GEOGRAPHY

REVISION

GUIDE

GRADE 12
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Geography Revision Guide Gr 12/2018

Module 1
Climate & Weather
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Geography Revision Guide Gr 12/2018

1. Mid-latitude Cyclones

Origin:
o Polar front (60 N/S)
o Cold polar easterlies meet warm westerlies and move parallel but do not mix.

Alternate names:
o Extra tropical cyclone
o frontal depression
o temperate cyclone

General characteristics:
o Forms between 30-60 N/S
o Moves eastward
o Has two fronts (warm and cold)
o Large diameter
o Lasts between 4-14 days
o Steered by westerlies
o Affects SA in winter

Conditions for formation:

o Frictional drag caused by difference in temperature and speed of the two air masses.
o Air masses must move opposite to each other and parallel.
o Warm subtropical air must meet cold polar air at the polar front.

Stages in formation:
o Initial:
• Cold polar air and warm tropical air move parallel to each other but in opposite directions
at the polar front.
o Wave formation:
• Frictional drag takes place.
• Warm air becomes uplifted.
• Fronts begin to form as air converges to the centre low pressure.
o Mature:
• Wave deepens.
• Cold and warm sectors and fronts fully developed.
• Warm air moves up steep pressure gradient of cold front to form towering cumulonimbus
clouds. (heavy rain over a small area)
• Warm air moves up gentle pressure gradient of warm front to form a broad band of
stratus clouds. (light rain over a large area)

o Occlusion:
• Cold front catches up to the warm front at the apex. (apex is the shortest distance between
the fronts)
• Cold front occlusion: warm air moves up the cold front. (cold front on the ground)
• Warm front occlusion: cold air moves up the warm front. (warm front on the ground)
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Cross section through a mid-latitude cyclone:

Weather associated with Mid-latitude cyclones:

o Cold front weather:
• Low air temperature
• Thunderstorms and hail
• Rise in air pressure
• Low humidity
o Warm front weather:
• Rising air temperature
• Soft rains
• Drop in air pressure
• High humidity

Cyclone families:
o Mid-latitude cyclones form in groups.
o Up to 5 can pass through a certain area in quick succession.

Impact of mid-latitude cyclones:

o Rain:
✓ Water for vineyards and deciduous fruits
 Flooding
o Snow:
✓ Tourist attraction
 Crop damage
o Storms:
 A threat to fishermen at sea

Precautionary and management strategies:

o Build high
o Efficient drainage systems
o Enclose livestock
o Sufficient grain
o Update weather systems
o Secure boats
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2. Tropical Cyclones

Origin:
o Warm oceans
o Between 5-25 N/S where the Coriolis force is strong enough to form a vortex.

Alternate names:
o Hurricanes
o Willy Willies
o Typhoons
o Cyclones

General Characteristics:
o Shown by circular isobars enclosing intense low pressure
o Moves westwards
o Steered by tropical easterlies
o Diameter: 300-500 km
o Follows erratic paths; unpredictable

Conditions for formation:

o Temperature above 27C (For high evaporation)
o Warm air rising; unstable atmospheric conditions (For convection)
o Latitude between 5-25 N/S (Coriolis force is strong)
o Calm conditions (Wind will not allow vortex to form
o Upper air divergence (To maintain LP centre)

Stages in formation:
o Initial
• Centre pressure above 1000 mb
• Isobars far apart
• Gale force winds
• Cirrus and cumulous clouds
o Immature
• Pressure drops below 1000 mb
• Eye forms
• Wind reaches hurricane strength
• Diameter 100 km
• Cumulonimbus clouds around the eye
o Mature
• Centre pressure well below 1000 mb
• Isobars very close together
• Diameter between 300-500 km
• Dangerous semicircle: effects of intense winds combine with force of cyclone moving
forward (bottom left).
o Dissipating
• Centre pressure rises above 1000 mb
• Occurs when cyclone: Encounters land
Moves over cold oceans
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Cross section through a tropical cyclone:

Weather associated with tropical cyclones:

o As storm approaches:
• Cumulous clouds
• rain
• windy
• cumulonimbus clouds
• dangerous semicircle: torrential rain and hurricane winds
o Eye:
• Calm
• Cool
• Clear

Impact of tropical cyclones:

o Flooding
o Storm surges
o Crop losses
o Transport disrupted
o Silt in dams
o Ecosystems disrupted

