Chapter 1

Vectors

Introduction

Many physical quantities such as mass, length, area, density, volume, etc that possess only
magnitude are called . While other physical quantities such as force, displacement, velocity,
acceleration, etc that has both magnitude and direction are called

Therefore, this chapter deals with the concept of vectors and vector operations in n-space, norm of a
vector, scalar product, vector product, orthogonal projections, applications of vectors and equations
of lines and planes.

Objectives

At the end of this chapter students will be able to:-

 Define vector.
 List properties of vectors.
 Add vectors and multiply a vector by a scalar.
 Determine the length and direction of vectors.
 List properties of scalar product and vector product.
 Find the scalar and vector product of vectors.
 Find the volume of a parallelepiped generated by three vectors.

1.1 Definition of points in n-space

It is known that a real number x can be used to represent a point on a number line once a unit
length is selected.(see figure1.1).

A pair of numbers (x x ) can be used to represent a point in the plane.(see figure1.2).

Similarly a triple of numbers (x x x ) can be used to represent a point in three dimensional

space.(see figure1.3).

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 z

y
P(x1,x2,x3)
y
P(x1 ,x2) Type equation here
,,
0 x ⬚⬚ 𝑥Type equation y
x
Point on a line

Point in 3-space
x
Point in a plane
Figure1.1

Figure1.2 Figure1.3

Generally, an n-tuple of numbers (x x x x )is used to represent a point in

n-dimensional space. The numbers x x x x are called the coordinates of the point.

If (x x x x ) and (y y y y ) are points in the same space and if  is

a real number then,

1. and are equal (or represent the same point) if x y ,x y and x y

2. (x y x y x y ) and

3.  =(x1, x2,…, xn)

vectors in a plane and their geometrical interpretation

In physics and engineering, a vector is characterized by two quantities length and direction.
Thus a vector is a directed line segment that corresponds to a displacement from one point to another
point.

Now we can visualize this directed line segment geometrically as follows.

Geometrical representation of vectors

Vectors can be represented geometrically as a directed line segments or arrows in a plane. Suppose
and be two points in a plane. The vector from to is denoted by ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , where the point P is

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called its initial point (tail), and the point Q is called its terminal point (head) as shown in the
figure1.4. Q

Figure1.4

A vector is also denoted by single boldface, lowercase letters such as et

Note: The length (magnitude) of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is denoted by |⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |and its direction is from point
to point as shown in the above fig.

Question: What is the length and direction of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ?

Definition 1:- Two vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ are equal if and only if they have the same magnitude and
Q S
the same direction.

Figure1.5 P R

Coordinate representation of vectors in the plane

We say that a vector in the plane is represented geometrically by a directed line segment. Vectors
with initial points at the origin of the coordinate system are said to be vectors in standard position.
The vector u in the figure1.6 below is a standard position vector with terminal point(x y).

The ordered pair (x y) is the coordinate representation of the vector , and it can be written as
(x y). The coordinates x and y are called the components of the vector .
y

(x, y)
Terminal point
u
Figure1.6
x
Initial point

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Two position vectors (x x ) and (y y ) in the plane are equal If and only if

x y and x y .

It is known that two given points in a plane determine a line segment. Let (x1,x2) and (y1,y2) be the
coordinate representation of the given points A and B respectively in a plane. Since a vector is a
directed line segment, then ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is a vector determined by the points A and B, and this vector is given
by B - A=(y1-x1, y2-x2), that is the coordinates of B minus corresponding coordinates of A.
Therefore, for such types of vectors in a plane, there exists a unique position vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ such that
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ =B - A, where O is the origin of the coordinate system. y B

P
A
Figure1.7

x
O
Example 1: Let ( ) and ( ) be two points on a plane. Find the terminal point of the
vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ such that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

( )and ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ), which is the

terminal point of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ .

1.2 Vector operations in a plane

A) Vector Addition
Now, let and be vectors with initial points at and and terminal points at and
respectively. To find the sum , geometrically connect the two vectors head-to-tail as shown in
figure1.6.
Q=P’
u
v

P u+v Q’

Figure1.8

On the other hand, let u and v be vectors in a plane with coordinate (u u ) and

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 (v v ) then the sum of the two vectors is given by:

(u u ) (v v ) (u v u v )

Example 2: let ( ) and ( ) then ( ) ( )

( ( ))

( )

Question: Is it possible for three nonzero vectors to have sum zero?

Properties of Vector Addition

1. Vector addition is commutative: , for any vectors and .

v+u

u
v
u
u+v

Figure1.9

2. Vector addition is associative: ( ) ( ), for any vectors , and .

v
w
u v+w
u+v

(u+v) + w =u + (v + w)
Figure1.10

3. Existence of identity element: the zero vector, denoted by 0, is the identity element for vector

addition. , for any vector u.

Question: What can you say about the magnitude and direction of the zero vector?

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4. Existence of additive inverse:- The additive inverse of a vector has the same magnitude as but

opposite direction to , and is denoted by – . Hence ( ) ( )

B) Scalar multiplication
Let be a vector and  . The scalar multiple of , denoted by  , is a vector with

magnitude||| |.

If  then the vectors and  have opposite direction.

If  then the vectors and  have the same direction.
If  then the vectors  is the zero vector.
Properties of scalar multiplication

Let and be vectors and  , then

1. ( )  .
2. ( )  
3. ( ) ( ) ( ).
4. .
Vectors in n-space ( )

The discussion of vectors in the plane can now extended to a discussion of vectors in n-space.

Definition 2: An ordered n-tuple of numbers ( ) represent a vector in .

The numbers are called components of the vector.

Remark: From definition of points in n-space (section1.1) and definition1.3.1, we can conclude

that an ordered n-tuple of numbers ( ) represent either a point or a

position vector.

The set of all n-tuples is called n-space and is denoted by .

That is: =1-space=set of all real numbers.

=2-space=set of all ordered pairs of real numbers.

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 =3-space=set of all ordered triples of real numbers.

=n-space=set of all ordered n-tuples of real numbers.

Similar to that of equality of two vectors in 2-space, two vectors in n-space are equal if and only if
corresponding components are equal.

The sum of two vectors and the scalar multiple of a vector in are defined as follows.

1. Let (u u u u ) and (v v v v ) be vectors in and  be a real

number then the sum of and is defined as the vector,

(u u u u ) + (v v v v )

(u v u v u v u v )

2. The scalar multiple of by  is defined as the vector

 (u u u u ) (u u u u ).

Notice that u u u u an v v v v are the components of the vectors u

and v respectively.

Example 3: let ( ) ( ) be two vectors in , then find

a)

b) find a vector such that .

a) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

( ( ) ) ( )

b) rewriting this we get

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 ( ) ( ) ( ), now multiplying both sides

by we get ( ) ( ).

n
Properties of vector addition and scalar multiplication in

Let an be vectors in (n-space) and let  and be scalars, then

1. Closure property under addition

2. Commutative property of additive

3. Associative property of addition

( ) ( )
4. Additive identity property

5. Additive inverse property

( )
6. Closure property under multiplication
 .
7. Distributive property
( )  .
8. Distributive property
( )   .
9. Associative property of multiplication
( ) ( ) ( ).
10. Multiplicative identity property

1.3 Norm of a vector

Definition 3 The length (magnitude) of a vector (u u u u ) in is

called the norm of , denoted by ‖ ‖, and is defined by ‖ ‖ √u u u

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If (u u ) is in 2-space, as shown in the figure,
y
Then by Pythagoras theorem ‖ ‖ √u u . (u u )
‖𝐮‖ (
, u
Figure1.11
x
Example 4: Find the norm of the vector a) ( ) u

b) ( )

a) ‖ ‖ √ ( ) √ √

b) ‖ ‖ √ √ √

Definition 4: A vector is said to be a unit vector if and only if ‖ ‖ .

