a complete lateral force-resisting system with adequate strength 1.

5 CLASSIFICATION OF BUILDINGS AND OTHER

to resist the forces indicated in Section 1.4.2. All members of the STRUCTURES
structural system shall be connected to their supporting members
1.5.1 Risk Categorization. Buildings and other structures shall
in accordance with Section 1.4.3. Structural walls shall be
be classified, based on the risk to human life, health, and welfare
anchored to diaphragms and supports in accordance with Sec-
associated with their damage or failure by nature of their
tion 1.4.4. The effects on the structure and its components caused
occupancy or use, according to Table 1.5-1 for the purposes
by the forces stipulated in this section shall be taken as the
of applying flood, wind, snow, earthquake, and ice provisions.
notional load, N, and combined with the effects of other loads in
Each building or other structure shall be assigned to the highest
accordance with the load combinations of Section 2.6. Where
applicable Risk Category or Categories. Minimum design loads
material resistance depends on load duration, notional loads are
for structures shall incorporate the applicable importance factors
permitted to be taken as having a duration of 10 minutes.
given in Table 1.5-2, as required by other sections of this
Structures designed in conformance with the requirements of
standard. Assignment of a building or other structure to
this standard for Seismic Design Categories B, C, D, E, or F shall
multiple Risk Categories based on the type of load condition
be deemed to comply with the requirements of Sections 1.4.2,
being evaluated (e.g., snow or seismic) shall be permitted.
1.4.3, and 1.4.4.
When the building code or other referenced standard specifies
1.4.1 Load Path Connections. All parts of the structure an Occupancy Category, the Risk Category shall not be taken as
between separation joints shall be interconnected to form a lower than the Occupancy Category specified therein.
continuous path to the lateral force-resisting system, and the
connections shall be capable of transmitting the lateral forces
induced by the parts being connected. Any smaller portion of the
structure shall be tied to the remainder of the structure with Table 1.5-1 Risk Category of Buildings and Other Structures for
elements having the strength to resist a force of not less than 5% Flood, Wind, Snow, Earthquake, and Ice Loads
of the portion’s weight.
Use or Occupancy of Buildings and Structures Risk Category
1.4.2 Lateral Forces. Each structure shall be analyzed for the
effects of static lateral forces applied independently in each of
two orthogonal directions. In each direction, the static lateral Buildings and other structures that represent low risk to I
forces at all levels shall be applied simultaneously. For purposes human life in the event of failure
of analysis, the force at each level shall be determined using All buildings and other structures except those listed in Risk II
Eq. (1.4-1): Categories I, III, and IV
Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could III
F x = 0.01W x (1.4-1) pose a substantial risk to human life
where Buildings and other structures, not included in Risk
Category IV, with potential to cause a substantial economic
F x = the design lateral force applied at story x, and
impact and/or mass disruption of day-to-day civilian life in
W x = the portion of the total dead load of the structure, D, located
the event of failure
or assigned to level x.
Buildings and other structures not included in Risk Category
Structures explicitly designed for stability, including second- IV (including, but not limited to, facilities that manufacture,
order effects, shall be deemed to comply with the requirements of process, handle, store, use, or dispose of such substances as
this section. hazardous fuels, hazardous chemicals, hazardous waste, or
1.4.3 Connection to Supports. A positive connection for explosives) containing toxic or explosive substances where
resisting a horizontal force acting parallel to the member shall the quantity of the material exceeds a threshold quantity
established by the Authority Having Jurisdiction and is
be provided for each beam, girder, or truss either directly to its
sufficient to pose a threat to the public if releaseda
supporting elements or to slabs designed to act as diaphragms.
Where the connection is through a diaphragm, the member’s Buildings and other structures designated as essential IV
supporting element shall also be connected to the diaphragm. facilities
The connection shall have the strength to resist a force of 5% of
Buildings and other structures, the failure of which could
the unfactored dead load plus live load reaction imposed by the
pose a substantial hazard to the community
supported member on the supporting member. Buildings and other structures (including, but not limited to,
1.4.4 Anchorage of Structural Walls. Walls that provide facilities that manufacture, process, handle, store, use, or
vertical load bearing or lateral shear resistance for a portion of dispose of such substances as hazardous fuels, hazardous
the structure shall be anchored to the roof and all floors and chemicals, or hazardous waste) containing sufficient
members that provide lateral support for the wall or that are quantities of highly toxic substances where the quantity of
supported by the wall. The anchorage shall provide a direct the material exceeds a threshold quantity established by the
connection between the walls and the roof or floor construction. Authority Having Jurisdiction and is sufficient to pose a
threat to the public if releaseda
The connections shall be capable of resisting a strength level
horizontal force perpendicular to the plane of the wall equal to Buildings and other structures required to maintain the
0.2 times the weight of the wall tributary to the connection, but functionality of other Risk Category IV structures
not less than 5 psf (0.24 kN∕m2 ). a
Buildings and other structures containing toxic, highly toxic, or explosive
1.4.5 Extraordinary Loads and Events. When considered, substances shall be eligible for classification to a lower Risk Category if it can
be demonstrated to the satisfaction of the Authority Having Jurisdiction by a
design for resistance to extraordinary loads and events shall hazard assessment as described in Section 1.5.3 that a release of the sub-
be in accordance with the procedures of Section 2.5. stances is commensurate with the risk associated with that Risk Category.