Precautionary and management strategies:

o Stock up water and canned food
o Keep first aid kit
o Keep livestock on higher ground
o Sandbags on river banks
o Evacuation plans
o Early warning systems
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3. Factors influencing the weather of South Africa

Influence of the plateau

During summer:
o Kalahari high is weakly developed
o Subsidence is low
o Inversion layer forms above the escarpment
o Moist air ridging in from over the Indian ocean is carried over the plateau
o Cloud formation occurs
o Widespread rain
During winter:
o Kalahari high is well developed
o Subsidence is high
o Inversion layer forms below the escarpment
o Moist air ridging in from over the Indian ocean is prevented from reaching the plateau
o Clear weather

Influence of the oceans

Warm Mozambique current:
o East coast
o Raises temperatures
o High rainfall
Cold Benguella current:
o Decreases temperatures
o Dry weather

4. High pressure systems over South Africa

South Atlantic High

o West coast
o Dry, clear, stable weather conditions
o Winds that diverge are dry over the cold ocean
o Fog and mist produced
Ridging of SAH:
o In summer
o Diverts moist air from Indian Ocean onto the land
o Rain on south east coast and eastern plateau

South Indian High

o East coast
o Brings rainfall in summer
o If it lies in the path of a mid-latitude cyclone, SIH is known as blocking high

Kalahari High
o On the interior
o Dominates land in winter
o Interacts with SIH to influence climate of SA differently in summer and winter
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Resultant weather of high pressure cells

Moisture front: a zone between two air masses with different moisture content.
Line thunderstorms:
o Forms over the interior
o Cold air mass over the Atlantic Ocean meets the warm air mass over the Indian Ocean but
does not mix.
o Cold, dry air sinks below the warm moist air
o Cumulonimbus cloud formation occurs
o Flash floods occur on the right of the front
Impact of line thunderstorms:
o Torrential rain causes damage
o Soil erosion
o Gale force winds destroy infrastructure
o Fills dams

5. Low pressure systems over South Africa

Thermal low
o Occurs in summer
o Causes convective thunderstorms over the interior
o Usually more than one over the interior

Cut-off low
o Ridging of SAH and SIH prevents the mid-latitude cyclone from moving east
o Cold front is cut off from the cyclone and extends over the land.
o Moist air is then drawn onto the land resulting in rainfall for several days

Resultant weather of low pressure cells

Berg winds:
o Hot gusty winds that blow from interior to coast
o Air moves from Kalahari high to coastal low
o Diverging air warms at DALR
Effects of berg winds:
o Forest fires
o Livestock death
o Lethargic workers
o Respiratory problems

6. Synoptic weather maps

Isobaric patterns
Ridge- high pressure
Trough- low pressure
Saddle- between two high pressures or two low pressures

Weather stations
wind speed and direction
temperature (air and dew point)
precipitation and cloud cover
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7. Valley climate

Slope aspect:
o The direction in which a slope faces
o Slopes facing the equator are warmer since they receive direct sunlight
o Shadow zones do not receive sunlight due to blocking relief

Influence of aspect:
o Economic:
• Pole-facing slopes for forestry
• Equator-facing slopes for fruit farming
• Pole-facing for citrus fruit farming
o Settlement:
• Warmer north facing slopes have higher value
• Middle of slopes usually used
o Vegetation:
• South facing- cool and moist- densely vegetated
• North facing- warm and dry- sparsely vegetated

Katabatic winds:
o Downslope movement of air in a valley
o Occur at night
o Cold air sinks to the bottom and warm air is pushed up
o Results in temperature inversion within the valley
o Zone of accumulated warm air- thermal belt
o When valley air cools to below dew point temperature- radiation fog is formed
o Influence on:
• Farming:
 citrus farms on valley floor for maturation of fruit and insect resistance
 deciduous fruit planted on middle slope (warm), ideal for ripening
 frost resistant crops on valley floor
• Settlement:
 Land value at middle slope is high since it is located within the thermal belt
 Land value on valley floor is low since winds trap pollutants here
• Transport:
 Fog may reduce driver visibility which increases the chance of vehicular accidents

Anabatic winds:
o Upslope winds
o Occurs during the day when slopes are heated causing warm air to rise
o Significance: smoke released during the day is carried away by anabatic winds
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8. Urban climate