Question: Can you find a unit vector along any given non-zero vector ? ( how?)

The answer is yes, because given any non-zero vector , we can always obtain a unit vector along

the given vector, and this unit vector is given by: .

‖ ‖

Question: let ( ) be a given vector, can you find two unit vectors, one is in the

direction of u and the other is in the opposite direction of u?

Definition 5: Two non-zero vectors and are said to be parallel if and only if  for

some  * +

Question: Find at least four vectors that are parallel to the vector u= (2,-3,0, 8).

Angle between two vectors

u
The angle between two non-zero vectors and is defined as
𝜃
the angle ( ) formed by the vectors and
v

with the same initial point. Figure1.12

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Activity1.3

1. If and are two vectors with the same initial point and is the angle between them.

What can you say about the directions of the two vectors and if:-

) ) )

2. Let u=(1,3,-5), v=(0,0,2) and w=(-2,0,3).

a) find the components of i) u-3v ii) 3(u+v-2w)

b) find the scalars a such that au + bv - cw=(1,0,2).

3. Find the vector u and v so that u + v = (4,5,6) and u – v = (2,5,8).

4. Find a unit vector u in the direction of v = (3,4,5).

5. Find the norm of the vector u= (2, -3, √ , ).

1.4 Scalar product

Definition 6: Let and be two vectors and be the angle between and . Then the

scalar product of and is denoted by and is defined by

‖ ‖‖ ‖ ,

If and are non-zero vectors, the angle between them is given by: ‖ ‖‖ ‖
.

Example 5: Let and be vectors with lengths 2 and 5 units respectively. If the angle

between and is then the scalar product of and is

√
‖ ‖‖ ‖ ( )( ) . / √

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Let (u u u u ) and (v v v v ) be vectors in n-space. Then the scalar
product of and is defined by:

(u u u u ) (v v v v ) u v u v u v u v

Example 6: Let ( ) and ( ) be two vectors in 3-space. Then the angle

between them is

( )( )
.
‖ ‖‖ ‖ .√ /.√ / (√ )(√ )

Hence the angle between them is . /

Example 7: Let ( ) and ( ) then

( ).( )

( )( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Question: 1. Can you determine the angle between and in example 1.4.3?

2. Find ̂. ̂ and ̂ . ̂ where ̂=(1,0,0) and ̂=(0,1,0)

Properties of scalar product

Let an be vectors in and let  , then

1. ……………………………Comutativity property.
2. ( ) …………….Associativity property.
3. ( ) ( ) ( )………..Relationship between scalar product and
scalar multiplication.
4. . and if and only if .
Remark: Let (u u u u ) be a vector. Using scalar product we can also determine

the length of the vector as follows.

‖ ‖‖ ‖

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 ‖ ‖

‖ ‖

Then, ‖ ‖ √ √(u u u u ) (u u u u )

√u u u , as stated in definition1.3.2.

Theorem 1: Let u be a vector in n-space and let  be a scalar. Then

a) ‖ ‖ and ‖ ‖ if and only if

b) ‖ ‖ ||‖ ‖
Proof: a) Let (u u u u )

then ‖ ‖ √ √u u u

Since u for all i n, ‖ ‖ .

‖ ‖ if and only if u for all i n, and

u 0 if and only if u for all i n,

Therefore

b) ‖ ‖ √  √ ( ) √ √ ||‖ ‖

Orthogonal vectors

It is known that the concept of perpendicularity is fundamental to geometry; consequently the

concept of orthogonality is fundamental to Linear Algebra. Thus the perpendicularity or
orthogonality of vectors in is defined as follows.

Definition 7: Two non zero vectors and v are said to be perpendicular (or orthogonal) if

and only if the angle between them is 900 .

Question: 1. Is the zero vector orthogonal to every vector? Why?

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 2. Let ( ) be a given vector. Then how many nonzero vectors are there

that are orthogonal to u?

Theorem 2: Let u and v be two non-zero vectors. u and v are orthogonal if and only if

a) u.v=0
b) ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
Proof: a) (i) Suppose u and v are orthogonal. We need to show that u.v=0.

‖ ‖‖ ‖ os

‖ ‖‖ ‖ os `

(ii) Suppose . We want to show that u and v are orthogonal.

‖ ‖‖ ‖ os , dividing both sides by ‖ ‖‖ ‖ we get

os and since

Therefore, u and v are orthogonal.

b) (i) Suppose u and v are orthogonal.

‖ ‖ ( )( )

( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ , since

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ (why?)

‖ ‖

Hence, ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖.

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 (ii) Suppose ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖. Then squaring both sides we get

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ , expanding it we also get

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ , after simplification we get

and then

Therefore, u and v are orthogonal vectors.

Definition 8: Let P and Q be points in . The distance between P and Q denoted by

( ) is defined as ( ) ‖ ‖. ( is a vector).

Example 8: Find the distance between the points ( ) and ( ).

Solution: ( ) ‖ ‖ ‖( ) ( )‖

‖( )‖ √ ( ) ( )

√ √

Theorem 3: Let u and v be vectors in , then

a) | | ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ……….(Schwartz inequality)
b) ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖……….(Triangle inequality)
Proof: a) If either or , then the theorem is true.

If ‖ ‖ and ‖ ‖ , we need to prove ‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖.

This statement is true if and only if

‖ ‖‖ ‖
.

Now ,
‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖
, where ‖ ‖
an ‖ ‖
are both unit vectors.

Thus, it is enough to show that for any unit vectors a and b.

The term occurs as part of the expansion of ( )( ) as well as part of

( )( ).

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The first expansion gives ( )( ) ‖ ‖

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

Similarly the second expansion gives ( )( ) ‖ ‖

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

Hence .

b) ‖ ‖ ( )( )

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

‖ ‖ | | ‖ ‖

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ …….Schwartz inequality.

,‖ ‖ ‖ ‖-

Therefore, ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖.

1.5 Orthogonal Projection and Directions cosine

The general concept of scalar product of vectors together with their orthogonality property is still
important in dealing with orthogonal projection of vectors.

Definition 9: Let and be two non zero vectors with the same initial point at A and

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 be the angle between and ,( ). The vector obtained by droping a

perpendicular from the head of onto or on the extention of with initial at A

is called an orthogonal projection of onto .

𝐮 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐣𝐮𝐯
Figure1.13
𝜃 v
A 𝐩𝐫𝐨𝐣𝐮𝐯

The projection of onto is a vector denoted by proj and the length of the vector proj

is given by ‖ ‖ . Thus the vector proj ‖ ‖ .‖ ‖ /

‖ ‖
( os )
‖ ‖

‖ ‖
.
‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖
/

‖ ‖
( )

Example 9: Let ( ) and ( ). Find

( )
a) proj b) proj c) proj

( )( )
a) proj ( ) ( ) ( ) ( ).
‖ ‖
.√ ( ) /

Similarly, you can do for (b) and (c).