4 STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-16

 Table 26.6-1 Wind Directionality Factor, K d 26.7.3 Exposure Categories.
Exposure B: For buildings or other structures with a mean roof
Structure Type Directionality Factor K d height less than or equal to 30 ft (9.1 m), Exposure B shall apply
where the ground surface roughness, as defined by Surface
Buildings Roughness B, prevails in the upwind direction for a distance
Main Wind Force Resisting System 0.85 greater than 1,500 ft (457 m). For buildings or other structures
Components and Cladding 0.85 with a mean roof height greater than 30 ft (9.1 m), Exposure B
Arched Roofs 0.85 shall apply where Surface Roughness B prevails in the upwind
Circular Domes 1.0a direction for a distance greater than 2,600 ft (792 m) or 20 times
Chimneys, Tanks, and Similar Structures the height of the building or structure, whichever is greater.
Square 0.90 Exposure C: Exposure C shall apply for all cases where
Hexagonal 0.95 Exposure B or D does not apply.
Octagonal 1.0a Exposure D: Exposure D shall apply where the ground
Round 1.0a surface roughness, as defined by Surface Roughness D, prevails
Solid Freestanding Walls, Roof Top 0.85
in the upwind direction for a distance greater than 5,000 ft
Equipment, and Solid Freestanding and
(1,524 m) or 20 times the building or structure height, whichever
Attached Signs
is greater. Exposure D shall also apply where the ground surface
Open Signs and Single-Plane Open Frames 0.85
Trussed Towers
roughness immediately upwind of the site is B or C, and the site
Triangular, square, or rectangular 0.85 is within a distance of 600 ft (183 m) or 20 times the building or
All other cross sections 0.95 structure height, whichever is greater, from an Exposure D
a
condition as defined in the previous sentence.
Directionality factor K d = 0.95 shall be permitted for round or octagonal For a site located in the transition zone between exposure
structures with nonaxisymmetric structural systems.
categories, the category resulting in the largest wind forces shall
be used.
EXCEPTION: An intermediate exposure between the pre-
ceding categories is permitted in a transition zone, provided that
26.6 WIND DIRECTIONALITY it is determined by a rational analysis method defined in the
The wind directionality factor, K d , shall be determined from recognized literature.
Table 26.6-1 and shall be included in the wind loads calculated in 26.7.4 Exposure Requirements.
Chapters 27 to 30. The effect of wind directionality in
determining wind loads in accordance with Chapter 31 shall 26.7.4.1 Directional Procedure (Chapter 27). For each wind
be based on a rational analysis of the wind speeds conforming direction considered, wind loads for the design of the MWFRS of
to the requirements of Section 26.5.3 and of Section 31.4.3. enclosed and partially enclosed buildings using the Directional
Procedure of Chapter 27 shall be based on the exposures as
defined in Section 26.7.3. Wind loads for the design of open
26.7 EXPOSURE buildings with monoslope, pitched, or troughed free roofs shall
For each wind direction considered, the upwind exposure be based on the exposures, as defined in Section 26.7.3, resulting
shall be based on ground surface roughness that is determined in the highest wind loads for any wind direction at the site.
from natural topography, vegetation, and constructed 26.7.4.2 Envelope Procedure (Chapter 28). Wind loads for
facilities. the design of the MWFRS for all low-rise buildings designed
26.7.1 Wind Directions and Sectors. For each selected wind using the Envelope Procedure of Chapter 28 shall be based on the
direction at which the wind loads are to be determined, the exposure category resulting in the highest wind loads for any
exposure of the building or structure shall be determined wind direction at the site.
for the two upwind sectors extending 45° on either side of 26.7.4.3 Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances
the selected wind direction. The exposure in these two sectors and Other Structures (Chapter 29). Wind loads for the design
shall be determined in accordance with Sections 26.7.2 and 26.7.3, of building appurtenances (such as rooftop structures and
and the exposure the use of which would result in the highest equipment) and other structures (such as solid freestanding
wind loads shall be used to represent the winds from that walls and freestanding signs, chimneys, tanks, open signs,
direction. single-plane open frames, and trussed towers) as specified in
26.7.2 Surface Roughness Categories. A ground surface Chapter 29 shall be based on the appropriate exposure for each
roughness within each 45° sector shall be determined for a wind direction considered.
distance upwind of the site, as defined in Section 26.7.3, from 26.7.4.4 Components and Cladding (Chapter 30). Design
the categories defined in the following text, for the purpose of wind pressures for C&C shall be based on the exposure
assigning an exposure category as defined in Section 26.7.3. category resulting in the highest wind loads for any wind
Surface Roughness B: Urban and suburban areas, wooded direction at the site.
areas, or other terrain with numerous, closely spaced obstructions
that have the size of single-family dwellings or larger. 26.8 TOPOGRAPHIC EFFECTS
Surface Roughness C: Open terrain with scattered obstruc-
tions that have heights generally less than 30 ft (9.1 m). This 26.8.1 Wind Speed-Up over Hills, Ridges, and
category includes flat, open country and grasslands. Escarpments. Wind speed-up effects at isolated hills, ridges,
Surface Roughness D: Flat, unobstructed areas and water and escarpments constituting abrupt changes in the general
surfaces. This category includes smooth mud flats, salt flats, and topography, located in any exposure category, shall be
unbroken ice. included in the determination of the wind loads when site