Reasons for differences between urban and rural climates:

o Cloud cover:
• More in urban area
• Pollutants act as condensation nuclei
o Precipitation:
• More in urban area
• More clouds result in more rainfall
o Humidity:
• More in rural area
• More vegetation and water bodies (surface water) encourages evaporation
o Wind speed:
• Higher in rural area
• In urban areas, tall buildings obstruct air flow
o Temperature:
• Higher in urban area
• Higher population- more use of geysers, stoves, heaters and more carbon dioxide
• Artificial substances- concrete and metal absorbs heat and glass reflects heat
• Geometric shapes of buildings- reflects and absorbs heat
• Urban activities- generates heat and pollution
• Building density- less air flow to distribute heat
• Efficient drainage- less surface water for evaporation (atmosphere remains hot)

Heat island:
o Occurs during the day
o Region of higher temperature in an urban area surrounded by lower temperatures in rural
areas
o Isotherms: lines joining places with the same temperature
o Factors influencing heat islands:
• Decentralisation
• Clusters of tall buildings
• Rivers and dams

Pollution dome:
o dominant at night
o subsiding cold air traps pollutants and compresses it over the city
o strongly developed in winter months
o can be dispersed by strong winds

Effects of heat island and pollution dome:

o Smog and fog
o Visibility reduced
o Acid rain
o Quality of life reduced
o Respiratory problems
o Global warming
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Strategies to reduce the effects of heat island and pollution dome:

o Plant trees
o Rooftop gardens
o Reflective paints
o Decentralisation

9. Interpretation of synoptic weather maps

Weather symbols:

Comparison between synoptic weather map and satellite image:

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Module 2
Geomorphology
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1. Drainage systems in South Africa

Concepts:
o Drainage basin: area drained by a river and its tributaries

o Catchment area: upper reaches of a drainage basin which supplies a river with water

o River system: the main river and its tributaries

o Tributary: smaller streams that join the main river

o Confluence: point where two or more rivers join

o Watershed: high lying area separating two different drainage basins

o Interfluve: land that separates streams in the same drainage basin

o Source: starting point of a river

o River mouth: point where the river enters the sea

o Surface runoff: water that flows on the surface after it rains

o Ground water: water found within the earth’s surface

o Water table: the upper limit of water that is found underground

Types of rivers:
o Permanent (perennial)
• Flows all year
• Associated with high rainfall areas
o Periodic (seasonal)
• Flows only in rainy season
• Associated with semiarid and arid areas
o Episodic
• Flows only after heavy rain
• Lasts for a few hours
o Exotic
• Originates in high rainfall area but flows through dry areas

Stream ordering:
o Fingertip streams are stream order 1
o Confluence of two stream order 1 streams results in stream order 2
o Confluence of two stream order 2 streams results in stream order 3
o The system continues until the main stream is reached
o When a lower order stream meets a higher order stream, the resultant stream is the same as
the higher order stream
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Types of drainage patterns:

o Dendritic
• Resembles branches of tree; tributaries join at acute angles
• Uniform erosion of horizontal sedimentary and massive igneous rocks
o Rectangular
• Main stream has 90 bends and tributaries join at 90
• Forms on igneous rock that has many joints and faulted sedimentary rock
o Radial centrifugal
• River flows away from a central point
• Forms over domes or volcanoes and is associated with massive igneous rock
o Radial centripetal
• River flows towards a central point
• Associated with massive igneous rocks
o Deranged
• Haphazard pattern with many lakes
• Forms over geologically young areas
o Trellis
• Main streams are parallel and short tributaries join at 90
• Forms on rocks that have varying resistance to erosion
• Associated with alternating hard and soft sedimentary rock
• Found in mountainous areas
o Parallel
• Tributary streams stretch out as if parallel
• Occurs in areas of major faults and steeply folded bedrock

Drainage density:
o A measure of the total length of streams per unit area.

Factors affecting drainage density:

o Vegetation- more vegetation → lower drainage density
o Amount of rainfall- more rainfall → higher drainage density
o Gradient- steeper gradient → higher drainage density
o Soil moisture- higher soil moisture → higher drainage density
o Porosity- higher rock porosity → lower drainage density
o Permeability- higher rock permeability → lower drainage density

River discharge
o Downslope flow of water in a river due to gravity
o Laminar flow:
• No obstacles
• Low rate of erosion
• Riverbed even
o Turbulent flow:
• High rate of erosion
• Obstacles present
• Uneven riverbed
o Removal of vegetation, concreting and tarring of surfaces and dams influence stream flow
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2. Fluvial processes