Note: proj and v are parallel vectors while u-proj and v are perpendicular vectors.( verify it).

Direction cosines

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Let ̂ ̂ and ̂ be unit vectors along the positive x y and z- axes of the rectangular coordinate system.
Let â ĵ k̂ (a ) be a nonzero vector. If and are angles between and the

vector ̂ ̂ and ̂ respectively as shown in the figure, z

u

̂
Then os ‖ ‖‖ ̂‖ ‖ ‖
𝑘̂ 𝜃
𝛽
y
𝐢̂ 𝛼 𝑗̂
̂
os ‖ ‖‖ ̂ ‖ ‖ ‖
and
x

̂
os ‖ ‖‖ ̂ ‖

‖ ‖

Figure1.14

The angles and are called directions angles of u, and the numbers os , os and os are
called direction cosines of u.

Activity 1.4

1. Determine whether the following pairs of vectors are equal or parallel or orthogonal.

a) ( ) and ( )
b) ( ) and ( )
c) ( ) and ( )
d) ( ) and ( )
2. For vectors and in or specify the condition(s) for which ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖

3. Let ( ) and ( )find c such that

a) and are orthogonal.

b) the angle between and is

4. Let ( ) and ( ). Find

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 a)

b) the angle between and

c) a unit vector orthogonal to the vector v by projecting u onto v.

d) the direction cosines of u.

5. Let be the angle between and , then identify the direction of the vectors and v if

a) b) c)

1.6 The Vector Product (Cross Product)

Definition: Let ( ) and ( ) be vectors in .

The vector product (or cross product) of and is denoted by  is a vector in

and defined by :  ( z y (az x) ay x).

Example 1: Find the vector product of the vectors

a) ( ) and ( )
b) ( ) and ( )

a)  .( )( ) ( ) ( ( ) ( )) ( )— ( )( )/

( ( ) ) ( ).

b)  ( ( ( )) — ) ( )

Standard Unit Vectors

The vectors ̂ ( ) ̂ ( ) and ̂ ( ) are unit vectors that lie on the positive and
-axes respectively, and are called standard unit vectors in 3-space.

Every vector (x y z) in can be expressed in terms of the unit vectors ̂ ̂ and ̂ . That is
x̂ ŷ ẑ

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Example 2: Write the vector ( ) interms of the standard unit vectors.

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ̂ ̂ ̂

Remark:- ̂  ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂̂ ̂ ̂  ̂ ̂

̂ ̂ ̂  ̂ ̂ ̂̂ ̂

Now if â ̂ ̂ and and x̂ ŷ z ̂ then

 (a ̂ ̂ ̂ )  (x ̂ ŷ ẑ ) ax( ̂  ̂) ay( ̂  ̂) az( ̂x̂ ) x( ̂  ̂) y( ̂  ̂)

z( ̂  ̂ ) x(̂  ̂) y(̂  ̂) z(̂  ̂ )

ay ̂ az( ̂ ) x( ̂ ) ẑ x̂ y( ̂)

( z y) ̂ ( x az) ̂ (ay x) ̂

( z y (az x) ay x), as given in definition1.5.1.

Theorem: (properties of vector product)

Let u, v and w be vectors in and  , then

a)  (  )
b) 

c) 

d) (  ) (  )
e)  ( ) (  ) (  )
f)  (  ) (  )  ( )
Proof: Let (a ) and (x y z) then

 (a )  (x y z)

( z y (az x) ay x)

( y z az x x y

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 (  )

To prove the other properties take the vectors (a ) and (x y z) and (r s t) and
apply the definition of cross product.

Remark: 1. The vector  is orthogonal to both vectors u and v.

2. If  then u and v are parallel vectors.

3. Since the scalar product of u and  is zero then u and  are orthogonal

vectors.

Example 3: Let ( ) and ( ) then show that  is orthogonal to both

vectors u and v.

 ( )( ) ( )

Thus (  ) ( )( )

(  ) ( )( )

Therefore,  is orthogonal to both vectors u and v.

3
Theorem: Let u and v be vectors in if is the angle between u and v. Then

a) ‖  ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ( )

b) ‖  ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖

proof: Let u=(a,b,c) and v=(x,y,z) be vectors in

i) ‖  ‖ (  )(  )

( z y x az ay x) ( z y x az ay x)

( z y) ( x az) (ay x)

( z) z y ( y) ( x) xaz (az) (ay) ay x ( x)

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 ( z) ( y) ( x) (az) ( x) z y xaz ay x

(a )(x y z ) (ax) ( y) ( z) z y xaz ay x

(a )(x y z ) (ax y z)

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ( )

ii) ‖  ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ ( )

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ (‖ ‖‖ ‖ os )

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ , os -

‖ ‖ ‖ ‖ sin

,‖ ‖‖ ‖sin -

Therefore, ‖  ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖sin ,

Activity 1.6

1. Let and Then find:-

a) b) and c) 

2. Let ( ) ( ) and ( ) be three vectors in , then find

a)  b)  ( ) c) an orthogonal vector to both v and w.

d) a unit vector perpendicular to both vectors u and w.

e) the angle between the vectors u and v.

f) the volume of the parallelepiped generated by the three vectors u, v and w.

Application on Area and Volume

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Area: Let u and v be nonzero vectors in and be the angle between u and v. Then

‖  ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖ , for , is the area of the parallelogram determined by the

vectors u and v.
u
‖𝑢‖𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃

𝜃
v
Figure1.15

Area = (base)(height)=‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖ ‖‖ ‖ ‖  ‖

Example 4- Find the area of the parallelogram determined by the vectors

( ) and ( )

Area=‖  ‖ ‖( )‖ √( ) √ square units.

Example 5: Find the area of the triangle with vertices P=(2,6,-1), Q=(1,4,1) and R=(3,6,2).

Let ( ) and ( ) be vectors with initial at and terminal at

and respectively. Then the area of triangle is one-half the area of the parallelogram
determined by the vectors and .

That is, ‖  ‖ ‖( )‖ √ √ square units.

To see the other application of scalar product together with vector product of vectors, let us see first
the following definition.

Definition: Let and be vectors in , then (  ) is called the scalar triple

product of and .

Example 6: Let ( )v ( ) and w ( ), then

(  ) ( ) (( )( ))

( )( )

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Remark: For any vectors and in , (  ) (  ) (  ).

Volume: The geometrical interpretation of the scalar triple product (  ) is as follows

𝐯 𝐰

u
𝜃
w

v
Figure1.16

(  ) ‖ ‖‖  ‖ , where is the angle between u and  as shown in figure1.15.

(‖ ‖ )‖  ‖, where ‖ ‖| | is height of the parallelepiped and ‖  ‖ is

the area of the base of the parallelepiped.

Therefore,| (  )| Volume of the parallelepiped, generated by the three vectors and

in .

