Engineering Drawing

Cost of a Drawing Error

The origin of GD&T has been credited to a man named Stanley Parker, who
in 1938 developed the concept of position or “true position” as it is referred to
today. Mr. Parker, by all accounts, worked in a munitions facility in Great Britain
During his time there he encountered parts for torpedoes(Under water
missile) that were rejected when inspected using traditional tolerances.
However, he found that many were functional parts and were being sent to
production even though they were technically out of specification tolerance.
 Upon further investigation, he determined that the standard X-Y coordinate
tolerances resulted in a square tolerance zone.
Some of the dimensions of the working parts fell slightly outside of this zone
but were within a circle that encompassed the square’s corners.
He surmised that if the corners were in spec, in most cases the parts that fell
within that circular zone resulting from the application of the same tolerance
were just as functional.
Mr. Parker would later publish a book in 1956 entitled “Drawings and
Dimensions”.
Mr. Parker’s determination of position (or true position) has since grown to
include other concepts including flatness, profile, runout, roundness and much
more.
The concept of GD&T was adopted by the military in the 1950s and is now in
use in multiple industries around the world.
Definitions
Types of Tolerances
Types of Plus-Minus Tolerances
Examples of different types of Features
Expanded Feature Definitions

A drawing represents an
ideal component as
visualised by a designer.
That is, the features shown
on a drawing are IDEAL
FEATURES.

But in reality deviations are bound to occur during manufacture

as well as inspection due to various reasons.

Consider the example shown above. The distance between the

two holes is derived from the distance between the axes of the
holes.
That is, the axes are to be considered as lines and geometrically
defined in terms of a location point (position vector) and
direction (direction vector).

If treated as lines, these axes will be defined only by TWO points

according to the definition. But the axes of the holes are derived
features which can only be calculated from the coordinates of
direction vectors of the holes (Cylinder)

Thus, in order to avoid confusions in the way in which the

geometric features are depicted on a drawing and the way in
which they are interpreted, expanded feature definitions are
employed.
Expanded Feature definitions
Simplified Operator – It refers to measurement procedures that
take into account measurement next to the production location
(Go/No Go gauges)

SIZE – GENERAL PRINCIPLES

Size is defined as a number expressing the numerical value of a

linear dimension in a particular unit. For ex : μm, mm, cm…

Note : weight and angular measurements like Kg and degrees do

not represent SIZE
DEFINITIONS:

Feature:
Feature is a general term used to indicate a physical portion of a part such as
a diameter of cylinders & spheres, Radius of parts, Centre of holes, Curves,
surfaces, holes (rounded, slotted etc), slot, screw, key seat, thread or profile,
knurling etc.

The feature of size:

is either one cylindrical or a spherical surface or a set of two opposed elements or parallel
surfaces associated with size dimension. ...
It should be a spherical, cylindrical or a parallel set surfaces for which a centre axis
or plane can be calculated from the surfaces. The feature should be associated with
a dimension.

Local linear size – it is either the distance between two points or a local size
defined by a sphere

Actual size – it is a measured value. It describes the size of a geometrical

feature obtained from a measurement/s at different locations of a geometrical
feature.
Groups of sizes

On drawings FOUR groups of sizes and dimensions can be identified

• External size
• Internal size
• Step size
• distances
- External size and Internal sizes are limited by TWO opposing features or
belonging to the same feature (cylinder or a shaft)

- Step size represents the limiting values between TWO PARALLEL opposing
features. Checking Step size is more difficult than checking external or
internal sizes

- Distances are not strictly defined features of sizes because of the missing
feature in the same surface. Inspection of distances can only be compared
with Tolerance of Position
Maximum Material Limit is the (MML) is the virtual limit (maximum or
minimum limit) which corresponds to a condition of MORE METERIAL (in
terms of volume) in an acceptable part.

MML is Upper Limit of Size (ULS) for outside or external sizes and Lower Limit
of Size (LLS) for inside or internal sizes.

MML corresponds to “GO” gauge. If MML is exceeded the component can be

reworked

For a given FIT, the smallest gap between two mating parts is achieved when
they are both of MML
Principle of Independency states that “each specified dimensional or
geometrical requirement on a drawing shall be met independently unless a
particular relationship is specified”

Stated in simple terms, principle of independency implies that each

tolerances has to be checked independently. This principle can be applied to
all linear and angular dimensions (including their tolerances) and geometrical
tolerances.

In other words, there is no limit for deviations in FORM and POSIONING

according to dimensional tolerancing.

