PROCESS Documentation Addendum

PROCESS is documented in Appendices A and B of the third edition of Introduction to Mediation,

Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis. The addendum to the documentation describes
options and features added to PROCESS since the first printing of the book in December 2021. This
version of this addendum was produced and uploaded on February 7, 2023.

Missing Data Identification

(Added in version 4.1)

PROCESS uses listwise deletion prior to analysis, meaning that any case in the data file that has
missing data on any of the variables in the model will be deleted from the analysis. The
resulting sample size after listwise deletion is provided at the top of the PROCESS output, and at
the bottom PROCESS will provide how many cases with missing data were deleted prior to
analysis. However, the user is left in the dark about which cases were deleted from the analysis
as a result of missing data. With the release of PROCESS version 4.1, a new option is available
that provides information about which cases were deleted. When this option is turned on by
adding listmiss=1 to the PROCESS command, PROCESS will list the case numbers at the bottom
of the output, identified by row in the data file, that were deleted from the analysis.

Total Effect of X in Mediation Models

(Added in version 4.1)

In the typical mediation model, the total effect of X on Y, which is the sum of the direct and
indirect effects of X, is estimated in a regression model of Y regressed on X but not the
mediators. But the regression coefficient for X in this model will not always be equal to the sum
of the direct and indirect effects of X, such as when a model includes covariates and the
covariates are not included in all equations that are used to estimate the direct and indirect
effects of X. For this reason, PROCESS will not always produce the total effect of X or the model
that estimates it when the total option is used.

As of the release of version 4.1, for models such as these when the total effect cannot be
estimated by regressing Y on X, PROCESS will now produce the sum of the direct and indirect
effects in the output along with a bootstrap confidence interval for inference when the total
option is used. This option will only generate a point and interval estimate of this sum as well as
a bootstrap estimate of the standard error of the sum. Standardized metrics of the sum are not
available in this release.

Regression Analysis without Moderation or Mediation

(Added in version 4.1)

Until the release of version 4.1, PROCESS could only estimate models with a mediation or
moderation component. With version 4.1, PROCESS can now estimate ordinary regression

Copyright 2023 by Andrew F. Hayes

models without moderation or mediation of X’s effect on Y. To estimate such a model, specify
model=0, provide the consequent (outcome) variable following y= and a single antecedent
(predictor) variable following x=. Other variables, if any, included in the regression model
should be listed following cov=. Which variable you choose to following x= and which as
covariate(s) is arbitrary. For example, using the GLBWARM data introduced in Chapter 2, the
command below estimates support for government action from negative emotions, positive
emotions, ideology, sex, and age.

process y=govact/x=negemot/cov=posemot ideology sex age/model=0.

%process(data=glbwarm,y=govact,x=negemot,cov=posemot ideology sex age,model=0)

process(data=glbwarm,y="govact",x="negemot",cov=c("ideology","sex","age"),model=0)

Heteroscedasticity-consistent inference is available as usual with the hc option, as are

bootstrap confidence intervals for the regression coefficients using the modelbt option. If X is a
multicategorical, it should be specified as such using the mcx option and PROCESS will
automatically create category codes as described in Appendix A. Multicategorical variables
listed in cov must be properly represented with a categorical coding system with the codes
(e.g., indicator, Helmert, etc.) generated outside of PROCESS.

Model 0 is not available in the PROCESS graphical user interface for SPSS. In SPSS, it can only be
accessed through PROCESS syntax.

Copyright 2023 by Andrew F. Hayes

Estimation of and Inference for a Weighted Sum of Regression Coefficients
(Added in version 4.1)

Any statistic that can be calculated as a weighted sum of the regression coefficients in a model
can be generated using a new linsum option in PROCESS available as of version 4.1. This option
is available only for models 0, 1, 2, and 3. The weighted sum takes the form
𝑘𝑘

� 𝜆𝜆𝑖𝑖 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖
𝑖𝑖=0

where b0 is the regression constant, b1 through bk are the regression coefficients for the k
variables in the model in the order they appear in the regression output for the model of Y, and
𝜆𝜆i are the weights. These weights are listed in sequence 0 to k from left to right following
linsum= in the PROCESS command and in the same order as the regression weights appear in
the PROCESS output from top to bottom.

The estimated value of the consequent variable Y given values on a set of predictor variables in
the model is an example of a weighted sum of regression coefficients. For example, using the
DISASTER data in Chapter 7 and the PROCESS output in Figure 7.6, the estimated justification for
withholding aid for a person in the disaster frame condition (frame = 1) with a score of 3 on
the skepticism scale (skeptic = 3) is

Ŷ = 1(2.4515) + 1(-0.5625) + 3(0.1051) + 3(0.2012) = 2.8079

where the numbers in parentheses are the regression constant and regression coefficients for
frame, skeptic, and the product of frame and skeptic, and the weights are 𝜆𝜆0 = 1, 𝜆𝜆1 = 1,
𝜆𝜆2 = 3, 𝜆𝜆3 = 3, for the regression constant and regression coefficients in this same order. In
PROCESS, this weighted sum is generated by adding the linsum option and the sequence of
weights, as in

process y=justify/x=frame/w=skeptic/model=1/linsum=1,1,3,3.