Example 7: Find the volume V of the parallelepiped generated by the vectors

a) ( )v ( ) and ( )

b) ( )v ( ) and ( )

a) | (  )| |( ) (( )( ))|

|( )( )| | ( ) ( )| | | cubic units.

b) | (  )| |( ) (( )( ))|

|( )( )| | | | | cubic units

1.7 Lines and Planes in Space

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 23

In this section we use the concept of vectors to drive the parametric, the normal and vector
forms of equations of a line in and , as well as planes.

Lines in 2

Suppose that is a line in a plane through the points and as shown in the figure1.16. and let be
a vector perpendicular to at then the vectors and are orthogonal to each other at .
y 𝑛
That is ( ) . 𝑙
Q
Therefore, the equation ( ) P
x
is called the normal form of equation of a line in . figure1.17

The general form of equation of a line is , where ( ) and (x,y) is a point on

the line .

Lines in

Again let be a line in 3-space passing through the point (x y z ) and parallel to the nonzero

vector (a ). Let (x y z) be an arbitrary point on for which the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ is parallel to
. Then by definition1.3.4, if two vectors are parallel then there exist a scalar such that ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
t ………………(1)
y
𝑙
𝑝
𝒓
𝐫 v

Figure1.18

But ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ , and then

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 24

In terms of components equation (1) becomes (x x y y z z ) (a ) and from
equality of vectors x x a y y and z z .

x x a
Thus the equation {y y ………………………(2)
z z

is called parametric equation of the line and is called a parameter.

Now taking (x y z ) and (x y z) to be the terminal points of position vectors

(x y z ) and (x y z) respectively as shown in the figure1.17, we get ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ that is,
t or t . ……………………(3).

3
Equation (3) is called the vector form of a line in .

Example 1: Find the vector form and parametric form of equation of the line passing through the
point ( ) and parallel to the vector ( ).

The vector form of equation of a line is t , where is a position vector whose terminal
point is an arbitrary point (x y z) on the line and is also a position vector with terminal
point ( ) on

Therefore, the required vector form of the equation of the line is:

(x y z) ( ) ( ) and the corresponding parametric equation of the line is x

y and z .

Example 2: a) Find the parametric form of equation of the line, which passes through the

points ( ) ( ).

b) Find the intersection of the line you obtain in part (a) and the xy-plane?

a) Since the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) lies on the line l, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and l are parallel. As

( ) is on , the parametric equation of the line is x y and

z .

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 25

 b) The line intersects the xy-plane at the point where z ; that is when .

Substituting this value of t in the parametric equation of , we get the point of intersection

(x y z) ( ).

Equation of a Plane

Suppose the plane passing through the point (x y z )and having the nonzero normal vector
(a ) to the plane at . Let ( ) be arbitrary point on the plane, as shown in the
figure1.18. (a vector that is orthogonal to a plane is called normal vector).

z n

𝑃 P

x Figure1.19

is orthogonal to the plane at , hence ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ………………………(1)

where, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (x x y y z z ) and (a ).

Equation (1) can be written as a(x x ) (y y ) (z z ) ………………(2)

Equation (2) is called point-normal form of equation of a plane.

From equation (2) we get ax y z ax y z an letting the constant ax

y z , we get the equation ax y z , which is called the general form of
equation of a plane, with normal vector ( ).

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 26

Let (x y z ) and (x y z) be position vectors with terminal points (x y z ) and
(x y z) respectively, since the two vectors ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ and represent the same vector as shown
in figure 1.17, ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ . So equation (1) can be written as ( ) . This equation is
called the vector form of the equation of a plane.

Two planes in 3-space are said to be parallel if their normal vectors are parallel. They are said
to be perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular. The angle between two planes is
defined to be the angle between their normal vectors.

Example 3: Find the equation of the plane passing through the point ( ) and

perpendicular to the vector ( ).

Let (x y z) be any point on the plane. Then the point-normal form of equation of the

plane is given by: (x ) (y ) (z ) . Simplifying this gives

x y z .

Example 4: Let ( ) ( )and ( ) be three points.

Find the equation of the plane that pass through the points an .

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) and ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( ) are two vectors in the plane with

common initial point at . The normal vector to the plane at is

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗  ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ( )

Since is on the plane, the point- normal form of equation of the plane is

(x ) (y ) (z ) or x y z ,

Example 5: Find the equation of the plane that pass through the point ( ) and

is parallel to the plane x y z .

Let be a normal vector to the required plane and be the normal vector to the

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 27

 plane x y z . Then ( ). Since the two planes are parallel, their

normal vectors are parallel. Thus, where is a nonzero scalar. This implies

( t t t).Now if we choose then ( ) then by the point-

normal form of equation of the plane, the required equation is

(x ) (y ) (z ) or 5x y z .

Distance from a point to a plane

In this subtopic we want to drive the distance formula from a point to a plane using the concept of
vectors.

Theorem: The distance D from a point (x y z ), not on the plane, and the plane

| |
ax y z is given by: .
√

where P0 is not on the plane,

𝐧
z 𝑃
D

x
Figure1.20

Proof: let (x y z ) be any point in the plane. Let (a )be a normal vector whose

initial point is at .

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ | ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ |

‖ ‖ |‖ ( )| ,
‖ ‖ ‖

But ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ (a ) (x x y y z z ) a(x x ) (y y ) (z z )

ax y z ax y z .

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 28

 | |
‖ ‖ √ . Thus .
√

Since ( ) lies on the plane it satisfies the equation of the plane. That is

ax y z or ax y z .

|ax y z |
Therefore, .
√a

Examples 5: Find the distance between the point ( ) and the plane

x y z .

|ax y z |
, where a=2,b=1,c=-3 and d=-5
√a

| ( ) ( ) ( )( ) ( )|
√
√ ( )

Example 7: Find the distance between the parallel planes:x y z and

x y z

Since corresponding normal vectors n1=(1,2,-2) and n2=(2,4,-4) are parallel, the two planes are
parallel. Thus take any point on one of the plane and find the distance between the point of your
choice and the other plane. For instance, the point ( ) is on the plane x y z

Therefore, the distance between the plane containing the point ( ) and the other plane x y
| ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )| | |
z is: .
√ ( ) √

Activity1.7

1. Let be a line through the points ( ) an ( ) Find the vector form and the

parametric equation of .

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 29

2. Determine the equation of the xy-plane.

3. Determine the acute angles between the planes x + y + z = 1 and x y z .

4. Find the distance from the point ( ) to

a) the plane z x b) the line x .

Self test exercise

1. Find the non zero vector u with initial point at (-1,3,-5)and having the same direction as the
vector (2,-1,4).
2. Let ( ) and ( ) Then find ‖ √ ‖.
3. Using vector method, show that the line joining the mid points of the two sides of a triangle
is parallel to the third side and has half the length.
4. Let u=(2,-1) and v=(-1,2) be given. Find a vector w such that w.u=1 and w.v=0.
5. If ‖ ‖=5 and ‖ ‖=3. What are the smallest and the largest values of
a) b) ‖ ‖.
6. Let an be vectors in such that and ‖ ‖ ,‖ ‖ ,‖ ‖ .
Then find the angle between an .
‖ ‖
7. If is the angle between u and v and u.v , then prove that .