266 STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-16

 CHAPTER 26
WIND LOADS: GENERAL REQUIREMENTS

26.1 PROCEDURES BASIC WIND SPEED, V: Three-second gust speed at 33 ft

(10 m) above the ground in Exposure C (see Section 26.7.3) as
26.1.1 Scope. Buildings and other structures, including the main
determined in accordance with Section 26.5.1.
wind force resisting system (MWFRS) and all components
BUILDING, ENCLOSED: A building that has the total area
and cladding (C&C) thereof, shall be designed and constructed
of openings in each wall, that receives positive external pressure,
to resist the wind loads determined in accordance with
less than or equal to 4 sq ft (0.37 m2 ) or 1% of the area of that
Chapters 26 through 31. The provisions of this chapter define
wall, whichever is smaller. This condition is expressed for each
basic wind parameters for use with other provisions contained in
wall by the following equation:
this standard.
26.1.2 Permitted Procedures. The design wind loads for Ao < 0.01Ag ; or 4 sq ft ð0.37 m2 Þ; whichever is smaller;
buildings and other structures, including the MWFRS and where Ao and Ag are as defined for Open Buildings.
C&C elements thereof, shall be determined using one of the BUILDING, LOW-RISE: Enclosed or partially enclosed
procedures as specified in this section. An outline of the overall building that complies with the following conditions:
process for the determination of the wind loads, including section
references, is provided in Fig. 26.1-1. 1. Mean roof height h less than or equal to 60 ft (18 m).
2. Mean roof height h does not exceed least horizontal
26.1.2.1 Main Wind Force Resisting System. Wind loads for
dimension.
the MWFRS shall be determined using one of the following
procedures: BUILDING, OPEN: A building that has each wall at least
80% open. This condition is expressed for each wall by the
1. Directional Procedure for buildings of all heights as speci-
equation Ao ≥ 0.8Ag , where
fied in Chapter 27 for buildings meeting the requirements
specified therein; Ao = total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
2. Envelope Procedure for low-rise buildings as specified in external pressure, in ft2 (m2 ); and
Chapter 28 for buildings meeting the requirements speci- Ag = the gross area of that wall in which Ao is identified, in ft2
fied therein; (m2 ).
3. Directional Procedure for Building Appurtenances (rooftop
structures and rooftop equipment) and Other Structures BUILDING, PARTIALLY ENCLOSED: A building that
(such as solid freestanding walls and solid freestanding complies with both of the following conditions:
signs, chimneys, tanks, open signs, single-plane open 1. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
frames, and trussed towers) as specified in Chapter 29; or external pressure exceeds the sum of the areas of openings