%process(data=disaster,y=justify,x=frame,w=skeptic,model=1,linsum=1 1 3 3)

process(data=disaster,y="justify",x="frame",w="skeptic",model=1,linsum=c(1,1,3,3))

which toward the bottomof the output produces

Copyright 2023 by Andrew F. Hayes

Linear Combination Estimate and Hypothesis Test

Weight vector:
weight
constant 1.0000
frame 1.0000
skeptic 3.0000
Int_1 3.0000

Estimate se t p LLCI ULCI

2.8079 .0826 33.9834 .0000 2.6450 2.9708

showing the estimate of justification for withholding aid from the model for such a person is
2.8079. The t -statistic and p-value for the test of the null hypothesis that this weighted sum
equals zero, provided in the output, would not be of much interest in this example, but the
standard error and confidence interval for the estimate may be. Here, the estimated standard
error of the weighted sum is 0.0826 and the 95% confidence interval for the weighted sum is
[2.6450, 2.9708].

It is very important that the weights following linsum= be in the same order from left to right as
the predictors in the model are displayed in PROCESS output from top to bottom, otherwise the
weighted sum will not be the sum you wish to construct. In SPSS and R, the weights should be
separated by a comma. In SAS, the weights are separated by a space. In R, the comma-
delimited sequence of weights should be enclosed in the c() operator.

The linsum option can also be used to compare two regression coefficients in a model. For
example, in Chapter 2, support for government action is estimated from negative emotions,
positive emotions, ideology, sex, and age. The linsum option can be utilized to test whether the
regression coefficient for negative emotions is equal to the regression coefficient for positive
emotions. This comparison would be a weighted sum of regression coefficients of the form

(0)b0 + (1)b1 + (-1)b2 + (0)b3 + (0)b4 + (0)b5 = b1 – b2

where b0 through b5 are the regression constant and regression coefficients for negative
emotions, positive emotions, ideology, sex, and age, respectively. In terms of the regression
coefficients from the model on pages 51-52,

0(4.064) + 1(0.441) + (-1)(-0.027) + 0(-0.218) + 0(-0.010) + 0(-0.001) = 0.468

In this weighted sum, the weights are 0, 1, -1, 0, 0, and 0 for the regression constant and
coefficients for negative emotions, positive emotions, ideology, sex, and age, respectively. In
PROCESS, the model and weighted sum is estimated with the command

process y=govact/x=negemot/cov=posemot ideology sex age/model=0/

linsum=0,1,-1,0,0,0.

Copyright 2023 by Andrew F. Hayes

 %process(data=glbwarm,y=govact,x=negemot,cov=posemot ideology sex age,model=0,
linsum=0 1 -1 0 0 0)

process(data=glbwarm,y="govact",x="negemot",cov=ideology sex age,model=0,

linsum=c(0,1,-1,0,0,0))

which generates in the output

Linear Combination Estimate and Hypothesis Test

Weight vector:
weight
constant .0000
negemot 1.0000
posemot -1.0000
ideology .0000
sex .0000
age .0000

Estimate se t p LLCI ULCI

.4676 .0411 11.3856 .0000 .3870 .5482

showing that the difference between these regression coefficients is 0.4676 and statistically
significant, t(809) = 11.3856, p < .0001, with a 95% confidence interval of [0.3870, 0.5482]. The
degrees of freedom for the t statistic is the residual degrees of freedom for the model,
displayed in the PROCESS output in the model summary section under “df2.”

The linsum option expects that in a regression model with k predictors (including products
created by PROCESS to capture linear moderation), the sequence should contain k + 1 weights
(the extra weight is for the regression constant). However, when m covariates are listed
following cov= , weights for all the m covariates can be left out of the sequence if desired.
When weights for covariates are not included, PROCESS will automatically set the weights for
each covariate to the arithmetic mean of that covariate. When the number of weights in the
sequence is neither k + 1 nor k + 1 – m, a note will be displayed in the output stating that the
vector of weights is not correct and no output for the weighted sum will be generated.

The linsum option is not available for logistic regression models (i.e., when Y is dichotomous).

Counterfactually-Defined Indirect, Direct, and Total Effects of X in Mediation

Models with X by Mediator Interaction
(added in version 4.2)

With the release of version 4.2, PROCESS can estimate a mediation model that allows
interaction between X and mediator(s). When the xmint option is toggled on (by adding
xmint=1 to the PROCESS command), PROCESS will generate counterfactually defined natural

Copyright 2023 by Andrew F. Hayes

indirect, natural direct, and total effects of X, as well as the controlled direct effect. This option
is available only for simple (one mediator) and parallel multiple mediator models (model 4). For
details on the estimation of such a model, the mathematics of counterfactually-defined effects
of X, as well as several options available for use in tandemwith the xmint option, see CCRAM
Technical Report 022-04 available through the Resource Hub at the Canadian Centre for
Research Analysis and Methods at ccramsessions.com.

Selective Exclusion of Cases from the Analysis

(added in version 4.3)

With the release of version 4.3, it is possible to selectively exclude observations in the data
from the analysis. This is accomplished by adding the exclude option to the PROCESS command,
specifying the row number in the data file you would like to exclude following an equal sign. For
example, to exclude the observation in the 12th row, add exclude=12 to the PROCESS
command. To exclude more than one observation, list the row numbers of the observations to
be excluded. For example, to exclude the observations in rows 12, 14, and 36, use
exclude=12,14,36 in SPSS, exclude=12 14 36 in SAS, or exclude=c(12,14,36) in R.

Copyright 2023 by Andrew F. Hayes