A: River profiles

Cross profile:
o Bank to bank
o Shows depth and width of river

Longitudinal profile:
o From source to mouth
o Shows gradient and length

Relationship of profiles with stages of river and characteristics:

o Upper course:
• V- shaped valley
• Turbulent flow
• Low volume
• Vertical erosion
• Waterfalls and rapids
o Middle course:
• Open V-shape (gentler slopes)
• Less turbulent, becoming laminar
• Volume and load increases
• More lateral erosion
• River begins to meander
o Lower course:
• U- shape valley
• Laminar flow
• Large volume
• Lateral erosion
• Meanders, oxbow lakes, floodplains, braided streams, levees

B: River grading

Graded profile:
o Smooth concave profile
o Rate of erosion and deposition are equal
o Laminar flow

Ungraded profile:
o Has many obstacles
o Young river
o Turbulent flow

Base levels of erosion:

o Temporary: features that prevent a river from further vertical erosion
o Permanent: the lowest level to which a river can erode (sea level)
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C: River rejuvenation

The process whereby a river which has reached a base level, regains energy and begins to erode
vertically once again

Reasons for rejuvenation:

o Uplift of land
o Increase in volume of water by river capture or high rainfall
o Drop in sea level

Features of rejuvenation
o Knick point: A sharp change in slope of a river
o Terraces: old valley floor forms a terrace on either side of the river due to down cutting
o Valley in a valley: new valley is carved into old valley
o Entrenched meander: meander formed that cut a deep valley into the bedrock

D: Fluvial landforms

Meander:
o Lower course
o A curve or bend along the course of a river
o Outer bank → undercut slope → rapid water flow → high rate of erosion → concave
o Inner bank→slip-off slope→slower moving water→ high rate of deposition→ convex

Ox-bow lake:
o Form from meanders
o Meander neck becomes narrow over time
o During periods of high rainfall, water flows straight, avoiding the meander
o Meander scar: dried up ox-bow lake due to no water supply

Braided stream:
o Seasonal river with abundant bed-load deposited in the lower course
o Gentle gradient and decreased river flow forces deposition of sand islands
o Sand islands obstruct the river’s own path and branches into distributaries

Flood plain:
o Flat land on banks of river made up of layers of silt
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Natural levees:
o Forms on riverbanks subjected to repeated flooding
o After water recedes, a raised bank is left behind (higher than flood plain)
o Yazoo streams: tributaries that cannot join the main river due to the obstruction of levees

Waterfalls:
o Upper course of river
o Hard rock overlies soft rock
o Plunge pool forms base of waterfall

Rapids:
o Sections of turbulent water
o Upper course
o Alternating hard and soft rock causes riverbed to become uneven resulting in turbulent flow

Delta:
o River enters the sea and deposits its load
o Sediments are kept in suspension in fresh water but flocculate in salt water
o Conditions for formation:
• Weak ocean currents
• Large amounts of sediment
• Shallow river mouth

Use of landforms:
o Flood plain:
• Fertile soil for farming
• Flat land allows for use of machinery
• Good water supply for farming
o Waterfalls:
• Tourist attraction
• Generation of hydroelectric power
o Rapids:
• Tourist attraction
o Delta:
• Fertile land for farming
• Fishing
• Drinking water
• Domestic use of water
• Tourist attraction
• Transport

Disadvantages of landforms:
o Floodplain: difficult for construction
o Waterfalls and rapids: dangerous due to fast flowing water
o Deltas:
• Water is dirty and polluted and attracts mosquitoes
• Vulnerable to see levels
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E: River Capture

o Abstraction:
• process whereby watershed changes its position due to uneven steepness on either side.
o River capture:
• one river captures the headwater of another river thereby increasing the size of its own
drainage basin.