4. Wind Tunnel Procedure for all buildings and all other in the balance of the building envelope (walls and roof) by
structures as specified in Chapter 31. more than 10%.
2. The total area of openings in a wall that receives positive
26.1.2.2 Components and Cladding. Wind loads on C&C on external pressure exceeds 4 ft2 (0.37 m2 ) or 1% of the area
all buildings and other structures shall be designed using one of of that wall, whichever is smaller, and the percentage of
the following procedures: openings in the balance of the building envelope does not
1. Analytical Procedures provided in Parts 1 through 6, as exceed 20%.
appropriate, of Chapter 30; or These conditions are expressed by the following equations:
2. Wind Tunnel Procedure as specified in Chapter 31.
Ao > 1.10Aoi
26.2 DEFINITIONS
Ao > 4 ft2 ð0.37 m2 Þ or
The following definitions apply to the provisions of Chapters 26
through 31: > 0.01Ag ; whichever is smaller; and Aoi ∕Agi ≤ 0.20
APPROVED: Acceptable to the Authority Having
where Ao and Ag are as defined for Open Building;
Jurisdiction.
ATTACHED CANOPY: A horizontal (maximum slope of Aoi = sum of the areas of openings in the building envelope (walls
2%) patio cover attached to the building wall at any height; it is and roof) not including Ao , in ft2 (m2 ); and
different from an overhang, which is an extension of the roof Agi = sum of the gross surface areas of the building envelope
surface. (walls and roof) not including Ag , in ft2 (m2 ).

Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures 245
Table 26.13-1 Main Wind Force Resisting System and Components and Cladding (All Heights): Internal Pressure Coefficient, (GC pi ), for
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, Partially Open, and Open Buildings (Walls and Roof)

Enclosure Classification Criteria for Enclosure Classification Internal Pressure Internal Pressure Coefficient, (GC pi )

Enclosed buildings Ao is less than the smaller of 0.01Ag Moderate þ0.18

or 4 sq ft (0.37 m) and Aoi ∕Agi ≤ 0.2 −0.18
Partially enclosed buildings Ao > 1.1Aoi and Ao > the lesser of 0.01Ag High þ0.55
or 4 sq ft (0.37 m) and Aoi ∕Agi ≤ 0.2 −0.55
Partially open buildings A building that does not comply with Moderate þ0.18
Enclosed, Partially Enclosed, or Open classifications −0.18
Open buildings Each wall is at least 80% open Negligible 0.00
Notes
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the internal surfaces, respectively.
2. Values of (GC pi ) shall be used with qz or qh as specified.
3. Two cases shall be considered to determine the critical load requirements for the appropriate condition:
a. A positive value of (GCpi ) applied to all internal surfaces, or
b. A negative value of (GCpi ) applied to all internal surfaces.

