office to change my mailing address.
without the question mark.) :
softened command, with or
for short, exact
© Quotation Marks Quotation marks are used primarily
of other people’ s words and for titles of parts of
quotations (not paraphrasings)
as magazin e and newspa per stories or book chapters. (Italicize
publications, such
Appendix B. 583
 the titles of whole journals and books—underlined in typed copy.) If a quotation
is more than four lines Jong, you should indent it from each side, single-space it,
and omit quotation marks.
When closing quotation marks and other marks seem to come at the same
place, the standard American practice is as follows: Place commas or periods
inside the closing quotes; place semicolons or colons outside; and place question
or exclamation marks inside or outside depending on whether they belong to the
quotation or to the sentence that encompasses it. See KM for a comment on
word processing these characters.

Semicolon The semicolon is a pivotal mark; avoid using it between expressions

unless they are of equal grammatical structure (usually two independent clauses
or two items in a complex series). Use a semicolon between two independent
clauses unless connected by and, but, or, or nor; and even then use a semicolon
if the sentence already has a comma in it (as in this one). Typical weaker
connectives requiring the semicolon between two independent clauses are
therefore, so, moreover, hence, still, accordingly, nevertheless, furthermore,
consequently, and however. When these words are simple connectors not
between two independent clauses, however (as right here), set them off by a pair
of commas unless they fit so smoothly into the sentence that they require no
marks.

New developments in office machines have made maintenance workers relearn their jobs; the
new manuals are twice as thick as those of only a few years ago-(no connective).
The preceding sentence could be two, of course; but because the ideas are closely related, it
is better as one. (Commas elsewhere in this sentence require a semicolon before even a
strong conjunction.)
Good business writing requires proper punctuation; therefore, you must know how to use the
semicolon (weak connective).
The proper style for letters is simpler and less involved than for most other writing, however,
and therefore does not require very complex punctuation procedures. (However, is a simple
transition, not used between two clauses here and not closely knit into the phrasing the way
therefore is; so it needs commas, while therefore goes unmarked. Note, too, that the weak
connective so requires the semicolon because it connects two clauses.)
Semicolon and Comma Confusion. Look at the following example, which
shows four equally acceptable ways of punctuating two independent clauses:

1. | don’t enjoy writing. | enjoy having written.

2. |don't enjoy writing; | enjoy having written.
3. |don’t enjoy writing; nevertheless, | enjoy having written.
4. | don’t enjoy writing, but | enjoy having written.

A semicolon is more of a pause than a comma and less than a period. To use it
correctly, think of a semicolon as being formed from a comma and a period rather
than being related to a colon.
The differences in the sentences in the example are stylistic; choose the one that
best fits your audience. The first sentence, with its two independent clauses, is
emphatic because of its structure. The second joins the two ideas so the reader is
forced to deal with them as related ideas but is left to figure out how they are related.
The third joins the two ideas and gives a transition word that shows the relationship
between them. The fourth joins the two ideas with a simpler transition.

Underline Underlining in typed or handwritten copy specifies italic type when

printed. Its main uses are to mark titles of books and journals, to emphasize, and
to indicate unanglicized words. In copy not to be printed, underlining should go
with any heading not written in solid capitals. Otherwise the heading, which is
584 Appendix B
 really a title for the copy over which it stands, does not stand out sufficiently. (A
printer would make it stand out by using big or boldface type.)
Typed underlining is preferably continuous rather than broken by individual
words, because it is easier both to type and to read that way.
se
& *€ &

RB Reader Benefits Bring your reader into the picture early—and don’t
forget later. The reader is the most important person involved with your message.
Psychological description (interpreting facts and physical features of a product in
terms' of reader benefits) is the real heart of selling. Unless your reader readily
makes the interpretation, pure physical description is ineffective in selling. So when
you name a physical feature of a product you are selling, show the reader what it
means in terms of benefits.
The Bostonian Sporty shoe has Neolite soles and triple-stitched welt construction. (Better: The
Neolite soles and triple-stitched welt construction cause the Bostonian Sporty to last long and keep
your feet dry.)
Reference The references of your pronouns must be immediately certain and clear
to your reader—not ambiguous, too far away, or merely implied. Except for the few
indefinite pronouns (one, everybody, anybody, and it), a pronoun confuses or
distracts a reader unless it refers clearly to a preceding noun and agrees with it in
number and gender. Each, every, any, and their combinations anybody and
everybody are singulars requiring singular verbs and pronouns. (See Agree for
further explanation of agreement.)
1. Often the trouble with a pronoun reference is that the antecedent is too far
away. Ordinarily a pronoun tends to “grab onto” the closest preceding noun as
its antecedent. So construct (or reconstruct) your sentences with that
tendency in mind.
2. Guard particularly against this, that, which, it, and they making vague
reference to ideas of whole preceding clauses instead of clear, one-word
antecedents. Current usage allows a clear reference to a clause.
Dayton adopted the plan in 1914 and has kept it ever since, which is a good example of the
DO success of the council-manager form of government. (What does which refer to?)
After reading a book about television engineering, the young man wanted to be one of them.
'%) (One of what? The antecedent is only implied.)
3. Don’t use the same pronoun with different meanings in the same sentence:

DO The directions say that it is up to the owner to change the filter whenever it needs it.
Repetition Repetition of words or ideas is wordy and monotonous unless it serves
a justified purpose. Although restatement of important ideas deserving emphasis is
often desirable, even then the restatement usually should be in somewhat different
words to avoid monotony.
Resale Resale material—reassuring a customer that a choice of goods and/or firm
was a good one—not only shows your service attitude but also helps keep.
incomplete orders and delayed shipments on the books, rebuilds reader confidence
in adjustment situations, and serves as a basic idea in collections. Look it up in the
index to this book and read about it in connection with the particular type of
message involved. .
Serv Att Service Attitude Service attitude—showing a genuine desire to give
the kinds and quality of goods and services wanted, favorable prices, and various
conveniences, plus unselfish reassurance of appreciation for business—can go a long
way toward overcoming a reader’s feeling that you are indifferent.
SC Success Consciousness In your writing, show success consciousness. Be self
confident and positive. Avoid if, hope, trust (as in “we trust this is the information
you needed”).
Appendix B 585
 ve, imperative,
Shift Shifting of tense (time), voice (active-passive), mood (indicati
subjunctive), or person (first, second, third) should occur only when the logic of
dictates it. Otherwis e it leads to incohere nce and loses or confuses
the situation
readers.

