Year 12 Physics QCAA

Formulae not on formula sheet:

2 2
𝑣 (𝑠𝑖𝑛(Θ))
𝑀𝑎𝑥 ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 2𝑔
2
𝑣 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2Θ)
𝑅𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 = 𝑔

define the term normal force

The component of a contact force that is perpendicular to the surface that an object contacts

describe and represent the forces acting on an object on an inclined plane

through the use of free-body diagrams

define the concepts of average speed and period

Average speed: magnitude of tangential velocity

Period: Time taken to complete a revolution/periodic action.

define the terms centripetal acceleration and centripetal force

Centripetal acceleration: Acceleration towards the centre of the circular motion.

Centripetal force = Centripetal acceleration scaled by mass.

define the term gravitational fields

Gravitational field: Field that propagates the gravitational force/attractive force between two
massive bodies.

recall Kepler’s laws of planetary motion

 1. Elliptical orbits
2. Sweeps equal areas in equal times - slower orbits at greater distances from a central
body
3. Ratio of the cube of the orbital radius to the square of the orbital period is a constant

define the terms electric fields, electric field strength and electrical potential energy

Electric field: a region around a charged particle or object within which a force would be
exerted on other charged particles or objects

Electric field strength: a quantitative expression of the intensity of an electric field at a

−1
particular location 𝑉𝑚 .
𝐹 = 𝑞(𝐸 + 𝑣 × 𝐵)
When no magnetic field,
𝐹 = 𝑞𝐸

Electric potential energy:

𝑟 𝑟
𝑈 =− ∫ 𝐹(𝑟)𝑑𝑟 ⇒ 𝑈 =− ∫(𝐶𝑘
∞ ∞
𝑞1𝑞2

𝑟
2 )𝑑𝑟 ⇒ 𝑈 =− |− 𝐶𝑘
𝑞1𝑞2 𝑟
𝑟 ∞
| ⇒ (
𝑈 =− − 𝐶𝑘
𝑞1𝑞2
𝑟
−0)
𝑞1𝑞2
⇒ 𝑈 = 𝐶𝑘 𝑟

define the term magnetic field

a region around a magnetic material or a moving electric charge within which the force of
magnetism acts.

recall how to represent magnetic field lines, including sketching magnetic field lines
due to a moving electric charge, electric currents and magnets

Bar magnet:

Current:
Solenoid:

define the terms magnetic flux, magnetic flux density, electromagnetic induction,
electromotive force (EMF), Faraday’s Law and Lenz’s Law

Magnetic flux: Surface integral of the normal component of the magnetic field B over a
particular surface.

Electromagnetic induction: Current produced due to emf created by changing magnetic flux.
Electromotive force:
Faraday’s Law:
𝑑ϕ
ε= −𝑁 𝑑𝑡
Lenz’s Law:
The negative part of that
describe the process of inducing an EMF across a moving conductor in a magnetic
field

explain how Lenz’s Law is consistent with the principle of conservation of energy
the direction of an induced current is such that it will always oppose the change in flux that
created it

explain how transformers work in terms of Faraday’s Law and electromagnetic

induction.

Alternating current passing through the first coil creates a magnetic flux. This magnetic flux
induces an EMF in the secondary coil. The induced EMF is proportional to the number of
coils and the rate of change of the magnetic flux.

define and explain electromagnetic radiation in terms of electric fields and magnetic
fields.

When the electric and magnetic fields vibrate perpendicular to each other, they form a
continuous transverse wave that propagates at the speed of light: electromagnetic radiation.

describe an example of natural phenomena that cannot be explained by

Newtonian physics, such as the presence of muons in the atmosphere

define the terms frame of reference and inertial frame of reference

recall the two postulates of special relativity

- The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference
- Nothing can travel faster than the speed of light.

explain the concept of simultaneity

 - The relativity of simultaneity is the concept that distant simultaneity – whether two
spatially separated events occur at the same time – is not absolute, but depends on
the observer's reference frame.
- According to the special theory of relativity, it is impossible to say in an absolute
sense that two distinct events occur at the same time if those events are separated in
space.
- If one reference frame assigns precisely the same time to two events that are at
different points in space, a reference frame that is moving relative to the first will
generally assign different times to the two events

define the terms time dilation, proper time interval, relativistic time interval, length
contraction, proper length, relativistic length, rest mass and relativistic momentum

describe the phenomena of time dilation and length contraction, including

examples of experimental evidence of the phenomena

Muons.
- Time dilation explains the observation of high altitude muons.
- The ‘normal’ mean lifetime of a muon is about 2.2 μs. However, this is the mean
lifetime when measured in a stationary frame of reference; that is, in the muon’s
frame of reference.
- Muons travel very fast; in fact a speed as great as 0.999c is very possible. At this
speed, an observer on Earth will see the lifetime of a muon as far greater than 2.2 μs.
An observer on Earth would see the muon’s time run much slower. The slower time
means that many muons live long enough to reach the Earth’s surface.

explain why no object can travel at the speed of light in a vacuum

- Infinite mass, infinite kinetic energy, etc. pick whichever.

explain paradoxical scenarios such as the twins’ paradox, flashlights on a train

and the ladder in the barn paradox.