8. Let u=(x, y+2, 1, 2) and v=(3, 1, x+y, x-1) be vectors. For what values of x and y the vectors
u and v are orthogonal.
9. If (  ) then find the values of (  ) and (  ).
10. If the vectors and , lies in the same plane then prove that (  )(  )
11. Verify that the triangle with vertices P(2,3,-4), Q(3,1,2) and R(7,0,1) is a right angled
triangle.
12. Find the interior angles and area of the parallelogram generated by the
vectors ( ) ( )
13. Find the angle between a diagonal of a cube and one of its adjacent edges?
14. Find the parametric equation of the line passing through the point ( ) and
parallel to the vector ( ).

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 30

 15. Determine whether the following lines and planes are parallel or perpendicular or neither.
a.
b.
c.
16. Find the parametric equation for the line of intersection of the planes
and .
17. Find the equation of the plane that pass through the origin and is parallel to the plane

18. Find the intersection of the line with parametric equation

and the plane
19. Find the distance from the point ( ) to the line l through the point
( )an is parallel to the vector ( ).

1.8 Vector spaces

1.8.1 Definitions and Examples

The axioms of a vector space

Question: What do we mean by axioms and vector space?

We define a vector space as follows.

Definition: Let V be a non- empty set. Define two operation * and  on V

*: VV  V

: V  V

which we call them vector addition and scalar multiplication of vectors respectively. If V with
these operations, written as, (V, *,  ) satisfies the following axioms then we say that ( V,*,  ) is a
vector space over .

Let u, v and w be vectors in V and

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 31

V1: Associative property : (u * v) * w = u * (v * w)

V2: Commutative property: u * v = v *u

V3: Existence of identity element for * in V: There exist an element in V called the zero vector,
denoted by 0 such that u * 0 = 0 * u = u

V4 : For any vector u in V there exist a vector in V, denoted by -u which is called the inverse
u such that u * (-u) = (-u) * u = 0 .

V5: (    )  u = (   u) * (   u).

V6:   (u *v) = (  u) * (  v).

V7: (  )  u =   (  u).

V8: 1  u = u.

Notice that the elements (or objects) of a vector space can be vectors or matrices or polynomial
functions or other continuous functions defined on the real number line.

Examples of a vector space

The following examples listed from 1 to 3 are vector spaces under the usual operations of addition
and scalar multiplications (standard operations).

1. The set of all real numbers.

2. The set of all polynomials (Pn) of degree less than or equal to n.

3. The set of all triples of numbers.

I hope that you will verify each of them after you practice on the following examples.

Example 1: Let V = {(a, b): a, b }= . Define

* : V x V  V by (a, b ) * (x, y)= (a + x, b + y) .

: x V  V by  (a, b) = (  a,  b).

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 32

 Show that (V, *,  ) is a vector space over

V1: Associative property

Let u = (a, b) , v = (c, d) and w = (x, y )  V. Then

(u * v) * w = [(a, b) * (c, d)] * (x, y) .

= [(a + c, b +d)] * (x, y).

= [(a + c) + x, (b + d) + y).

= (a + (c + x,), b + (d + y)) (why?)

= (a, b)*[c + x, d + y) (why?)

= (a, b)* [c, d) *(x, y)].

= u * (v * w).

V2: Commutative property

Let u = (a, b) and v = (x, y) be vectors in V. Then

u * v = (a, b) * (x, y) = (x + a, y + b) (why?)

= (a + x, b + y) = (x + a, y +b) why?)

= (x + y) * (a, b).

= v *u

V3: Existence of identity element.

The zero vector 0 = (0, 0) is the identity element for * in V.

Let u = (a, b) be a vector in V. Then

u * 0 = (a, b) * (0, 0) = (a + 0, b + 0) = (a, b) and

u * 0 = (0, 0) * (a, b) = (0 + a, 0 + b) = (a, b).

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 33

Therefore, 0 = (0, 0) is the identity element for * in V.

V4 : Existence of inverse

Let u = (a, b) be a vector in V. Then (-a,-b) is also a vector is V where

(a, b) * (-a,-b) = (a + (-a), b + (-b)) = (0, 0).

(-a,-b) * (a, b) = (-a + a, -b + b) = (0, 0).

Hence (-a,-b) is the inverse of the vector u = (a, b) in V.

V5: Let u = (a, b) be a vector in V and ,   .

(    ) u = (   ) (a, b) = ((   ) a, (   ) b)= ( a,+  a,  b +  b) (why?)

= (  a,  b) + (  a,  b)

=   (a, b) +   (a, b) =   u *   u.

V6 : Let u = (a, b) and v = (x, y) be vectors in V and   . Then

 (u * v) =  ((a, b) * (x, y)).

=  ((a + x),  (b + y)).

= (  (a + x),  (b + y)).

= (  a +  x,  b +  y).

= (  a,  b) * (  x,  y).

=  (a, b) *  (x, y).

= (  u) * (  v).

V7 : Let u = (a, b) be vector in V and ,  

(  ) u = (  ) (a,b)

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 34

 = ((   ) a, (   ) b) = (  (  a),  (  b)).(why?)

=   (  a ,  b)=   (   (a, b)) =   (   u).

V8 : Let u = (a, b ) be a vector in V. Then

1  u = 1  (a, b) = (a, b) = u

Therefore, ( , * ,  ) is a vector space over .

Example 2: Let V = {(x1, x2, x3, …, xn) : xi  i  1, 2,3,...n} = . Define

+ : V x V  V by (x1, x2,…, xn) + (y1, y2, …, yn) = (x1+ y1, x2 + y2, …. , xn + yn).

.: x V  V by  (x1, x2, x3, …, xn) = (  x1,  x2,  x3, . . . ,  xn) .

Show that (V, +, .) is a vector space over .

V1: Associative property

Let u = (x1, x2, x3, …, xn ) , v = (y1,y2, y3, …,yn) and w = (z1, z2, z3, …, zn) be vectors in V = .
Then

(u + v) + w = ((x1, x2, …, xn) + (y1, y2, . .., yn) + (z1, z2, …, zn).

= (x1 + y1, x2 + y2, x3 + y3, …, xn + yn) + (z1, z2, …, zn).

= ((x1+ y1) + z1, (x2 + y2) + z2, …, (xn + yn) +zn) (why?)

= (x1+ (y1 + z1), x2 + (y2 + z2), …, xn + (yn +zn)) (Why?)

= (x1, x2, …, xn) + (y1 + z1,y2 + z2, …, yn + zn).

= (x1, x2, …, xn) + ((y1, y2, …, yn) + (z1, z2, …, zn).

= u + (v + w).

V2: Commutative property

Let u = (x1, x2, x3, …, xn) and v = (y1,y2, y3,…, yn) be vectors in .Then

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 35

 u + v = (x1, x2…, xn) + (y1, y2, …, yn).

= (x1 + y1, x2 + y2, …, xn + yn).

= (y1 + x1, y2 + x2, …, yn + xn) (why?)

= (y1, y2, …, yn) + (x1, x2…, xn).

= v + u.

V3: Existence of identity element

Then zero vector 0 = (0, 0…, 0) Then

For any vector u = (x1, x2, …, xn) in

0 + u = (0, 0, …, 0) + (x1,x2, …, xn).

= (0 + x1, 0 + x2, …, 0 + xn).

= (x1, x2, …, xn) and

u + 0 = (x1, x2,…,xn) ) + (0, 0, 0,…,0).