EXCEPTION: Other testing methods and/or performance 26.15 CONSENSUS STANDARDS AND OTHER
criteria are permitted to be used when approved. REFERENCED DOCUMENTS
Glazing and impact-protective systems in buildings and other
This section lists the consensus standards and other documents
structures classified as Risk Category IV in accordance with
that shall be considered part of this standard to the extent
Section 1.5 shall comply with the “enhanced protection” require-
referenced in this chapter.
ments of Table 3 of ASTM E1996. Glazing and impact-protective
AAMA 512, Voluntary Specifications for Tornado Hazard
systems in all other structures shall comply with the “basic
Mitigating Fenestration Products, American Architectural Man-
protection” requirements of Table 3 of ASTM E1996.
ufacturers Association, 2011.
26.12.4 Multiple Classifications. If a building by definition Cited in: C26.14.4
complies with both the “open” and “partially enclosed” ANSI A58.1, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other
definitions, it shall be classified as an “open” building. Structures, American National Standards Institute, 1982.
Cited in: Section C26.5.2
ASTM E1886, Standard test method for performance of
26.13 INTERNAL PRESSURE COEFFICIENTS exterior windows, curtain walls, doors, and impact protective
systems impacted by missile(s) and exposed to cyclic pressure
Internal pressure coefficients, (GCpi ), shall be determined from differentials, ASTM International, 2013.
Table 26.13-1 based on building enclosure classifications deter- Cited in: Section 26.12.3.2, C26.12, C26.14.4.
mined from Section 26.12. ASTM E1996, Standard specification for performance of
exterior windows, curtain walls, doors, and impact protective
26.13.1 Reduction Factor for Large-Volume Buildings, Ri . systems impacted by windborne debris in hurricanes, ASTM
For a partially enclosed building containing a single, International, 2014.
unpartitioned large volume, the internal pressure coefficient, Cited in: Section 26.12.3.2, C26.12, C26.14.4.
(GC pi ), shall be multiplied by the following reduction factor, Ri : ANSI/DASMA 115, Standard Method for Testing Sectional
Garage Doors: Determination of Structural Performance
Ri = 1.0 or under Missile Impact and Cyclic Wind Pressure, Door and
0 1 Access Systems Manufacturers Association International, 2005.
Cited in: Section 26.12.3.2, C26.12.
B 1 C ASTM E330, Standard Test Method for Structural Performance
Ri = 0.5@1 þ qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiA < 1.0 (26.13-1)
1 þ 22,800Aog Vi of Exterior Windows, Doors, Skylights, and Curtain Walls by
Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference, ASTM International, 2014.
where Cited in: Section C26.5.1
CAN/CSA A123.21, Standard test method for the dynamic wind
Aog = total area of openings in the building envelope (walls and uplift resistance of membrane-roofing systems, CSA Group, 2014.
roof, in ft2 ); and Cited in: Section C26.5.1
V i = unpartitioned internal volume, in ft3 . ICC 500, ICC/NSSA Standard for the Design and Construc-
26.14 TORNADO LIMITATION tion of Storm Shelters, International Code Council and National
Storm Shelter Association, 2014.
Tornadoes have not been considered in the wind load provisions. Cited in: Section C26.14.1, C26.14.3, C26.14.4

Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures 271
conditions and locations of buildings and other structures meet Table 26.10-1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficients,
all of the following conditions: K h and K z