Simplify Needlessly big words or complex sentences are hard to read.

Sincerity Sincerity is essential if you are to be believed. Don’t pretend or overstate

your case.
must
Slow Slow movement is desirable only in a disappointing message, where you
unpleasant point you are preparing to
reason calmly with the reader to justify the
present. Otherwise it is objectionable.

1. Don’t use too many words before getting to an important point. Starting too
far back in the background, giving too many details, or saying things that you
should imply are the most frequent faults.
2. Don’t use too many short, choppy sentences and thus slow up a message that
should move quickly.
are
SOS Sentence Out of Service Errors in sentence organization and structure
sometimes serious enough to justify the distress signal.
1. Don’t present a phrase or dependent clause as a sentence. Usually correction
requires only attaching the dependent element to the preceding or following
sentence (on which it depends). See Frag.

In answer to your request concerning what the company is like, what has been accomplished,
D and the future prospects. Here is the information | have been able to acquire. (Replace the
period with a comma.)
2. Don’t use a comma—or omit punctuation— between two independent clauses
unless a strong conjunction (and, but, or, or nor) is there. The error is not
basically one of punctuation but the more serious failure to recognize what a
sentence is. You need a period if the two statements are not so closely related
that they ought to be in the same sentence, or a semicolon if they are.

The credit business is big business some people estimate that it is as much as 86 percent of
American business (period needed before some).
Running two sentences together without punctuation is about the worst error a writer can
Q& make, however it is litle worse than using a comma where a semicolon is required, as in this
sentence.
3. Don’t put words together in unnatural, confusing relationships that the reader
has to ponder to get the intended meaning.
Just because you want to sell |don’t want right now to buy. (The fact that you want to sell
O doesn’t mean that |want to buy.)
4. Don’t put ideas together with connectives that falsely represent their
relationship.

Spelling Spelling errors rarely confuse or mislead, but they nearly always have the
unfavorable effect of making the writer look careless. Here are the most important
tips on spelling and a list of words frequently misspelled in business writing. If you
have spelling problems, study both—carefully. Don’t rely entirely on your
computerized spell checker. While this software -will catch the majority of your
typos, repeated words, and spelling errors, you still need to check manually for
substitutions such as of for or and you for your where the wrong word is still
correctly spelled. You also need to check for homonyms such as affect/effect and
their/there/they’re, because each version is a word in its own right.

5986 Appendix B
. Ie or ei: When pronounced like ee, write ie except after c as in brief, believe,
piece, wield; receive, deceive, perceive. The exceptions are either, neither,
leisure, seize, and weird. When pronounced otherwise, write ei (as in freight,
height, forfeit) except in die, lie, pie, tie, vie, and science.
. Double afinal single consonant preceded by a single vowel (4, e i, 0, u) in an
accented syllable when you add a suffix (-ing, -ed, er) beginning with a vowel
(plan, planning; shop, shopping). Note that if the word already ends in two
consonants, or one preceded by two vowels, you do not double the last
consonant (holding, helping; daubing, seeded). Note too that you usually do
not double the consonant unless in an accented syllable (refer, referred,
references). Two new exceptions, benefitted and travelled, can now go either
way.
. Drop a final unpronounced e preceded by a consonant when you add a suffix
beginning with a vowel (hope, hoping: owe, owing); but retain the e after c or
g unless the suffix begins with one of the front vowels, 7 or e (noticeable,
changeable, changing, reduced).
. Change final y to 7 and add es for the plural if a consonant precedes the y
(ally, allies; tally, tallies); otherwise, just add s (valley, valleys).
. Add ’s for the possessives of all singulars and of plurals that do not end in s
(man’s, men’s, lady’s). Add only an apostrophe for s-ending plurals (ladies’,
Davises’, students’).
. Hyphenate double-word quantities between 20 and 100 (twenty-one, thirty-
two, forty-four, ninety-eight) and fractions used as modifiers (nine-tenths
depleted) but not fractions used as nouns (increased by one fourth).
. Most words ending with the sound of seed are like concede, precede, and
recede; but three require ee (exceed, proceed, and succeed), and one takes an s
instead of a c (supersede).
. Get somebody to pronounce for you while you try to spell the following
frequently misspelled words. Then study those you miss eau with others
that give you trouble from whatever source).
a lot explanation personal
accessible gauge personnel
accidentally government precede
accommodate grammar. prejudiced
achievement height principal
acquaintance hindrance principle
acquire incidentally privilege
affect (to influence) interest procedure
among it’s (its) quantity
argument laboratory questionnaire
attorneys lose (loose) receive
basically maintenance referring
believe moral (morale) renowned
calendar mortgage separate
conscientious noticeable stationary
consensus occasionally stationery
convenience occurrence surprise
definitely offered temperament
disastrous omitted than (then)
effect (result) paid their (there)
efficiency parallel too (to, two)
embarrass passed (past) undoubtedly
environment perform whether (weather)
equipped permissible writing (written)
existence
Appendix B | 587
 get a clear
Specific Specific wording, like a sharp photograph, helps the reader
idea. General words give only a hazy view.
the
1. If you are inclined to use the general word for a class of things, consider
advantages of giving the specific kind in that class (machine — mower; office
equipment—files, desks, chairs, and typewriters; employees —salesclerks,
janitors, secretaries, and others ).
2. Another kind of specificness is giving supporting details, illustrations,
examples, and full explanations for general statements made. If you use
generalities to gain conciseness in topic and summarizing statements, be sure
to provide necessary supporting explanations or further details. Otherwise,
your unsupported statements may not be accepted, even if understood.
3. Still another important kind of specificness is giving the evidences of abstract
qualities you may use. If you are inclined to say that something is a bargain, an
outstanding offer, of the highest quality, revolutionary, best, ideal, or
economical, give concrete evidence for these qualities instead of the abstract
words.
In an application letter, if you want to convey that you are intelligent, industrious,
honest, dependable, and sociable, give the evidence and let the reader draw the con-
clusions. You will sound boastful if you apply these words to yourself, and your reader
will not believe them anyway unless you give the supporting concrete facts.