= (x1+ 0, x2 + 0, …, xn + 0).

= (x1, x2, …, xn).

Therefore, 0 = (0, 0, 0, …, 0) is the identity element .

V4 : Existence of inverse

Let u = (x1, x2, x3, … , xn ) be a vector in . Since x1, x2, …, xn the

vector v = (-x1, -x2, …, -xn)  .

Hence v + (-u) = (x1, x2,…xn) + (-x1,-x2, …, -xn).

= (x1+ (-x1), x2 + (-x2), …, xn + (-xn)).

= (x1 – x1, x2 - x2, …, xn - xn) .

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 36

 = (0, 0, …, 0).

-v + u = (-x1, -x2, …, -xn ) +(x1, x2,…, xn).

= (-x1+ x1, -x2 + x2, ..., -xn + xn)

= (0, 0, …, 0)
Therefore, -u = (-x1, -x2, …, -xn ) is the inverse of the vector

u = (x1, x2, …, xn) for any vector u in .

V5 : Let u = (x1, x2, …, xn) be a vector in n

and ,   . Then

(  +  ). u = (  +  ). (x1, x2, …, xn).

= ( (  +  )x1, (  +  ) x2, (  +  ) x3, …, (  +  )xn).

= (  x1 +  x1,  x2 +  x2, … ,  xn +  xn).

= (  x1,  x2,  x3, …,  xn) + (  x1,  x2,  x3, …,  xn) .

=  (x1, x2, …, xn) +  (x1, x2, …, xn) .

=  u +  u.

V6 : Let u = (x1, x2, …, xn) and v = (y1, y2, …, yn) be vectors in and   .

Then  (u + v) =  ((x1, x2, …, xn) + (y1, y2, …, yn))

=  (x1 + y1, x2 + y2, …, xn + yn) .

= (  (x1 + y1),  (x2 + y2), …,  (xn + yn)).

= (  x1 +  y1,  x2 +  y2, …,  xn +  yn) (why?)

=(  x1,  x2,…,  xn)+(  y1,  y2,…,  yn)

=  u +  v.

V7 : Let u = (x1, x2, …, xn) be a vector in and  ,   . Then

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 37

 (   ).u = (   ). (x1, x2, …, xn).

= ((   )x1, (   )x2, …, (   )xn).

= (  (  x1),  (  x2), …,  (  xn)) (Why?)

=  (  x1,  x2, …,  xn) (Why?)

=  (  (x1, x2, …, xn)).

=  (  .u).

V8 : Let u = (x1, x2, …, xn) be a vector in . Then

1 . u = 1(x1, x2, …, xn) = (x1, x2, …, xn) = u.

Therefore, ( , + , .) is a vector space over .

1.8.2 Subspace of a Vector Space

Definition: Let (V, +, .) be a vector space over . A non- empty subset W of V is said to

be a subspace of V over if and only if (W, +, .) is a vector space over .

Example 1: Let V be a vector space over . Then

i) W = {0} is a subspace of V over .

ii) W = V is a subspace of V over .
W = {0} and W= V are called trivial subspaces of V over .Other subspaces of V are called non-
trivial subspaces.

Question: Let V be a nonzero vector space. How many subspaces V can have to the minimum?

Theorem: Let (V, +, .) be a vector space over and W be a subset of V. The set (W, +, .)

is a subspace of V over if and only if

1. W is non- empty
2. If u, v  W then u + v  W for all u, v  W.

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 38

 3. If u  W and   then  . u  W.
Proof: I) Let (W, +, .) be a subspace of V over . Then by definition 2.3.1

a) W is non- empty.

b) If u, v  W then u + v  W for all u, v  W.

c) If u  W and   then  .u  W.

II) Let W be a subset of V such that

a) W is non- empty.

b) If u, v  W then u + v  W for all u, v  W.

c) If u  W and   then  .u  W.

We want to show that (W, +, .) is a vector space over .

V1: Let u, v, w be vectors in W. Then u, v, w are in V.

Hence (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) (why?).

V2: Let u and v be vectors in W. Then u and v are vectors in V.

Hence u + v = v + u (why?)

V3: Let u be a vector in W.

Then (-1)u = -u  W and u + (-u) = (-u) + u = 0  W.

Therefore, 0  W.

V4: Let u be a vector in W. Then (-1)u = -u  W. Therefore, the inverse of a vector in W is in W.

V5: Let u be a vector in W and  ,   . Then    ) u =  u +  u , since u is in V.

V6: Let u and v be vectors in W and   . Then  ( u + v) =  u +  v, since u, v  V.

V7: Let u be a vector in W and  ,   . Then (   ) u =  (  u) , since u  V.

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 39

V8: Let u be a vector in W . Then (-1)u = u .

Therefore, (W, +, .) is a vector space over .

Example 2: Let V = = {(x, y): x, y } and

W = {(x, y): 2x +y = 0}. Show that W is a subspace of .

a) W is non- empty, since (0, 0)  W.

b) Let u = (x, y) and v = (a, b) be vectors in W. Then
2x + y = 0 and 2a + b = 0. Then

0 = (2x + y) + (2a + b)

0 = 2(x + a) + (y + b).

Then, (x + a, y + b) = (x, y) + (a, b)  W.

Hence, u + v  W.

c) Let u = (x, y)  W. and   . Then

2x + y = 0, and 0=  (2x + y)=  2x +  y =2(  x) +  y

Hence, (  x,  y) =  (x, y) =  u  W

Therefore W is a subspace of over .

Example 3: Let W = {(x, y, z): y = 2x – 3z where x, y, z  }.

Show that W is a subspace of with the standard operations.

a) W is non- empty since (0, 0, 0)  W.

b) Let u = (x, y, z) and v = (a, b, c) be vectors in .
Then y = 2x - 3z and b = 2a - 3c. Then
y + b = (2x-3z) + (2a-3c) = 2(x + a) – 3(z + c).

Hence (x + a, y + b, z + c) = (x, y, z) + (a, b, c) = u + v  W.

c) Let u = (x, y, z) be a vector in W and   .Then

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 40

 y =  (2x-3z)= 2( x )-3 (z) .

Hence ( x , y , z ) =  .(x, y, z) =  .u  W.

Therefore, W is a subspace of over .

Note: Let V be a vector space over . A non- empty subset W of V is a subspace of V

over if and only if  u +  v  W for every ,   and u, v  W.

1.8.3 linear combinations, Linearly Dependence and Independence of vectors

Definition: Let V be a vector space over and u1, u2, u3, …, un be vectors in V.

A vector u  V is said to be a liner combination of the vectors u1, u2, u3, …, un if

and only if u =  1u1 +  2u2 +  3u3 +…+  nun for some  1,  2,  3, …,  n in .

Example 1: Let V = = {(x, y): x, y }

a) Since (3, 4) = 3(1, 0) + 4(0, 1), then the vector (3, 4) is a linear combination of the
vectors (1, 0) and (0, 1).
11 2
b) Since (3, 4) = (1, 2) + (2, -1), then the vector (3, 4) is a linear combination of the
5 5
vectors (1, 2) and (2,-1).
Example 2: Let V = = {(x, y, z): x, y, z }.