Features:
o Captor stream:
• River that has captured the headwater of another river
o Captured stream:
• River that has its water diverted into another river
o Misfit stream:
• Stream that has too little water for the valley in which it flows
o Elbow of capture:
• Right angle bend indicating the point where one river captures the water of another
o Wind gap:
• Dry river valley found immediately after the elbow of capture

Conditions for river capture:

o Difference in gradients of rivers
o One river must receive higher rainfall
o One river must flow down softer rock

Impact of river capture:

o Captor stream:
• Drainage basin increases
• Volume increases
• Flows faster
• Erosive ability increases
• River could be rejuvenated
o Captured stream: opposite to captor stream

Implications of river capture:

o Captured stream:
• Less water for agriculture
• Hydroelectric power cannot be sustained
• Less water for domestic and industrial use
• Water quality will decrease
• Aquatic organisms die resulting in disrupted food chains
o Captor stream: opposite to captured stream

o Superimposed: young river forms on old landform

o Antecedent: new landform found under an old river
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F: Catchment and River Management

Importance:
o Transport of goods using rivers
o Hydroelectric power needs rivers
o Ecosystems in rivers
o Flood control
o Farming uses rivers
o Leisure activities in rivers
o Sustainable use of water from rivers
o Tourist attraction
o Domestic and industrial use of rivers

Impact of people on drainage basins: (www.idome.au)

o Waste disposal- pollution affects water quality
o Wetlands- being destroyed by human activities (farming, alienation, pollution)
o Water transfer schemes- affect river flow and aquatic ecosystems
o Irrigation- reduces water downstream
o Dams- affects river flow
o Overgrazing- removal of vegetation reduces infiltration
o Mining- acid level in water increases
o Embankment- holds back sediment which prevents delta formation
o Afforestation- reduces stream discharge and encourages infiltration
o Urbanisation- artificial substances encourage runoff

o River pollution:
• Domestic sewage
• Agricultural wastes (herbicides and pesticides)
• Industrial wastes (including heated water)
o Impact of river pollution:
• Loss of oxygen in rivers due to excessive decomposition of pollution
• Eutrophication

Management strategies:
o Buffer zones
o Awareness campaigns
o Recycling
o Fines
o Testing of water quality
o Vegetate
o Educate farmers
o Wetlands must be conserved
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Module 3
Rural & Urban Settlements
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1. Study of Settlements

o Settlement: a place where people live which includes buildings, economic activities and
transport networks
o Site: the exact physical land on which a settlement is placed
o Situation: the location of a settlement in relation to its surrounding area
o Rural: farmsteads, villages or hamlets where there is limited development and technology
o Urban: densely populated settlements with a lot of manmade structures and a few open
spaces such as towns or cities
o Site factors:
• Water
• Relief
• Soil
• Climate
• Accessibility
• Tradition
• Natural resources
o Situation factors:
• Transport and accessibility

2. Rural Settlements

Influence of site and situation on rural settlements:

o Wet point settlement:
• found where there is a shortage of water
• located near a water source
o dry point settlement:
• found where water is a threat
• located on higher ground to avoid flooding
o defence:
• located on high ground or in meander loop or between mountains
• for safety reasons
o accessibility:
• bridging point: located near the shallow point of a river for easy crossing
• gateway: in gap hills

Classification of rural settlements according to pattern:

o dispersed
• houses or farms are far apart or scattered and isolated
• advantages:
✓ farmers can experiment with new machinery
✓ larger profit capability
✓ privacy
• disadvantages:
 lack of social life
 easy target for criminals
 services far
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o nucleated
• houses or farms found close together
• advantages:
✓ ability to share equipment
✓ social advantages
✓ safety higher
• disadvantages:
 lack of privacy
 small profits
 smaller plots of land
o linear/ ribbon
• houses located in a line along a road, narrow valley or river
o planned
• houses are grouped around a specific feature e.g. Market
o crossroads
• accessibility to transport causes settlements to develop along meeting roads
o semi-circular
• settlement found along the coast
• sea acts as a physical barrier

Classification of rural settlements according to function:

o rural areas are uni-functional
o associated with primary activities
o dispersed or nucleated
o farmsteads, hamlets or villages

Land use in rural areas:

o subsistence farming
• farmer grows crops to meet his family’s needs
• small scale and traditional methods
• variety of crops planted in small quantities
• no contribution to economy
o commercial farming
• large farms that are capital intensive
• main purpose is to make profits
• one main crop planted on a large scale
• uses modern equipment and farming methods
o intensive farming
• every available piece of land is used for farming
• high yield per hectare
• labour and capital intensive
o extensive farming
• occurs over a large area
• yield per hectare is comparatively lower
• occurs where land is less fertile
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3. Rural Settlement Issues

o rural-urban migration: movement of people from farms to urban areas

o rural depopulation: decreasing number of people that live in rural areas due to rural-urban
migration

causes of rural depopulation:

o people leave rural areas because:
• hard work, long hours and low pay
• poor quality housing
• basic services are far away
o people want to move to cities because of:
• greater variety of jobs and higher pay
• improved housing and services
• access to basic services
• efficient transportation
• food security

consequences of rural depopulation

o in rural areas:
• basic services will close down
• production in rural areas decreases
• arising of ghost settlements
• brain drain
• resources under-utilised
o in urban areas:
• growth of informal settlements
• crime increases
• traffic congestion
• insufficient services
• waste management uncontrollable
• diseases spread as hygiene decreases

strategies to address rural depopulation:

o improve roads and transport facilities
o create more job opportunities through decentralisation
o improve salaries and working conditions
o improve basic services
o increase capital for farmers
o provide training courses

reasons to manage rural depopulation:

o rural areas provide food for the country
o rural areas influence GDP
o rural areas provide the country with raw materials
o employment can be found in rural areas
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Social Justice Issues in Rural Areas

access to resources:
Water
o reasons for water shortages
• low rainfall
• few lakes
• rivers are non-perennial
• high evaporation
• dams dry up
• domestic wastage
• pollution of clean water
o conserving water
• farmers should use drip irrigation
• mix fertilisers with water
• use treated wastewater
• use tanks to catch and store rainwater
• use boreholes
Soil
o reasons for soil erosion
• deforestation
• overgrazing
• over-cropping and monoculture
• high rainfall
o soil management strategies
• afforestation on steep slopes
• terracing
• contour ploughing
• use of natural manure

Land reform:
o land restitution:
• compensating people for the land they lost due to forced removals
• compensation by money or land
o land tenure reform:
• provides security to South Africans regarding land ownership
• prevents unfair eviction
o land redistribution:
• providing land to previously disadvantaged people for housing or farming

purpose of land reform:

o redresses injustice of apartheid
o promotes economic growth and alleviates poverty

challenges with land reform:

o willing buyer/seller clause delays negotiating prices
o costly
o lack of training given to new owners
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4. Urban settlements

o urbanisation: process whereby an increased percentage of people live in urban areas

o urban growth: increase in the absolute number of people in urban areas
o urban expansion: the physical growth of an urban settlement
o urban sprawl: formless uncontrolled growth of urban areas
o rate of urbanisation: percentage by which an urban population increases
o level of urbanisation: percentage of people that live in urban areas

Classification of urban settlements (according to function):

o central places
• provide goods and services to the surrounding rural population
o trade and transport towns (develop where transport routes meet)
• break-of-bulk points- goods transferred from one form of transport to another
• gap/gateway towns- originate due to physical barriers; transport routes converge
• junction towns- located at transport junctions
o specialised towns
• settlements with one dominant function

5. Urban Hierarchies
megalopolis

conurbation

metropolis

city

town

village

hamlet

farmstead

Urban hierarchy:
o hierarchy refers to the arrangement of settlements in an area from smallest to largest
o based on population, range and number of offered services and sphere of influence
Central place:
o refers to a settlement that provides goods and services to the surrounding rural population
o central place theory explains the relative size and spacing of settlements
Threshold population:
o the minimum number of customers needed to make a business profitable
Sphere of influence:
o the market area from where an urban settlement draws its customers
o dependent on the size and number of functions offered by the centre
range of goods:
o maximum distance that people are willing to travel to buy goods or services
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low order goods and services:

o goods used daily
o have a small range
o have a small sphere of influence
low order centres:
o offer low order services or functions
o small threshold population
high order goods and services:
o goods and services that are required infrequently
o have a large range
o have a large sphere of influence
high order centres:
o variety of services or functions offered
o large threshold population

6. Urban Structure and Patterns

A: Street Patterns

o grid iron/rectangular
• streets intersect at right angles
• found on land that is flat
• hampers traffic flow
• does not work on steep land
o radial
• roads radiate away from central point
• joined by ring roads
• traffic congestion at the centre
• ring roads allow for traffic bypass
o unplanned/irregular
• maze of streets with no order
• associated with broken relief
o planned irregular
• new urban developments
• ensures a smooth flow of traffic
• hilly relief

B: Building Density

o number of buildings per unit area

o density decreases from city centre outwards
o due to high land values in the city centre, buildings are close together and tall

C: Urban Profile

o the side view of a city showing building density and building height
o land value influences the shape of an urban profile
o building density and height is greatest where land value is highest
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D: Land Use Zones