Strategy Choose your best strategy for your message and audience— direct
strategy for positive or neutral news and indirect strategy for negative or persuasive
messages.

Subordinate Don’t overstress negative ideas, facts the reader knows, or

insignificant points. If you must say them, put them in the middle of the paragraph
or letter, devote little space to them, and/or put them in dependent clauses or
phrases. Dependent clauses are particularly useful in subordinating. Here are some of
the main beginning words that make clauses dependent: after, although, as, because,
before, if, since, though, till, unless, until, when, where, while.

SX Sexist Phrase your message for equal treatment of females and males. Using.
plurals where possible is one easy way.
Each auditor should turn in his or her time card.
Auditors should turn in their time cards.

Syllable Divide words at the ends of lines only at syllable breaks, and then only if
each part has at least two letters and is pronounceable. If in doubt about where to
divide a word, check your dictionary. Don’t rely on your word processing software
to divide syllables properly; check divisions as part of your proofreading.

Tabulate Tabulate or itemize when you have lots of figures to present or a series of
distinct points to make. Itemization will make you think more sharply and state your
ideas more precisely and concisely. Thus, you will produce clearer, quicker reading
and more emphasis. Furthermore, itemization grabs readers’ or listeners’ attention.

Tense Watch tense (time indicated by your verbs) for appropriateness in the
individual verb and logic in the sequence of verbs.
1. Normally you use the present, past, or future tense according to the time of
the action you are reporting.
2. The tense of the key verb in an independent clause governs a sentence. Thus,
the tenses of other verbs or verbals should indicate time relative to the time
of the main verb.

588 Appendix B
 |will do it as soon as | am able (a future and relative present).
| had hoped that |would be able to go (a past perfect and relative future).
3. A special use of the present tenses deserves careful attention, however, for
some situations: You use the present (called the universal present) for
statements that were true in the past, are true now, and will be true later. We
say “The sun sets in the west” (universal present) even though it may have set
hours earlier. Any statement you might make about what a book says fits the
conditions. If you now read a book written even in 1620, it still says... .
Similarly, in reporting on your research findings (which presumably are still
true), you use the universal present tense. To do otherwise would imply
doubt about the present validity of your results.
The law of supply and demand means... .
The 1986 edition says. . . .
In all the groups surveyed, more than 80 percent of the people prefer (not preferred)... .
_ Do not shift tenses unless the logic of the situation requires that you do so.
. Be sure to spell the appropriate verb form correctly. Remember that English
has two classes of verbs. The Old English weak verbs became our regular
verbs, whose principal parts go like plow, plowed, plowed Old English strong
verbs became our irregular ones, which change internally (think, thought,
thought; throw, threw, thrown; lead, led, led; and meet, met, met).

Tone Watch out for a tone of distrust, indifference, undue humility, flattery,
curtness,
condescension, preachiness, bragging, anger, accusation, sarcasm,
effusiveness, or exaggeration.
paragraphs, and
Transition Transitions between sentences in a paragraph, between
relations hips. Your best
between sections in longer presentations must show their
careful organiza tion) that will hold
method is to use a thread of logic (based on
on a string. When the logical thread does not
your thoughts together like beads
hip clear, however, you need to do so by repeatin g a key word or
make the relations
word, phrase, sentence,
idea from the preceding paragraph or by using a connecting
or heading that shows the relationship. See Coh and Unity.
figures of speech that
Trite Trite expressions are overused and hence worn-out
is to state your idea simply in natural, normal English or to
dull writing. The remedy
use an original figure of speech.
of writing) requires that
Unity Unity (of sentences, paragraphs, or whole pieces
(is not irreleva nt). Applied to a
you show how each statement fits in or belongs
the stateme nt seems irrelev ant or the various
sentence or paragraph, unity means
enough related to be in one sentenc e or paragra ph. Applied to
ideas are not closely
so varied as to lack a central
a whole letter or report, it means the content seems
separat e papers. Often, howeve r, the
theme and you should put it in two or more
putting things togethe r as they are, and the fault
writer sees relationships that justify
the relati onship s—an error of cohere nce (see Coh).
is in not showing the reader
by two people. One of our
Please put your answers in ink and have your signature witnessed
convenience in doing what is
O envelopes is enclosed for your conveni ence. (The envelop e is not
not
a
be in the same paragraph. Or
requested in the first sentence. The two unrelated ideas should
adding “in returning your answers ” would help.)

of the language to the situation. A

Usage Usage refers to the appropriateness
l may be too formal and stiff, literary,
passage or expression marked with this symbo
or lowbrow. The normal, natural
flashy, or highbrow or too slangy, familiar, crude,

Appendix B 589
 English of educated people conducting their everyday affairs is neither formal nor
illiterate but informal and natural. That is what you should use for most letters,
memos, and reports:
Guard against the following illiterate forms (mostly the result of bad
pronunciation): “He is prejudice” (prejudiced), “He is bias” (biased), “usta” or “use
to” (used to), “had of” (had), “would of” (would have), “most all” (almost all), “a
savings of” (a saving of), “She lead the meeting” (led).