1. The hill, ridge, or escarpment is isolated and unobstructed Height above Ground Level, z Exposure
upwind by other similar topographic features of comparable
height for 100 times the height of the topographic feature ft m B C D
(100H) or 2 mi (3.22 km), whichever is less. This distance
shall be measured horizontally from the point at which the 0–15 0–4.6 0.57 (0.70)a 0.85 1.03
height H of the hill, ridge, or escarpment is determined. 20 6.1 0.62 (0.70)a 0.90 1.08
2. The hill, ridge, or escarpment protrudes above the height of 25 7.6 0.66 (0.70)a 0.94 1.12
upwind terrain features within a 2-mi (3.22-km) radius in 30 9.1 0.70 0.98 1.16
any quadrant by a factor of 2 or more. 40 12.2 0.76 1.04 1.22
3. The building or other structure is located as shown in 50 15.2 0.81 1.09 1.27
Fig. 26.8-1 in the upper one-half of a hill or ridge or near 60 18.0 0.85 1.13 1.31
the crest of an escarpment. 70 21.3 0.89 1.17 1.34
4. H∕Lh ≥ 0.2. 80 24.4 0.93 1.21 1.38
5. H is greater than or equal to 15 ft (4.5 m) for Exposure C 90 27.4 0.96 1.24 1.40
and D and 60 ft (18 m) for Exposure B. 100 30.5 0.99 1.26 1.43
120 36.6 1.04 1.31 1.48
26.8.2 Topographic Factor. The wind speed-up effect shall be 140 42.7 1.09 1.36 1.52
included in the calculation of design wind loads by using the 160 48.8 1.13 1.39 1.55
factor K zt : 180 54.9 1.17 1.43 1.58
K zt = ð1 þ K 1 K 2 K 3 Þ2 (26.8-1) 200 61.0 1.20 1.46 1.61
250 76.2 1.28 1.53 1.68
where K 1 , K 2 , and K 3 are given in Fig. 26.8-1. 300 91.4 1.35 1.59 1.73
If site conditions and locations of buildings and other struc- 350 106.7 1.41 1.64 1.78
tures do not meet all the conditions specified in Section 26.8.1, 400 121.9 1.47 1.69 1.82
then K zt = 1.0. 450 137.2 1.52 1.73 1.86
500 152.4 1.56 1.77 1.89
26.9 GROUND ELEVATION FACTOR a
Use 0.70 in Chapter 28, Exposure B, when z < 30 ft (9.1 m).
Notes
The ground elevation factor to adjust for air density, K e , shall be 1. The velocity pressure exposure coefficient K z may be determined from
determined in accordance with Table 26.9-1. It is permitted to the following formula:
take K e = 1 for all elevations. For 15 ft ð4.6 mÞ ≤ z ≤ zg K z = 2.01ðz∕zg Þ2∕α
For z < 15 ft ð4.6 mÞ K z = 2.01ð15∕zg Þ2∕α
26.10 VELOCITY PRESSURE 2. α and zg are tabulated in Table 26.11-1.
3. Linear interpolation for intermediate values of height z is acceptable.
26.10.1 Velocity Pressure Exposure Coefficient. Based on the 4. Exposure categories are defined in Section 26.7.
exposure category determined in Section 26.7.3, a velocity
pressure exposure coefficient, K z or K h , as applicable, shall be
determined from Table 26.10-1. For a site located in a transition between those shown in Table 26.10-1 are permitted provided
zone between exposure categories that is near to a change in that they are determined by a rational analysis method defined in
ground surface roughness, intermediate values of K z or K h , the recognized literature.
26.10.2 Velocity Pressure. Velocity pressure, qz , evaluated at
Table 26.9-1 Ground Elevation Factor, K e
height z above ground shall be calculated by the following
equation:
Ground Elevation above Sea Level
Ground Elevation
Factor
ft m Ke qz = 0.00256K z K zt K d K e V 2 ðlb∕ft2 Þ; V in mi∕h (26.10-1)

<0 <0 See note 2

0 0 1.00 qz = 0.613K z K zt K d K e V 2 ðN∕m2 Þ; V in m∕s (26.10-1.si)
1,000 305 0.96
2,000 610 0.93 where
3,000 914 0.90
K z = velocity pressure exposure coefficient, see Section 26.10.1.
4,000 1,219 0.86
5,000 1,524 0.83
K zt = topographic factor, see Section 26.8.2.
6,000 1,829 0.80 K d = wind directionality factor, see Section 26.6.
>6,000 >1,829 See note 2 K e = ground elevation factor, see Section 26.9.
V = basic wind speed, see Section 26.5.
Notes qz = velocity pressure at height z.
1. The conservative approximation K e = 1.00 is permitted in all cases.
2. The factor K e shall be determined from the above table using interpo- The velocity pressure at mean roof height is computed
lation or from the following formula for all elevations: as qh = qz evaluated from Eq. (26.10-1) using K z at mean roof
K e = e−0.0000362zg (zg = ground elevation above sea level in ft). height h.
K e = e−0.000119zg (zg = ground elevation above sea level in m). The basic wind speed, V, used in determination of design wind
3. K e is permitted to be take as 1.00 in all cases. loads on rooftop structures, rooftop equipment, and other