Factors influencing location of urban land use zones:

o accessibility:
• the ease with which a place can be reached
• CBD has greatest accessibility
• Heavy industries locate near transport routes
o Compatibility:
• Degree to which functions attract each other
• Recreational areas are found near residential areas- high compatibility
o Specialised requirements:
• Some land use zones require special features to develop e.g. a water source
o Land values
o Centrifugal force (push factors)
o Centripetal forces (pull factors):
• Functional magnetism: functions that benefit each other
• Functional convenience: CBD highly convenient since close to work
• Functional prestige: a certain area becomes well known for a specific function offered

Urban land use zones:

1. CBD (central business district)

o Found in city centre
o High degree of accessibility
o Tallest buildings and highest building density
o Combination of high and low order goods offered
o Grid iron street pattern
o High traffic congestion
o Commercial decentralisation:
• City is invaded by illegal immigrants, becomes dilapidated
• Forms:
 Isolated store cluster (low order centre)
 Commercial ribbon development (along main roads)
 Outlying business centres (high and low order centre located in densely populated
area)
 Planned neighbourhood shopping centre (found in residential area)
 Planned regional shopping centre
 Informal trading (low order goods sold by unlicensed businesses)
2. Transition Zone
o Located on the edge of CBD
o Mixed land use zone
o Buildings are old and dilapidated
o Characteristics:
• Informal traders on pavements
• Lots of street children
• Many foreigners
• High crime rate
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3. Residential Zone
o Occupies the most amount of urban land
o Wealth segregates this zone:
• High income residential
 Away from CBD and heavy industries
 Good views
 Well maintained
 High land value
 Many recreational facilities
• Middle income residential
 Medium size houses
 Location varies, but approximately 15-20min from CBD
 Mostly occupied by government workers
• Low income residential
 Located near industrial areas
 Close to CBD
 Small houses found close together
 Little to no recreational facilities
 Houses are old and neglected
 Informal settlements found in LEDC
▪ Unplanned, built with various materials, lack of basic services, no proper
roads and poor hygiene
 Ghettos or slums found in MEDC
▪ Found in transition zone
▪ Old and densely populated buildings
4. Industrial Zone
o Heavy industrial zones
• Pollution
• Far from high income residential zones
• Found on outskirts of urban areas due to requirement of large spaces
• Close to transport facilities
• Produce heavy goods
o Light industrial zones
• Occupies small spaces
• Little pollution
• Locate near to customers
• Produce small and comparatively lighter goods
5. Green Belts
o Piece of land found within a city that has natural vegetation
o Protects natural environments
o Improves air quality
6. Rural-urban Fringe
o Outskirts of city
o Mixture of rural and urban functions
o Land here is cheap
o Sewage, cemeteries, airports etc. found here
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E: Models of Urban Structure

Burgess- concentric zone model:

CBD

industries

low income
housing
middle income
housing
high income
housing

o inner zones invade outer zones in a process called invasion and succession
o does not have all land use zones
o no commercial decentralisation
o no consideration of relief
o little accessibility

Hoyt- sector model:

o sectors develop along main transport routes

o unrealistic due to circular CBD- relief not considered

Harris and Ullman- multiple nuclei model:

o cellular pattern allowing for growth into each other

o caters for decentralisation, relief and all land use zones
o shows the true complexity of cities
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Modern American-western city:

o multi-centred
o CBD called downtown
o High level of commuting
o Decentralisation
o Sharply defined land use zones

Third world city:

o Land use zones are mixed
o Lots of informal trading
o City centres are compact
o Poor infrastructure
o Social problems in excess

South African city:

o Influenced by colonialism and apartheid
o Land use zones influenced by group areas act
o Post-apartheid- income determines where people live, not race

7. Urban Settlement Issues

A: Urban issues related to rapid urbanisation

Inner-city problems:
o Rise of squatter settlements
o Industrial expansion is slower than the rate of urbanisation
o Unequal provision of services
o Poverty and unemployment
o Environmental pollution
o Crime and violence

Urban blight:
o Deterioration of parts of an urban area
o Area of decay is transition zone
o Owners do not maintain buildings in this area
o Solutions:
• Slum clearance- demolishing old buildings and starting from scratch. Housing provided
for residents
• Regeneration- improving physical environment by renovating old buildings, creating
employment and improve quality of life
• Invasion and succession- replacing the original function with a new function
• Gentrification- low cost housing bought by wealthy people and are modernised
• Façadism- front of building preserved for heritage remembrance but the rest of the
building is renovated

