Fact-finding techniques

a) Use of questionnaires

A questionnaire is a special document that allows the analyst to ask a number of standard questions set to
be asked to a large number of people in order to gather information from them. It is used when:
- the system analyst is located at a considerably long distance from the respondent
- there is a large number of respondents such that interviewing them will be limited by time
- the questions to be asked are simple and straight forward and require direct answers
- limited information is required from a large number of people
- it is used as a means to verify facts found using other methods.

Advantages of using questionnaires are:

 They provide a cheap means of gathering information/data from a large number of people.
 They encourage individuals to provide response without fear, intimidation or victimization.
 The respondents can complete the questionnaire at their own convenience with minimal or limited
interruption of their work.
 Questions are presented consistently to all without bias.

Disadvantages of using questionnaires are:

 Response is often too slow since the respondents complete and return the form at their own
convenience.
 They don’t provide an opportunity for respondents to obtain clarification of questions which may
appear vague or ambiguous.
 Does not provide an opportunity for the analyst to observe respondents’ reactions.
 The design of the questionnaire requires an expert who may charge expensively and may not be
economical when used for a small group of users.
 All forms may not be returned and also not all questions may be answered which leads to
incomplete data for analysis.

Requirements for preparing a questionnaire include:

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  Questions should be simple and clear.
 The questions should be objectively oriented and one should avoid leading questions.
 The questions should be logically organized.
 The form should be neat.

b) Interviewing
This is a direct face-to-face conversation between the system analyst (the interviewer) and users
(interviewees). He obtains answers to questions he asks the interviewee. He gets the interviewee’s
suggestions and recommendations that may assist during the design of the proposed system.

Interviews serve the following purposes:

 Acts as a method of fact-finding to gather facts about the existing system.
 Used for verifying facts gathered through other methods.
 Used for clarifying facts gathered through other methods.
 Used to get the user involved in the development of the new system.

Interviews are used in the following circumstances:

 When the respondents are few e.g. corporate managers
 When the respondents are physically available and accessible
 When the main emphasis of the system investigation is people
 When the analyst wishes to seek direct answers, opinions, suggestions and detailed information
 When the analyst wishes to verify validity of facts collected through other techniques
 When immediate response is required

Interviews have the following advantages:

 The analyst can frame questions differently to individuals depending on their level of understanding.
Thus it allows detailed facts to be gathered.
 The analyst can observe non-verbal communication from the respondents or interviewees
 The response rate tends to be high
 Provides immediate response

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  The analyst can get detailed facts from each respondent
Disadvantages of interviews are:

 Costly and time consuming when used on a large number of people

 Success highly depends on the analyst human relation skills, expertise and experience
 May not be practical due to location of respondent
 May make the respondents to feel that they are being summoned or grilled by analyst
 Interviews can fail due to:
o Ambiguous questions being asked

o Personal questions being asked

o Inadequate time allocation for the exercise

o Lack of earlier preparation by both parties

o When the analyst is biased on using technical jargon

c) Observation
Observation is the most effective fact-finding technique but requires the analyst to participate in performing
some activities carried out by the user. He may choose to watch them as they perform their activities and
gather the facts intended.

This method is best used in the following circumstances:

 When the validity of facts gathered through other methods is questionable

 When complexity of certain aspects of a system prevent a clear explanation by the respondents or
the user

 Used to confirm that the procedures specified in the manuals are being followed.

 When one needs to obtain first hand and reliable information

Guidelines when using the observation method include:

 There should be permission from concerned authorities before the exercise

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  Gathered facts should be recorded

 Those to be observed should be notified and the purpose of the exercise explained

 The analyst should be objective and avoid personal opinion. He should have an open mind

 The analyst should also record ordinary events

Advantages of observation method include:

 Data gathered is highly reliable thus the method can be used to verify facts collected through other
methods

 The analyst can see what is being done clearly including the tasks which are difficult to explain
clearly in writing or in words

 Inaccuracy or inaccurately described tasks can easily be identified

 It allows the analyst to easily compare gathered facts through other methods and what actually
happened on the ground

 Relatively cheap compared to other methods

Disadvantages of observation are:

 People feel uncomfortable when being observed and behave abnormally thus influence the analyst’s
conclusions

 The exercise may take place at odd times thus inconveniencing those involved

 The analyst may observe exceptional activities, leaving some critical areas. His patience and
expertise play a great role

 The tasks being observed may be interrupted and the analyst may gather wrong facts

d) Record inspection/Document review

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This method involves perusing through literature or documents to gain a better understanding about the
existing system. Examples of documents that are perused include sales orders, job descriptions, existing
systems documentation, management reports, procedure manuals, organized structure charts, trade journals
etc.