268 STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-16

 Diagrams

Notation
B = Horizontal dimension of building, in ft (m), measured normal to wind direction.
L = Horizontal dimension of building, in ft (m), measured parallel to wind direction.
h = Mean roof height, in ft (m), except that eave height shall be used for θ ≤ 10 degrees.
z = Height above ground, in ft (m).
G = Gust-effect factor.
qz , qh = Velocity pressure, in lb∕ ft2 (N∕ m2 ), evaluated at respective height.
θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, in degrees.

FIGURE 27.3-1 Main Wind Force Resisting System, Part 1 (All Heights): External Pressure Coefficients, C p , for Enclosed and Partially
Enclosed Buildings—Walls and Roofs
continues

Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures 275
 Wall Pressure Coefficients, C p

Surface L∕B Cp Use With

Windward wall All values 0.8 qz

0–1 −0.5 qh
Leeward wall 2 −0.3 qh
≥4 −0.2 qh
Sidewall All values −0.7 qh

Roof Pressure Coefficients, C p, for use with q h

Windward Leeward

Angle, θ (degrees) Angle, θ (degrees)

Wind
Direction h∕L 10 15 20 25 30 35 45 ≥60c 10 15 ≥20

Normal ≤0.25 −0.7 −0.5 −0.3 −0.2 −0.2 0.0a

to Ridge −0.18 0.0a 0.2 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.01 θ −0.3 −0.5 −0.6
for 0.5 −0.9 −0.7 −0.4 −0.3 −0.2 −0.2 0.0a
θ ≥ 10° −0.18 −0.18 0.0a 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.01 θ −0.5 −0.5 −0.6
≥1.0 −1.3b −1.0 −0.7 −0.5 −0.3 −0.2 0.0a
−0.18 −0.18 −0.18 0.0a 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.01 θ −0.7 −0.6 −0.6

Wind Direction h/L Horizontal Distance from Windward Edge Cp

Normal to Ridge for ≤0.5 0 to h∕ 2 −0.9, −0.18

θ < 10° and Parallel h∕ 2 to h −0.9, −0.18
to Ridge for All θ h to 2h −0.5, −0.18
>2 h −0.3, −0.18
≥1.0 0 to h∕ 2 −1.3b, −0.18
>h∕ 2 −0.7, −0.18
a
Value is provided for interpolation purposes.
b
Value can be reduced linearly with area over which it is applicable as follows:
c
For roof slopes greater than 80°, use Cp = 0.8.

Area, ft 2 Area, m 2 Reduction Factor

≤100 ≤9.3 1.0

250 23.2 0.9
≥1,000 ≥92.9 0.8

Notes
1. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the surfaces, respectively.
2. Linear interpolation is permitted for values of L∕ B, h∕ L, and θ other than shown. Interpolation shall only be carried out between
values of the same sign. Where no value of the same sign is given, assume 0.0 for interpolation purposes.
3. Where two values of C p are listed, this indicates that the windward roof slope is subjected to either positive or negative pressures
and the roof structure shall be designed for both conditions. Interpolation for intermediate ratios of h∕ L in this case shall only be
carried out between C p values of like sign.
4. For monoslope roofs, entire roof surface is either a windward or leeward surface.
5. Refer to Fig. 27.3-2 for domes and Fig. 27.3-3 for arched roofs.
6. For mansard roofs, the top horizontal surface and leeward inclined surface shall be treated as leeward surfaces from
the table.
7. Except for MWFRSs at the roof consisting of moment-resisting frames, the total horizontal shear shall not be less than that
determined by neglecting wind forces on roof surfaces.
FIGURE 27.3-1 (Coninued ). Main Wind Force Resisting System, Part 1 (All Heights): External Pressure Coefficients, C p , for Enclosed and
Partially Enclosed Buildings—Walls and Roofs

276 STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-16

 Diagrams

Notation
L = Horizontal dimension of roof, measured in the along-wind direction, ft (m).
h = Mean roof height, ft (m).
γ = Direction of wind, degrees.
θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees.