Variety Variety (of diction and of sentence pattern, type, and length) is necessary
to avoid monotony. Achieving variety should be a part of the revision process,
however, and should not distract you from saying what you want to say in writing a
first draft.
In your revision, see that you haven’t begun too many successive sentences the
same way (especially not with J or we). If you have repeated yourself, cut out the
repetition unless you need it for emphasis.
The usual English sentence pattern is subject-verb-complement; in revision, vary
the pattern to avoid a dull sameness.
Good style also requires variety in sentence type. Some of your sentences should
be simple (one independent clause); some should be compound (two independent
clauses stating two closely related ideas of nearly equal importance); and some
should be complex (at least one independent clause and one or more dependent
clauses, all expressing ideas that are related but of unequal importance). Especially
avoid too many successive simple sentences for ideas not deserving equal emphasis
or too many compound sentences connected by and. (See Subord.)
Although most of your sentences should be relatively short (averaging 16—17
words for easy readability), you will produce a monotonous choppiness if all your
sentences are in that range. See Simp and Chop, and revise accordingly.

Wordy Use only words that add to your meaning. Edit for extra words, vague
words, passive voice, and expletives.
YA “You” Attitude The “you” attitudeis one of the three most important points
about letter writing. People do things for their own benefit, not yours. If you want
to persuade them to act, you have to show them the advantages of the action to
themselves.
To show readers what is in the situation for them (WIIFM), you have to visualize
their ways of life and show how your proposal fits in.

590 Appendix B
PROOFREADER'S SYMBOLS
These marks may be useful to you in revising your rough copy.

all
A Insert text Weigh to the nearest .01 ounce.
9
Y Insert apostrophe The report ansantsexplain the
discrepancy.

iN Insert comma Eleven crates broken at the site

spilled 4

oO Insert period Mgfiabe Justis called at 10 a.m.

v

wy Insert quotation He said “Notunder any

V marks circumstances!

re Insert space Mailgoes at 4 p.m Havefit here on

time.

coe Delete Campden and eshte aetion

displeased.

ie Close up space Her hasteled to error.

Z, c./// Use lower case eee Four ¢, in an

UNACCEPTABLE overrun.

eptab
is ansoe cgpe
Cap Use capitals eetCASES
Ca&fAA Four

STET Let copy stand as Campden and Cowdery Sela

ery
originally typed; do displeased.
not correct

Spell out fully. &é Flannery_and Baird(€o'g both

ordered@Wweeks ago.
aT
TT Start new paragraph ... summarizes the week. Next
we...

TU rT Don't paragraph

Single space copy

Double space copy

~ Transpose copy The director leffoutha)

Alalic Underline (printers Today's World reported more

would use italics) inflation.

on. C Move copy left -=— Choose one of these.

Choose one of these.

ie A Move copy right Chcpee one of these.

JChoose one of these.

Appendix B 591
 THREE COMMON BIBLIOGRAPHIC
ppendix € | STYLES: APA, MLA, AND UNIVERSITY
: OF CHICAGO
This appendix illustrates the three most common bibliographic styles:

e APA. American Psychological Association, Publication Manual of the

American Psychological Association, 3rd ed. (Washington, D.C.: American
Psychological Association, 1983).
e MLA. Walter S. Achtert and Joseph Gibaldi, The MLA Style Manual (New York:
Modern Language Association, 1985).
e University of Chicago. Kate L. Turabian and B. B. Honigsblum, A Manual for
Writers of Term Papers, Theses, and Dissertations, 5th ed. (Chicago: University
of Chicago Press, 1987).
Note that the publisher of this textbook, Richard D. Irwin, Inc., requires the use of its
own style, which conforms to none of these styles. For your papers, use the style your
instructor recommends— APA, MLA, or University of Chicago. Follow the appropriate
examples in this appendix. The examples that follow illustrate reference list (bibliog-
raphy) and citation note format for these nine common kinds of reference sources:

Book, one author.

Journal article, two authors.
Work contained within another work.
Newspaper article, one author.
Newspaper article, no author.
Magazine article, multiple authors.
Unpublished paper presented at a meeting.
Interview.
Government document.

Like other publications, government documents come in many different forms and
media. For instance, you may find a document with an individual author, a government
agency as author, or no author. You may find that your document is a pamphlet, a book,
a journal article, or a videotape. We give only one example of a government document.
For further style manual assistance in documenting government publications, refer to
Diane L. Garner and Diane H. Smith, The Complete Guide to Citing Government
Documents: A Manual for Writers and Librarians (Bethesda, Md.: Congressional In-
formation Service, Inc., 1984).

APA: PUBLICATION MANUAL OF THE AMERICAN

PSYCHOLOGICAL ASSOCIATION
e Authors’ names are in reverse order (last name first). Initials rather than first
and middle names are used.
e The date follows the name of the author(s).
e For titles of articles (not underlined) and books (underlined), “sentence-style
capitalization” is used. Only the first word of the title and the first word after
an internal colon are capitalized.
e Journal titles are in italics or underlined. Journal titles are given “headline-
style,” meaning that all important words are capitalized. After a journal title,
give the volume number, in arabic numbers and in italics or underlined. If
there is an issue number, give it in parentheses after the volume number. Do
not put it in italics or underline it.
592 Appendix C
 e Book titles are in italics or underlined but capitalized “sentence-style.” For
states, APA uses two-letter postal code abbreviations.