Write the vector u = (1,2,3) as a linear combination of the vectors

u1 = (1,1,1), u2 = (1,1,0) and u3 = (2,0,0).

Let a, b, c  such that

(1, 2, 3) = a (1, 1, 1) + b (1, 1, 0) + c (1, 0, 0).

= (a, a, a) + (b, b, 0) + (c, 0, 0).

= (a + b + c, a + b, a)

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 41

Hence {

By solving the system of linear equation we get a=3, b = -1 and c = -1

Therefore, (1, 2, 3) = 3 (1,1,1) -1 (1,1,0) -1 (1,0,0) .

Example 3: Let V = The set of all polynomials of degree less than or equal to n over .

Write p(x) = 2x3 –3x2 + 4x + 5 as a linear combination of the polynomials

p1(x) = x +1, p2 (x) = x2 + 3, p3(x) = 2x2 + x and p4(x) = x3 +5.

Let a, b, c  such that

2x3 –3x2 + 4x + 5 = a(x +1) + b(x2 + 3) + c(2x2 + x) + d(x3 + 5).

= dx3 + (b + 2c)x2 + (a + c)x + a + 3b + 5d.

Two polynomials in are equal if and only if they have the same degree and the corresponding

coefficients are equal. Then {

By solving the system of linear equations we get a = 4, b = -3, c = 0 and d = 2

Therefore, 2x3 –3x2 + 4x + 5 = 4(x +1) - 3(x2 + 3) + 0(2x2 + x) +2(x3 + 5).

Definition: Let V be a vector space over and u1, u2, u3, …, un be vectors in V. The set

{u1, u2, u3, …, un }is said to generate ( span) V over if and only if every

vector in V can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors u1, u2, u3, …, un.

The set { u1, u2, u3, …, un } is called the generator of the vector space V over .

Example 4: a ) The set {(1,0),(0,1)} generates over .

Any vector u = (x, y) , can be written as

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 42

 u = (x, y) = (x, 0) + (0, y) = x (1, 0) + y (0, 1)

Therefore, {(1, 0), (0, 1)} generates over .

b) The set { 1, 0, 0), 0,1,0) (0,0,1)} generates over .

Any vector u = (x, y, z) can be written as

u = (x, y, z) = (x, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0) + (0, 0, z) = x (1, 0, 0) + y (0, 1, 0) + z (0, 0, 1).

Therefore, { 1, 0, 0), 0,1,0) (0,0,1)} generates over .

c) Let ei = (0,0,0…,0,1,0,…,0) where 1 is the ith coordinate of ei for each

i = 1, 2, 3, …, n

e1= (1, 0, 0,…, 0)

e2= (0, 1, 0, 0, …, 0)

e3 = (0, 0, 1, 0, …, 0)

en = (0, 0, 0, ..., 0, 1)

The set {e1, e2, e3,…, en} is a generator of over .

For example {e1, e2, e3, e4} = { (1,0,0,0), (0,1,0,0), (0,0,1,0), (0,0,0,1)} is a generator of over
.

d) Show that {(1, 1, 2), (2-1, 1), (1, 1,-1)} generates over .
Let u = (x, y, z) and a, b, c such that

(x, y, z) = a (1, 1, 2) + b (2,-1, 1) + c (1, 1,-1). Then

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 43

 a x
{a y
a z

By solving the system of linear equations we get

z y x y y z
a an

Therefore, any vector u = (x, y, z) can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors

u1= (1, 1, 2) u2= (2,-1,1) and u3 = (1,1,-1) as

 y x x y  2y  z 
(x, y, z) =  1,1,2   2,1,1)    1,1,1
 3   3   3 

Hence the set { (1,1,2), (2,-1,1), (1,1,-1)} generates over .

Definition: Let V be a vector space over and u1, u2, u3, ..., un be vectors in V. The set {u1, u2,
u3,…, un} is said to be linearly dependent over if and only if there are scalars  1,  2, 

3,…,  n in not all zero such that u1  1+  2 u2 +  3u3 + …+  n un = 0. Otherwise we say that
the set is linearly independent over .

Example 5: Determine whether the vectors u1 =(2,1,-1), u2 =(1,2,1) and u3 =(-1,2,1) are linearly
dependent or independent over .

Let , such that (2, 1,-1) + (1, 2,1) + (-1,1, 2) = (0, 0, 0). Then

By solving the system of linear equations we have

Therefore, the vectors u1 =(2,1,-1), u2 =(1,2,1) and u3 =(-1,2,1) are

linearly independent over .

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 44

Example 6: Determine whether the following sets are linearly dependent or linearly independent
over .

a) S1= {(2,1), (3,4)}

Let a, b such that a(2,1) +b (3, 4) = (0, 0). Then

a
{
a

By solving the equations simultaneously, we get a = b = 0

Therefore, the set is linearly independent over .

b) S2 = {(1,-2, 1), (2, 1,-1), (7,-4, 1)}

Let a, b, c  such that a(1,-2,1) + b (2,1,-1) + c (7,-4,1) = (0, 0, 0). Then

a
{ a
a

By solving the system of linear equations we have b = -2c and a = -3c

Then the system of linear equations has a non-zero solution and hence the set is linearly dependent
over .

c) S3= {1+ t, 2t3 – t + 3, t2 + 3t + 2}

Let a, b, c such that a(1 + t) + b(2t2 - t + 3) + c(t2 + 3t + 2) = 0 (the zero polynomial).

Then (2b + c)t2 + (a – b + 3c)t + (a + 3b +2c) = 0. Then

{a
a

By solving the system of linear equations we get a = b = c = 0

Therefore, the set is linearly independent over .

1.8.4 Bases and dimension of a vector space

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 45

Definition: Let V be a vector space over . A finite subset

B = {u1, u2, u3, …., un } of V is said to be a basis for V over if and only if

i) B is linearly independent over

ii) B generates V over .
Example 1: Show that

a) B = {1, 2), (1, 3) is a basis for the vector space over .

i) To show B is linearly independent, let a, b  such that

a
a(1, 2) + b(1, 3) = (0, 0). Then {
a

By solving the system of linear equations we get a = b = 0

Therefore, B is linearly independent over

ii) To show that B generates , let (x, y)  and a, b such that

a x
(x, y) = a (1, 2) + b (1, 3). Then {
a y

By solving the system of linear equations we get a = x – y and b = y – 2

Then (x, y) = (x – y ) (1, 2) + (y – 2x) (1, 3)

Hence any vector (x, y) in can be expressed as a linear combination of the vectors (1, 2) and (1,
3).

Therefore, B = (1, 2), (1, 3) is a basis for over .

b) B= (1,-1, 1) (2, 1, -2), (1, 2, 2) is a basis for the vector space over .
i) To show B is linearly independent, let a, b, c  such that
a(1, -1, 1) + b(2, 1, -2) + c(1, 2, 2) = (0, 0, 0). Then

a
{ a
a

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 46

 Hence solving the equations we get a = b = c = 0

Therefore, B is linearly independent over .

ii) To show B generates over , let (x, y, z)  and a, b, c  such

that (x, y, z) = a (1,-1, 1) + b (2, 1,-1) + c (-1, 2, 1). Then

a x
{ a y
a z

By solving the equations we get

3x  y  5 z 3x  2 y  z yz
a , b and c 
9 9 3

 3x  y  5 z   3x  y  5 z   yz
Hence (x, y, z) =   (1,-1, 1) +   (2,1,-1) +   (-1,2,1)
 9   9   3 

that is B generates over .