Net Pressure Coefficient, C N

Wind Direction, γ = 0° Wind Direction, γ = 180°

Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow

Roof Angle, θ Load Case CNW C NL C NW C NL CNW C NL CNW C NL

0° A 1.2 0.3 −0.5 −1.2 1.2 0.3 −0.5 −1.2

B −1.1 −0.1 −1.1 −0.6 −1.1 −0.1 −1.1 −0.6
7.5° A −0.6 −1.0 −1.0 −1.5 0.9 1.5 –0.2 −1.2
B −1.4 0.0 −1.7 −0.8 1.6 0.3 0.8 −0.3
15° A −0.9 −1.3 −1.1 −1.5 1.3 1.6 0.4 −1.1
B −1.9 0.0 −2.1 −0.6 1.8 0.6 1.2 −0.3
22.5° A −1.5 −1.6 −1.5 −1.7 1.7 1.8 0.5 −1.0
B −2.4 −0.3 −2.3 −0.9 2.2 0.7 1.3 0.0
30° A −1.8 −1.8 −1.5 −1.8 2.1 2.1 0.6 −1.0
B −2.5 −0.5 −2.3 −1.1 2.6 1.0 1.6 0.1
37.5° A −1.8 −1.8 −1.5 −1.8 2.1 2.2 0.7 −0.9
B −2.4 −0.6 −2.2 −1.1 2.7 1.1 1.9 0.3
45° A −1.6 −1.8 −1.3 −1.8 2.2 2.5 0.8 −0.9
B −2.3 −0.7 −1.9 −1.2 2.6 1.4 2.1 0.4

Notes
1. C NW and C NL denote net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces) for windward and leeward half of roof surfaces,
respectively.
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes
objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. For values of θ between 7.5° and 45°, linear interpolation is permitted. For values of θ less than 7.5°, use load coefficients for 0°.
4. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
5. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.

FIGURE 27.3-4 Main Wind Force Resisting System, Part 1 (0.25 ≤ h∕L ≤ 1.0): Net Pressure Coefficient, C N , for Open Buildings with
Monoslope Free Roofs, θ ≤ 45°, γ = 0°, 180°)

Minimum Design Loads and Associated Criteria for Buildings and Other Structures 279
 Diagrams

Notation
L = Horizontal dimension of roof, measured in the along-wind direction, ft (m).
h = Mean roof height, ft (m). See Figs. 27.3-4, 27.3-5, or 27.3-6 for a graphical depiction of this dimension.
γ = Direction of wind, degrees.
θ = Angle of plane of roof from horizontal, degrees.

Net Pressure Coefficient, C N

Horizontal Distance from Clear Wind Flow Obstructed Wind Flow

Windward Edge Roof Angle θ Load Case CN CN

<h All shapes A −0.8 −1.2

θ < 45° B 0.8 0.5
>h; <2 h All shapes A −0.6 −0.9
θ < 45° B 0.5 0.5
>2h All shapes A −0.3 −0.6
θ < 45° B 0.3 0.3

Notes
1. C N denotes net pressures (contributions from top and bottom surfaces).
2. Clear wind flow denotes relatively unobstructed wind flow with blockage less than or equal to 50%. Obstructed wind flow denotes
objects below roof inhibiting wind flow (>50% blockage).
3. Plus and minus signs signify pressures acting toward and away from the top roof surface, respectively.
4. All load cases shown for each roof angle shall be investigated.
5. For monoslope roofs with θ less than 5 degrees, CN values shown apply also for cases where γ = 0 degrees and 0.05 less than or
equal to h∕ L less than or equal to 0.25. See Fig. 27.3-4 for other h∕ L values.

FIGURE 27.3-7 Main Wind Force Resisting System, Part 1 (0.25 ≤ h∕L ≤ 1.0): Net Pressure Coefficient, C N ,
for Open Buildings with Free Roofs, θ ≤ 45°, γ = 90°, 270°

282 STANDARD ASCE/SEI 7-16