Book, One Author

Reference List Entry

Henze, G. (1992). Winning career moves: A complete job search program for
managers and professionals. Homewood, IL: Business One Irwin.

In-Text Note
Among techniques for overcoming job-search anxiety is generating, on paper, a long
list of “worst-case” possibilities. Once on paper before the job seeker’s eyes, many of
them are far-fetched, improbable, and ridiculous. The anxiety tends to diminish, and
the job seeker’s worries assume more sensible proportions (Henze, 1992, p. 42).

Journal Article, Two Authors

Reference. List Entry

Lewis, P. V., & Speck, H. E., Ill. (1990). Ethical orientations for understanding
business ethics. Journal of Business Communication, 27(3), 213-232.

In-Text Note
A recent discussion of business ethics helpfully lists the many subsets of ethical
theory (Lewis & Speck, 1990, p. 215).
or
Lewis and Speck (1990) offer an exhibit dividing the subsets of ethical theory into
teleological theories and deontological theories (p. 215).

Work Contained within Another Work

Reference List Entry

Fortune, pp. 127-
Dumaine, B. (1990, January 15). Creating a new company culture.
(Eds.) (1992). Organiz ational
131. In P. J. Frost, V. Mitchell, & W. R. Nord
line (4th ed.) (pp. 443-448 ). New York:
reality: Reports from the firing
HarperCollins Publishe rs Inc.

In-Text Note
without change, the
Change in corporate culture can take five to ten years, but
organization might die (Dumaine, 1990, p. 444).

Newspaper Article, One Author

Reference List Entry

be deadly. Los Angeles
Applegate, J. (1990, June 15). Service without a smile can
Times, pp. D3, D7.

In-Text Note :
mouth in place of expensive
Small businesses, many having to depend on word of
to send custom ers away unhapp y, a recent Los Angeles
advertising, can least afford
average unhappy customer
Times article said. “Customer service experts say the
and colleagues about poor
complains to about half a dozen friends, neighbors
y custom ers could have on your
service. Imagine the impact that 10 unhapp
earnings” (Applegate, 1990, p. D3).

Appendix C 593
 Newspaper Article, No Author

Reference List Entry

Overseas work appeals to more U.S. managers as a wise career move. (1983). The
Wall Street Journal, July 19, p. 1.

In-Text Note
Despite encountering difficulties on both leaving and re-entering the American
culture, ambitious executives seek overseas assignments eagerly, according to a
survey (Overseas work, 1983, p. 1).

Magazine Article, Multiple Authors

Reference List Entry

Begley, S., Wright, L., Church, V., & Hager, M. (1992, April 20). Mapping the brain.
Newsweek, pp. 66-70.

In-Text Note
Neuroscientists, using an array of new imaging technologies, are able to map
different areas of the human brain that become active upon the person’s engaging in
different activities (Begley, Wright, Church, & Hager, 1992, p. 66). The brain is
compared to “a society of specialists” (p. 70).

Unpublished Paper Presented at a Meeting

Reference List Entry

Hellweg, S. A., & Phillips, S. L. (1983, March). Communication policies and
practices in American corporations. Paper presented at the Western Regional
Meeting of the American Business Communication Association, Marina del
Rey, CA.

In-Text Note
Though Hellweg and Phillips (1983) reported that 53 percent of their 98 Fortune
500 respondents had a corporate communication policy, respondents did not specify
form and coverage.

Interview

Reference List Entry

Garcia, H., partner, Ibanez and Garcia, CPA, Inc. (1993, March 22). Interview by
Margaret Fox. Burbank, CA.

In-Text Note
Still another interviewee commented on the substantial amounts of writing required
of CPAs (Garcia, 1993).

Government Document

Reference List Entry

Department of the Navy. (1983). Correspondence manual (SECNAVINST 5216.5C).
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

594 Appendix C
In-Text Note
In the following mock exchange, the U.S. Navy’s-Correspondence Manual reduces to
absurdity the timeworn military preference for passive voice:
Doctor: When did you first notice your use of verbs in the passive voice?
Patient: The utilization was first noticed by me shortly after the Navy was
entered. The Marine Corps has been joined by my brother. The same condition
has been remarked on by him.
Doctor: Did you know that most of the verbs we speak with are active? So are
most of the verbs in newspapers and magazines, the kinds of writing we like to
read.
Patient: Well, it is believed by me that most verbs are made passive by naval
writers. In the letters and directives that have been prepared by this speaker,
passive verbs have been utilized extensively. Are problems caused? (Department
of the Navy, 1983, p. 1-19).
(The preceding document'’s pages are numbered 1-1, 1—2, 1—3, and so on. Page 1—19
is one page, not 19 pages.) ;

MLA: THE MLA STYLE MANUAL

MLA style differs from APA in several ways:

e The in-text note has no comma between author’s name and page number. The
abbreviations p. and pp. (for page and pages) are not used. A typical note
would be (Barton 166).
e In the in-text note, the year of publication is usually not given. Including the
year in the in-text note is permissible in the social and physical sciences.
(Business is considered a social science.) The form is (Barton 1987, 166).
e In the bibliographic note, book and journal titles use headline-style
capitalization. Both are in italics or underlined. :

Book, One Author

Reference List Entry

for
Henze, Geraldine. Winning Career Moves: A Complete Job Search Program
One Irwin, 1992.
Managers and Professionals. Homewood: Business