Therefore, B is a basis for over .

Theorem: Let V be a vector space over and B1 and B2 be bases of V over . Then

B1 and B2 contain equal number of elements.

Example 2: B1 = {(1, 0), (0, 1)}

B2 = {(1, 2), (1, 3)}

B3 = {(2, 3), (4, 5)}

are bases for over where each of the sets contain equal number of elements.

Definition: Let V be a vector space over . The number of elements of a basis of V over

is called the dimension of V over .

Notation: The dimension of a vector space V over is denoted by DimV.

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 47

Definition: A nonzero vector space V over is called finite-dimensional if it contains a finite set of
vectors {u1, u2, u3, …., un } that forms a basis. If no such set exists V is called infinite-dimensional.

V = {0}is considered to be finite dimensional and we say that DimV is zero.

Example 3: a) B = {(1, 0), (0, 1)} is a basis for over . Then Dim = 2.

b) B = {(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0, 0, 1)} is a basis for over . Then Dim = 3.

c) B = {e1, e2, e3, …, en}is a standard basis for ver . Then Dim = n.

( where e1= (1, 0, 0,…, 0), e2= (0, 1, 0, 0, …, 0), e3 = (0, 0, 1, 0, …, 0), . . ., en = (0, 0, 0, ..., 0, 1)).

d) B={1, x1, x2, x3, …, xn} is a basis for Pn over . Then Dim Pn = n+1.

Example 4: Let W = {(x, y, z): x = 2y – z, x, y, z }. Find the dimension of W.

W = {(x, y, z): x = 2y – z, x, y, z  }.

= {(2y – z, y, z): y, z  }.

= {(2y, y, 0) + (-z, 0, z): y, z  }.

= {y (2, 1, 0) + z (-1, 0, 1): y, z  }.

Hence W is a subspace of generated by the vectors (2, 1, 0) and (-1, 0, 1).

Since the set {(2, 1, 0), (-1, 0, 1)} is linearly independent over (show it) the set

B = {2, 1, 0), (-1, 0, 1)} is a basis for W. Therefore, Dim W = 2

Theorem: Let V be a finite-dimensional vector space and {u1, u2, u3, …., un } be any basis of V.

a) If a set has more than n-vectors, then it is linearly dependent.

b) If a set has fewer than n-vectors, then it does not span V.

Activity 1.8

1. Verify whether the following sets are vector spaces or not.

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 48

 a. The set of all first degree polynomial functions f(x)=ax, a 0 with standard operation.

b. The set S={(x,y): x and y , x, y } with standard operation.

(to show that a set is not a vector space, you need only find one axiom that is not satisfied).

2. Which of these two subsets is a subspace of .

a) the set of all points on the line x + y=0. b) the set of all points on the line x + y=2.

3. Let W1 and W2 be subspaces of a vector space V over .Is W1  W2 a subspace of V

over ?

4. Let W = {(x, y, z): x = y + 2z and y = 2x - z}. Is W a subspace of ?

5. Write the following vectors as a linear combination of the vectors

u1 = (1, 1, 1) u2 = (-1, 1, 2) and u3 = (1, 2, -1).

a) u = (4, -3, 5) b) u = (2,1, 3 )

6. Can you write the vector u = (4, 2, 3) as a linear combination of the vectors

u1= (1,2,1), u2 = (-1,1,2) and u3 = (2,1,-1)?

7. Can you express the polynomial p(x) = 2x2 – x + 1 as a linear combination of the polynomials
p1(x) = (x + 1)2, p2(x) = x – 2 and p3(x) = 3x – (x – 1)2?

8. Show that the set S= {(1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 1), (-1, 1, -2)} generates over .

9. Determine whether the following sets are linearly independent or not.

a) A= {(2, 1, 2), (.2, 2, 2), (1, 2, 1)} b) B = {sint, sin 2t} c) C = {et,e2t} d) D = {sint, cost}

10. Write the standard basis for the following vector space and determine their dimension

a) b) P4

11. Explain why the set S is not a basis for . a) S={(1,2), (1,0), (0,1)} b) S={(-1,2)}

12. Determine whether the following sets are basis for P2.

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 49

 a) S={1, x2, x2+2} b) S={2-x, 2x-x2, 6-5x+x2}

Self test exercise

1. Let P be the set of all polynomials with degree less than or equal to n over that is
n
P ={an x + an-1x n-1
+ … + a1x + a0 : a i  i  0,1, 2..., n} . Define

+ : P x P  P by (p + q) (x) = p(x) + q(x),

.: x P  P by (  . p) (x) =  .(p (x)),

where p and q are polynomials of degree less than or equal to n.

Show that (P, +, .) is a vector space over .

2. Let F be the set of all continuous Functions in . Show that F with the usual addition of
functions and multiplication of a function by a constant is a vector space over .
3. If U and W are subspaces of a vector space V, show that U + W and U  W are subspaces of
V.
4. Let u and v be vectors in such that {u, v} generates over .
Is the set {u + v, u - v } generates over .
5. For which values of t the following sets are linearly dependent or independent.
a) S= {(t,1,1), (1,0,1), (1,1,3t) b) S = {(t,t,t), (t,1,0), (t,0,1)}

6. Find the basis and the dimension of the real vector space V spanned by the set
S= {(0,1,1),(1,0,1), (1,1,2)}.
7. Show that A = {u} is linearly independent if and only if u is a non-zero vector.
8. Determine whether the following sets generate or not.
i) A = {(1,1,2), (1,-1,2), (-1,1,2)}
ii) B = {(2, 1,-1), (-2, 1,-1)}.

9. Let V be a vector space over and u1, u2, u3, …, un be vectors in V. If

W= {  1u1+  2u2+…+  nun} for some  1,  2,  3, …,  n 

then show that W is a subspace of V over .

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 50

 10. Let A = {u1, u2, u3} be a linearly independent set of vectors in . Is the set
{u1 + u2, u1 + u3, u2 + u3} linearly independent or not?

11. Let u = (a, b) and v = (c, d) be vectors in . If ad - cd  0 then show that

{u, v} is linearly independent over .

12. Let W = (x, y, z): x = 2y + z and y = x - 2z}. Find a basis for W over .
2 3 n
13. Show that the set B = {1, x, x , x , …, x } is a basis for the space of polynomials of
degree less than of equal to n.

14. Let U = {(x, y, z, w): x +2y = z where x, y, z, w  }

W = {(x, y, z, w): x = y + w and z = y – w where x, y, z, w  }

a) Find a basis for U b) Find a basis for W c) Find the dimension (U  W).
References

1. Haward Anton & Chris Rorres: Elementary Linear Algebra- Applications Version.
2. David Poole: Linear Algebra a Modern Approach.
3. Larson/Edwards/Falvo: Elementary linear algebra.
4. David Towers: Guide to Linear Algebra.
5. David C. Lay Linear Algebra and Its Applications.
6. Seymour Lipschutz: 3000 Solved Problems in Linear Algebra.

Belay M. ASTU-Department of Applied Mathematics 51