This method is best used when:

 The analyst needs to have a quick overview of the existing system

 The information required cannot be obtained through any other techniques

Advantages of this method are:

 It is comparatively cheap compared to other techniques

 It is a faster method of fact finding especially when documents to be considered are few

Disadvantages of this method are:

 Time consuming if the documents are many or if they are not within the same locality
 Unavailability of relevant documents makes this method unreliable
 Its success depends on the expertise of the analyst
 Most of the documents or information obtained may be outdated

e) Sampling

Sampling is the systematic selection of representative elements of a population. The selected elements are
examined closely and the results assumed to reveal useful information about the entire population.

This method is used when the target population:

 Is too large and it is impractical to study every element of the population
 Contains homogenous elements (elements with similar characteristics)

Advantages of sampling are:

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  It reduces the cost e.g. by avoiding to examine every document or talking to everyone in the
organization to gather facts
 It speeds up fact finding process
 It improves effectiveness since one can concentrate on few people and fewer documents and get
adequate accurate information
 May reduce biasness, if a representative sample is taken. All the elements of the population stand a
chance of being selected.

Disadvantages include:
 The sample may not be representative enough which may lead to incorrect and bias conclusions
 The expertise of the analyst is required since sampling involves a lot of mathematical computation

Criteria for selecting good software

 Reliability – gives consistent results without failure for a specified period of time
 Functionality – functions to standards
 Capacity – satisfies volume requirements of the user
 Flexibility – adapts to the changing needs
 Usability – user-friendliness
 Security - Maintains integrity and prevents unauthorized use
 Performance – delivers the expected results
 Serviceability – good documentation and vendor support
 Ownership – has the rights to modify and share use of package

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INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND THEIR ROLE IN THE ORGANIZATION
Organization:
• An Organization is a stable, formal social structure that takes resources from the Environment and
processes them to produce outputs. i.e. technical view

• Organizations are also considered as Formal Legal Entities with internal Rules and Procedures that
must abide by laws.

• Organizations are also Social Structures because they are a collection of social elements.

The Technical side of Organization focuses on three elements:

Capital, Labour, Environment
• Capital and Labour are primary production factors provided by the Environment. The Organization
transforms these inputs into products and services in a Production function.

• Technical view of Organization encourages us to focus on how inputs are combined to create outputs
when technology changes are introduced into the Organization.

Behavioral Definition of Organization:

Collection of rights, privileges, obligations, and responsibilities delicately balanced over a period of time
through conflict and the conflict resolution.
All organizations have some similar “structural” features.
The Technical and Behavioural definitions of Organizations are not contradictory but complementary in
other words they complement each.
Shared Features of all Organizations:
• Clear division of labor and professionalism

• Hierarchy-bureaucracy, accountability and authority

• Explicit rules and procedures

• Impartial judgments and universal decision making

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 • Technical qualifications for positions

• Maximum organizational efficiency- Maximizing Output using limited Input.

HOW INFORMATION SYSTEMS IMPACT ORGANIZATIONS AND BUSINESS FIRMS

Economic impacts
 From the point of view of economics, IT changes both the relative costs of capital and the costs of
information.
 Information systems technology can be viewed as a factor of production that can be substituted for
traditional capital and labor.

Organizational and behavioral impacts

IT Flattens Organizations
• Managers now receive so much more accurate and timely information and become much faster at
making decisions, so fewer managers are required.

• Broadening ‘Span of Control ‘enables high-level managers to manage and control many more
workers spread over greater distances.

• Many companies have eliminated thousands of middle managers as a result Broadening span of
control

• Management costs decline as a percentage of revenues, and the hierarchy becomes much more
efficient.

Understanding organizational resistance to change

Because information systems potentially change an organization’s structure, culture, business processes and
strategy, there is often considerable resistance to them when they are introduced.
The Internet and Organizations
• The Internet increases the accessibility, storage, distribution of information and knowledge for
business firms.

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 • The Internet lowers the transaction and agency costs of firms.

• Businesses are rapidly rebuilding their key business processes based on Internet technology.
Example: online order entry, customer service, and fulfillment of orders.

Impacts of IT on management decision making

• Rational model: An individual manager identifies goals, ranks all possible alternative actions and
chooses the alternative that contributes most to those goals

• Bureaucratic model: Whatever organizations do is the result of routines and existing business
processes honed over years of active use

• Political model: What an organization does is a result of political bargains struck among key leaders
and interest groups

• Garbage can model: The Garbage can decision model was developed to describe organizations run
by organized chaos (they have high uncertainty in both problem identification and problem solution.)
A good example would be universities and unfortunately government.