Twins paradox:
- The time measured by a stationary clock is greater than the time measured by a
moving clock. According to the paradox, from the perspective of either twin, the other
twin will be younger.
- The key to this apparent paradox is that only one twin has spent the entire time in an
inertial (non-accelerating) frame of reference. The other twin spent some time in
non-inertial frames of reference. The twin on the spaceship accelerated away from
Earth, decelerated as she slowed down, then accelerated back towards Earth, and
finally decelerated as she slowed down to land back on Earth. It is the acceleration
that makes all the difference.

Ladder paradox:
- Ladder of length l goes into a barn of length b at speed close to the c, l > b. From
ladders perspective, the barn shrinks and he won't fit. From the barn's perspective,
the ladder shrinks and it will fit. This appears paradoxical.
 - This paradox is resolved by the concept of simultaneity, which states that events
separated in space which appear simultaneous in one frame are not simultaneous in
another frame.
- THE DOOOOOOORS

Flashlights on a train:
- Key is the relativity of simultaneity. The amount of time that has elapsed in one frame
of reference is not the same as that which has elapsed in another.

Experiments:
Michaelson-morey experiment:
- In the 1880s, Michelson and his collaborator Edward Morley set up a device known
as an interferometer. This device could not measure the speed of light, but it could
detect changes in the speed of light.
- The interferometer could measure any difference in the time taken for light to travel in
two mutually perpendicular directions. One of these directions was the same as the
direction the Earth was travelling, and the other at right angles.
- Michelson and Morely expected there to be a small difference between the two
measurements. However, they found none. Therefore, no aether and light does not
obey Galilean relativity.

explain how Young’s double slit experiment provides evidence for the wave
model of light
- Waves diffract and superimpose
- When young tested light for this, he saw interference pattern obeying:

- This means that light behaves like a wave.

describe light as an electromagnetic wave produced by an oscillating electric

charge that produces mutually perpendicular oscillating electric fields and
magnetic fields

explain the concept of black-body radiation

- Blackbodies absorb and emit all incident radiation

- Classical equations modelling blackbody radiation go to infinity for small
wavelengths.
- To address this, physicist Max Planck quantized energy as
 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓
solving the blackbody catastrophe.
- Peak intensity of blackbody radiation is modelled by Wien's law:
𝑏
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑇𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚

identify that black-body radiation provides evidence that electromagnetic radiation is

quantised into discrete values

Look up.

describe the concept of a photon

A quanta of electromagnetic radiation possessing energy 𝐸 = ℎ𝑓.

define the terms threshold frequency, Planck’s constant and work function

𝐸𝑘 = ℎ𝑓 − ϕ
Threshold frequency: when Ek = 0
ϕ
ϕ = ℎ𝑓 ⇒ 𝑓 = ℎ
Work function ϕ: Energy required to eject/ionise an electron from the surface of a metal.
Unique to each metal.

Experiments:
Davidson-germer:

Compton scattering:

describe Rutherford’s model of the atom including its limitations

- positive central nucleus, negative orbiting electrons due to electrostatic force of attraction
- circular orbit, constantly subject to centripetal acceleration and radiates energy
continuously
- Rutherford's model failed to explain the stability of atoms. Any particle moving in a circular
path would undergo acceleration and radiate energy. Thus, the revolving electron would lose
energy and finally fall into the nucleus.

describe the Bohr model of the atom and how it addresses the limitations of
Rutherford’s model
- Defined fixed energy levels. Addressed emission and absorption spectra.

explain how the Bohr model of the hydrogen atom integrates light quanta and
atomic energy states to explain the specific wavelengths in the hydrogen
line spectrum
Bohr introduced a new concept, the energy level. The electron in hydrogen had certain
allowed energy levels, and the sharp spectral lines were emitted when the electron jumped
from one energy level to another.

STANDARD MODEL

describe the strong nuclear, weak nuclear and electromagnetic forces in terms of the
gauge bosons
Electromagnetic force is mediated by the photon, it affects:
- Quarks
- Leptons excluding the neutrinos

Strong nuclear force is mediated by the gluon, it affects:

- Quarks

Weak nuclear force is mediated by the W+/- and Z boson, it affects:

- Everything
contrast the fundamental forces experienced by quarks and leptons.
Look above

recall the conservation of lepton number and baryon number in particle interaction
Conservation of lepton number.

Conservation of baryon number.

Conservation of charge.

explain the following interactions of particles using Feynman diagrams

- electron and electron

- electron and positron

- a neutron decaying into a proton

describe the significance of symmetry in particle interactions.
Symmetries ⇒ conservation of some quantity

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