In-Text Note
ng, on paper, a long
Among techniques for overcoming job-search anxiety is generati
Once on paper before the job seeker’s eyes, many of
list of “worst-case” possibilities.
anxiety tends to diminish, and
them are far-fetched, improbable, and ridiculous. The
(Henze 1992, 42).
the job seeker’s worries assume more sensible proportions

Journal Article, Two Authors

Reference List Entry

for Understanding
Lewis, Phillip V., and Henry E. Speck, III. “Ethical Orientations
Business Communication 27 (1990): 213-232.
Business Ethics.” Journal of

In-Text Note
the many subsets of ethical
A recent discussion of business ethics helpfully lists
theory (Lewis and Speck 1990, 215).
or
subsets of ethical theory into
Lewis and Speck (1990) offer an exhibit dividing the
theories (215).
teleological theories and deontological

Appendix C 595
 Work Contained within Another Work

Reference List Entry

Dumaine, Brian. “Creating a New Company Culture.” Fortune (15 Jan. 1990): 127—
131. Rpt. in Organizational reality: Reports from the firing line. Ed. Peter J.
Frost, Vance Mitchell, and Walter R. Nord. 4th ed. New York: HarperCollins
Publishers Inc., 1992. 443—448.

In-Text Note
Change in corporate culture can take five to ten years, but without change, the
organization might die (Dumaine 1992, 444).

Newspaper Article, One Author

Reference List Entry

Applegate, Jane. “Service Without a Smile Can Be Deadly.” Los Angeles Times 15
June 1990: D3, D7.

In-Text Note
Small businesses, many having to depend on word of mouth in place of expensive
advertising, can least afford to send customers away unhappy, a recent Los Angeles
Times article said. “Customer service experts say the average unhappy customer
complains to about half a.dozen friends, neighbors and colleagues about poor
service. Imagine the impact that 10 unhappy customers could have on your
earnings” (Applegate 1990, D3).

Newspaper Article, No Author

Reference List Entry

“Overseas Work Appeals to More U.S. Managers as a Wise Career Move.” The Wall
Street Journal 19 July 1983: 1.

In-Text Note
Despite encountering difficulties on both leaving and re-entering the American
culture, ambitious executives seek overseas assignments eagerly, according to a
survey (“Overseas Work” 1983, 1).

Magazine Article, Multiple Authors

Reference List Entry

Begley, Sharon, Lynda Wright, Vernon Church, and Mary Hager. “Mapping the brain.”
Newsweek 20 Apr. 1992: 66—70.

In-Text Note
Neuroscientists, using an array of new imaging technologies, are able to map
different areas of the human brain that become active upon the person’s engaging in
different activities (Begley, Wright, Church, and Hager 1992, 66). The brain is
compared to “a society of specialists” (70).

Unpublished Paper Presented at a Meeting

Reference List Entry

Hellweg, Susan A., and Steven L. Phillips. “Communication Policies and Practices in
American Corporations.” Western Regional Meeting of the American Business
Communication Association, Marina del Rey, March 1983.
596 Appendix C
In-Text Note
Though Hellweg and Phillips (1983) reported that 53 percent of their 98 Fortune
500 respondents had a corporate communication policy, respondents did not specify
form and coverage.

Interview

Reference List Entry

Garcia, Howard. Personal interview. 22 March 1993.

In-Text Note .
Still another interviewee commented on the substantial amounts of writing required
of CPAs (Garcia 1993).

Government Document

Reference List Entry

United States Department of the Navy. Correspondence Manual SECNAVINST
5216.5C. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office 1983.

In-Text Note
In the following mock exchange, the U.S. Navy’s Correspondence Manual reduces to
absurdity the timeworn military preference for passive voice:
Doctor: When did you first notice your use of verbs in the passive voice?
Patient: The utilization was first noticed by me shortly after the Navy was
entered. The Marine Corps has been joined by my brother. The same condition
has been remarked on by him.
Doctor: Did you know that most of the verbs we speak with are active? So are
like to
most of the verbs in newspapers and magazines, the kinds of writing we
read.
by naval
Patient: Well, it is believed by me that most verbs are made passive
that have been prepared by this speaker,
- writers. In the letters and directives
been utilized extensive ly. Are problems caused? (Departm ent
passive verbs have
of the Navy 1983, 1—19). ;

PAPERS,
UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO: A MANUAL FOR WRITERS OF T ERM
THESES, AND DISSERTATIONS
some respects from that
Chicago style gives a format for a reference list that differs in
entries. We offer referenc e list format in both exhibit and discussion.
for bibliographic
Chicago style permits either in-text notes or endnotes.
a reference list
e Chicago style sets endnotes flush left. It sets the first line of
reference flush left and indents subsequ ent lines.
-style in both
Book titles are in italics or underlined and capitalized headline
reference list note and endnote .
of first author.
In the reference list, items are alphabetized by last name
names are in normal order, separat ed by commas, with and
Additional authors’
used to separate the last two.
from date. If the
e In parenthetical references, no comma separates author
number, with no
reference contains author, date, and page, the page
with a comma.
abbreviation for page, is separated from the date
quote or paraphrase your
e If your instructor directs you to use endnotes, you
supersc ript (a number raised
source in your text and mark the place with a
This number refers the reader to the
half a line above the normal line).
similarly numbered endnote .
Appendix C 597
 Book, One Author

Reference List Entry,

Henze, Geraldine. 1992. Winning Career Moves: A Complete Job Search Program for
Managers and Professionals. Homewood, Ill.: Business One Irwin.