According to principle of independency, all dimensions are checked as TWO

POINT measurements. As seen in the above examples, the FLATNESS of the
plate and Straightness of the shaft are NOT crucial. As long as all two point
measurements are within limits, the parts are acceptable. If principle of
independency is adopted, the drawings are be marked ISO8015 as shown
Classification of geometrical tolerances

Note
• Dimensional Tolerance : Tolerance only in terms of size of a feature. Has
only a dimensional significance
• Form Tolerance : Tolerance only on the shape of the feature
• Geometrical Tolerance : Tolerance on form of a feature as well as on its
location and orientation with respect to a DATUM
Symbols for indication of geometrical tolerances
Feature Control Frame/ Tolerance Frame

The requirements in the field of geometric tolerancing are shown in a

rectangular frame divide into compartments. The compartments contain
from LEFT to RIGHT, in the following order:
• the symbol for the geometric characteristic
• the tolerance value in mm
• If appropriate, the letters identifying the datum or datum system
Tolerance applied to more than one feature

Additional indication qualifying the form

Specifying more than one geometrical

characteristic for a feature
How to connect Feature Control Frame with the Toleranced
feature?

A leader line starting from either of the sides of the feature control
frame and terminating with an arrow in the following ways

• On the outline of the feature or on an extension line, but clearly

separated from the dimension line, when the tolerance refers to the
line or surface (figs. a, b) and on another leader line pointing to the
feature (fig. c)
• As an extension of the dimension line when the toleranced feature
refers to an axis or a median plane or a point defined by the feature so
toleranced (fig. e, f)

Note:
If needed, an indication specifying the form of the feature (line
instead of a surface) shall be written near the surface
 Datum Triangles and Datum Letters
Datum are indicated with a leader line connecting a square box terminating
with a filled or unfilled Triangle on the datum feature as shown. Datum
features are designated using UPPERCASE ALPHABETS. The same alphabet is
mentioned in the feature control frame in the compartment to the right of the
compartment in which the tolerance value is specified.
General Rules

• If the datum is a surface or the generating line of a surface, the datum

triangle should be placed on the feature or on an extension line but
clearly separated from the dimension line (fig. a)
• If the datum is an axis or a median plane, the datum triangle should be
placed on the extension of the dimension line coinciding with it (fig. b)
• If the datum is only for a specified length of the feature or a specified
area of a feature, then the location should be correctly dimensioned (fig.
c)
Form Controls

The designed form of a toleranced geometrical feature is defined in terms of

ideal forms such as straight line, circle, plane, cylinder etc., leading to
several terms which describe the real form

• Straightness (STR)
• Flatness (FLN)
• Roundness (RON)
• Cylindricity (CYL)
• Profile of a line/surface
Straightness
Features such as edges, generating lines of a surface, axis of symmetry etc on
a part are examples of straight profile lines. Straightness tolerance limits the
deviation of these features. The toleranced straight line then must be
between two parallel lines or planes separated at a distance tG or inside a
circle of dia tG
Roundness
Features such as holes, shafts, circular projections on a part are toleranced
for roundness. The tolerance zone is two concentric circles with difference in
dia being the tolerance tG. That is the toleranced section must lie within two
concentric circles with difference in dia being the tolerance tG
Flatness
Flatness tolerance limits deviations of surfaces, symmetry planes and
straightness of lines on surfaces. For this purpose all points of the surface
must be between two parallel planes separated by a distance equal to tG
Nominal plane (ideal plane) and typical form deviations of a plane
Cylindricity
Cylindricity tolerance limits deviations of straightness deviations of cylinder
generatrices (axis), roundness deviations of cylinder cross sections and parallelism
deviations of opposite generatrices. The tolerance zone is defined by two coaxial
cylinders whose difference in diameters is equal to tolerance tz
Nominal cylinder (ideal cylinder) and typical form deviations of cylinder
Line and surface profile

Profile tolerance of a line is observed when each individual profile line is

between two equidistant boundary lines at a distance ± tLP /2
Profile tolerance of a surface is observed when the entire surface is between
two equidistant boundary surfaces at a distance ± tFP /2
Rules for form tolerancing

• Tolerance only those features that are important for the function or auxiliary
tolerances from the view point of manufacture, testing and assembly
• Remember that tolerances of form are referenced to one feature
• When selecting tolerance type, distinguish between simple tolerances (ex.
roundness) and composite tolerances (ex. cylindricity)
• Prefer simple tolerances wherever possible if permitted by the function
• Remember that for the same tolerance value, composite tolerance is a more
stringent requirement for a toleranced feature than several simple tolerances
• Employ MMC wherever permitted by the function
• Check to what extent simple tolerances are already implicitly indicated by
composite tolerances already specified