In-Text Note
Among techniques for overcoming job-search anxiety is generating, on paper, a long
list of “worst-case” possibilities. Because many of them are far-fetched and
improbable, they begin to seem ridiculous. The anxiety tends to diminish, and the
job seeker’s worries assume more sensible proportions (Henze 1992, 42).

Endnote
3. Geraldine Henze, Winning Career Moves: A Complete Job Search Program for
Managers and Professionals (Homewood, Ill.: Business One Irwin, 1992), 42.

Journal Article, Two Authors

Reference List Entry

Lewis, Phillip V., and Henry E. Speck, III. 1990. “Ethical Orientations for
Understanding Business Ethics.” Journal of Business Communication 27, no. 3:
213-32.

In-Text Note
A recent discussion of business ethics helpfully lists the many subsets of ethical
theory (Lewis and Speck 1990, 215).
or
Lewis and Speck (1990) offer an exhibit dividing the subsets of ethical theory into
teleological theories and deontological theories (215).

Endnote
5. Phillip V. Lewis and Henry E. Speck, III, “Ethical Orientations for Understanding
Business Ethics,” Journal of Business Communication 27 (1990): 215.

Work Contained within Another Work

Reference List Entry

Dumaine, Brian. 1992. “Creating a New Company Culture.” Fortune, 15 January
1990, 127-31. In Organizational Reality: Reports from the Firing Line, ed. Peter
J. Frost, Vance Mitchell, and Walter R. Nord. 4th ed., 443—48. New York:
HarperCollins Publishers Inc.

In-Text Note
Change in corporate culture can take five to ten years, but without change, the
organization might die (Dumaine 1992, 444).

Endnote
1. Brian Dumaine, “Creating a New Company Culture,” Fortune, 15 January 1990,
127-31, in Organizational Reality: Reports from the Firing Line, ed. Peter J. Frost,
Vance Mitchell, and Walter R. Nord, 4th ed. (New York: HarperCollins Publishers
Inc., 1992), 444.

598 Appendix C
Newspaper Article, One Author

Reference List Entry

Applegate, Jane. 1990. “Service without a Smile Can Be Deadly.” Los Angeles Times,
15 June, D3, D7.

In-Text Note
Small businesses, many having to depend on word of mouth in place of expensive
advertising, can least afford to send customers away unhappy, a recent Los Angeles
Times article said. “Customer service experts say the average unhappy customer
complains to about half a dozen friends, neighbors and colleagues about poor
service. Imagine the impact that 10 unhappy customers could have on your
earnings” (Applegate 1990, D3).

Endnote
10. Jane Applegate, “Service without a Smile Can Be Deadly,” Los Angeles Times, 15
June 1990, D3, D7.

Newspaper Article, No Author

Reference List Entry

“Overseas Work Appeals to More U.S. Managers as a Wise Career Move.” 1983. The
Wall Street Journal, 19 July, 1.

In-Text Note
Despite encountering difficulties on both leaving and re-entering the American
culture, ambitious executives seek overseas assignments eagerly, according to a
survey (“Overseas work” 1983, 1).

Endnote
The
8. “Overseas Work Appeals to More U.S. Managers as a Wise Career Move,”
Wall Street Journal, 19 July 1983, 1.

Magazine Article, Multiple Authors

Reference List Entry

the
Begley, Sharon, Lynda Wright, Vernon Church, and Mary Hager. 1992. “Mapping
Brain.” Newsweek, 20 April, 66—70.

In-Text Note
Neuroscientists, using an array of new imaging technologies, are able to map
engaging in
different areas of the human brain that become active upon the person’s
Church, and Hager 1992, 66). The brain is
different activities (Begley, Wright,
compared to “a society of specialists ” (70).

Endnote
“Mapping the
5. Sharon Begley, Lynda Wright, Vernon Church, and Mary Hager,
Brain,” Newsweek, 20 April 1992, 70.

Appendix C 599
 Unpublished Paper Presented at a Meeting

Reference List Entry

Hellweg, Susan A., and Steven L. Phillips. 1983, March. Communication policies and
practices in American corporations. Paper presented at the Western Regional
Meeting of the American Business Communication Association, Marina del Rey,
Calif.

In-Text Note
Though Hellweg and Phillips (1983) reported that 53 percent of their 98 Fortune
500 respondents had a corporate communication policy, respondents did not specify
form and coverage.

Endnote
11. Susan A. Hellweg and Steven L. Phillips, “Communication Policies and Practices
in American Corporations,” Paper presented at the Western Regional Meeting of the
American Business Communication Association, Marina del Rey, Calif., March 1983.

Interview

Reference List Entry

Garcia, Howard, partner, Ibanez and Garcia, CPA, Inc. 1993. Interview by Margaret
Fox, 22 March. Burbank, Calif.

In-Text Note
Still another interviewee commented on the substantial amounts of writing required
of CPAs (Garcia 1993)

Endnote
3. Howard Garcia, partner, Ibanez and Garcia, CPA, Inc., interview by Margaret Fox,
22 March 1993, Burbank, Calif.

Government Document

Reference List Entry

Department of the Navy. 1983. Correspondence Manual (SECNAVINST 5216.5C).
Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

In-Text Note
In the following mock exchange, the U.S. Navy’s Correspondence Manual reduces to
absurdity the timeworn military preference for passive voice:
Doctor: When did you first notice your use of verbs in the passive voice?
Patient: The utilization was first noticed by me shortly after the Navy was
entered. The Marine Corps has been joined by my brother. The same condition
has been remarked on by him.
Doctor: Did you know that most of the verbs we speak with are active? So are
most of the verbs in newspapers and magazines, the kinds of writing we like to
read.
Patient: Well, it is believed by me that most verbs are made passive by naval
writers. In the letters and directives that have been prepared by this speaker,
passive verbs have been utilized extensively. Are problems caused? (Department
of the Navy 1983, 1—19).

600 Appendix C
Endnote
21. Department of the Navy, Correspondence Manual (Washington, D.C.: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1983), 1-19.

REFERENCING, COMMON SENSE, AND ODD AND NONPRINT

INFORMATION FORMATS
The preceding examples do not begin to cover all the kinds of secondary sources in
which you might find information. Each of the style manuals on which these examples
are based is more than 200 pages long.
You might encounter a source you cannot format using these examples. If you do,
recall why we reference sources: for our readers’ convenience and further reading and
for our own credibility.
With that in mind, format the note intelligently. For instance, let’s say you are using
an eight-page fact sheet provided by TRW, a large corporation. What will the reader
want to know about the source? Give as much of the expected information as you can
locate. If no author is given, reference the corporation as author. Use whatever title
appears at the head of the fact sheet.
Any publication or printing information you believe the reader would find helpful
you may give within square brackets. These brackets tell the reader that this informa-
tion is factual but not printed in the source itself.
Often no publisher, city of publication, or date will be listed. If you can determine
what the year of publication is, give it in square brackets: [1989]. Ifyou are concerned
that the reader will think you were careless, you can use, in square brackets, the
abbreviations [n.p.] for no publisher and no place, [n.d.] for no date, and [n.pag.] for no
pagination. If the piece does not have page numbers but you can easily count eight
pages, say [8 pages].
For unusual formats, open a bracket at the end of your bibliography citation and tell
the reader what kind of source you are using: for example, [Fact sheet] or [Monthly
newsletter].
A sensible approach to documenting TRW’s information sheet might be this one:
TRW. [1989]. Components of a credit rating. [Fact sheet provided by TRW], [8
pages].
In your in-text reference, you can say (TRW, [p. 7]).
the source
When you cannot go to an original printed source but have the contents of
sources, your bibliograp hic citation
in full text, as often occurs in online or CD/ROM
:
might be
rate].
Acquisition development. (1991, November). Dairy Foods, p. 24 [CD/Corpo
March 4).
Dreyer’s Grand Ice Cream sees 1q pretax net below year ago. (1992,
[Dow Jones News].
bracketed part of
You give as much information as you can find using that source. The
used and shows why full publication
the note tells the reader what kind of source you
information is not available.
possible, but the APA
The examples in this section follow APA style as nearly as
or has directed you to
manual lacks examples of these kinds of sources. If your instruct
odd-form at citations as closely
use MLA or Chicago, try to conform the style for your
as possible to that style.

Appendix C 601
 SPECIALIZED PERSUASION:
ppendix D | COLLECTING

Businesses must collect the money for the products or services they sell on credit. Most
buyers honor their agreement to pay. Such buyers never receive any collection mes-
sages except the initial bill. Other buyers postpone or evade payment for various
reasons. Some forget; some procrastinate; some have bad luck; and a few never intend
to pay.’ To all these individuals, businesses send collection messages.
Although larger aes have collection departments that employ and train work-
ers solely for the job of collecting, you might work for or run a small business in which
collections is only one of your many writing tasks.
Collectors have two goals: to collect the money and to retain the buyer’s goodwill.
Continued business makes money. A customer lost means a new one the business must
attract—and doing so costs money.

ELEMENTS OF PERSUASION IN COLLECTIONS

Collection messages are another form of persuasive writing. This section will discuss
some of the elements of persuasion that influence the effectiveness of a collection
message.
People are influenced by emotion. Prior to the mild-appeal stage of the collection
series, the use of emotional appeal is minimal and subtle. The writer establishes a
businesslike, firm, yet friendly and considerate tone. Beginning with the mild-appeal
stage, though, the writer attempts to engage the reader’s emotions more seriously.
Emotion—stronger emotions and heavier use—increases as the collection series
progresses.
Communicators need to present a credible, sincere image to persuade well. Writers
of collection letters need to know exactly where the firm stands with respect to law and
to its own collection policies. They best present themselves as forthright yet courteous.
They must appear determined to collect what is due, yet unthreatening and, at least in
the early collection stages, willing to adapt to a reader’s reasonable needs.
Communicators need to understand and control their own emotions before they can
effectively move the emotions of others. Anyone who feels personally hostile toward
debtors should not write collection letters. Probably the most useful emotion to mo-
tivate a collector is a spirit of helpfulness.
Communicators should not disrupt readers’ expectations. A debtor knows for sure
that the creditor will ask for payment. Sometimes creditors feel apologetic asking for
payment. But not asking for payment would disrupt the debtor’s expectations (al-
though it might please the debtor). Another of a debtor’s expectations is that he or she
will be treated like a human being. A collector should never fail to be courteous and
humane.

People dislike dissonance, that is, lack of closure. People do not like to have their
affairs out of balance. Getting a matter closed feels good and is a most useful emotional
appeal in collections.

A given message will not have the same effect on every recipient. Some debtors
respond unfavorably to friendly reminders to pay. If these debtors become known to

‘Some debtors withhold payment because they genuinely believe they do not owe.
Sometimes businesses make errors; sometimes delivery services cause breakage or loss. If a sum
is disputed, it is not yet the collector’s affair. Customer service should address these cases.

602 Appendix D
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This text fully integrates key topics via the following icons, which appear in the
margins throughout the book:

LEGAL ICON
refers to legal issues as they pertain to business communication.

ETHICAL ICON
refers to topics with ethical implications that lend themselves to
classroom discussion.

GLOBAL ICON
refers to global issues surrounding international and intercultural
business communication.

TECHNOLOGY ICON
refers to issues of technology that affect the conduct of business
communication.
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