Lack of planning:
o Low income residential areas found on outskirts
o Results in high rate of commuting putting pressure on transport
o Poor service provision results in protests
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Traffic congestion:
o Build-up of vehicles on roads occurring mostly during peak hours
o Causes:
• People live far from work
• Inefficient public transport
• Poor road safety
• Excessive use of private vehicles
• Expensive parking
• Grid iron street patterns
o Solutions:
• Monitoring of public transport
• Introduce rapid and safe transport
• Decentralisation
• Cycle lanes
• Ring roads
• Park and ride facilities
• Multi-storey parking bays

Overcrowding and housing shortages:

o Shortage of living space due to rapid urbanisation

Service provision:
o Municipalities are struggling to provide basic services due to rapid urbanisation
o Resulting in protests for better service delivery

B: Informal Settlements

• Illegally built settlements due to lack of housing by poor people

• Lack basic services
• Mostly found in LEDCs
• Problems:
 Vulnerable to elements
 Susceptible to wild fires
 Spread of diseases
 Crime, drugs, poverty
 Unhygienic
• Solutions:
 Relocation
 Self-help schemes
 Provision of basic services

C: Justice Issues in Urban Areas

Social injustices:
o Causes of unequal access to resources and services
• Greed and corruption
• Nepotism
• Lack of public participation
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o Impact
• Xenophobia
• Violent protests
• Crime

Economic injustices:
o Poverty
• Causes
 Lack of education
 Wages in primary sector too low
 Unemployment
• Solutions
 Basic income grant
 Increase support to farmers
 Skills programmes
• Impact
 Increased crime
 Malnutrition
 Increased illness
 Low standard of living
o Poor public transport
• Impact
 Frequent accidents
 Pollution
 Traffic congestion
• Solutions
 Improve bus routing
 Upgrade taxi ranks
 Dedicated public transport lanes
 Introduce eco-friendly transport systems
 Subsidies for public transport improvement

Environmental injustices:
Type cause effect solution
o CO o Health problems o Electricity saving
o Sulphur o Acid rain campaigns
o Power stations o Destruction of o Strict control of
Air pollution o Domestic ecosystems pollution by
activities o Global warming government
o Use ozone
friendly products
o Extend green belts
o Industries o Hypertension and o Noise barriers
o Airplanes hearing loss o Altering flight
o Traffic o Reduces quality paths
Noise pollution o Fire crackers of life o Restrict times of
day for certain
noise levels
Destruction of o Population growth o Soil erosion o Legislation
ecosystems o Settlement o Pollution of o Education
expansion freshwater
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Geography Revision Guide Gr 12/2018

Module 4
Economic Geography
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Geography Revision Guide Gr 12/2018

1. Structure of the Economy

Primary sector:
o Concerned with extraction of raw materials from the environment
o E.g. farming, fishing, forestry, mining
Secondary sector:
o Activities that process raw materials into useful goods
o E.g. steel making, food canning, construction
Tertiary sector:
o Provision of services
o E.g. doctors, accountants, teachers, lawyers
Quaternary sector:
o Hi-tech sector linked to research and development
o E.g. scientists and researchers

GDP- total goods and services produced in a country in one year

GNP- total goods and services produced in a country by the permanent inhabitants in one year

2. Agriculture

Contribution to SA economy:
o Food production- sufficient to meet demand rids need of imports
o Earner of foreign exchange- 10% of exports
o Contribution to GDP- farmers pay taxes
o Job creation- 10% of labour force employed
o Industrial development- stimulation of industries by high volume of raw materials

Role of small-scale and large-scale farmers:

Small-scale farmers Large-scale farmers
Description Small but economically viable piece Production of crops for local and
of land used with the purpose of overseas markets to make a profit
making a profit.
o Limited fertiliser o Fertilisers
Inputs o Manual labour o Machinery
o Some capital o Large amounts of capital
o Intensive farming o Paid labour
o GM seeds
o Small plots of intensive o Large plots of extensive
Farm size farming farming
o Irrigation: weirs, small dams o Irrigation schemes
and pipes o Highly mechanised
Yield o High per hectare o Medium per hectare
o Monoculture o Variety of crops
o To reduce poverty in rural o To produce large quantities
Importance areas of food for local and
o To provide employment international markets
o Promotes food security o To provide employment
Problems o Poor infrastructure o Climate change
o Poorly financed o Increasing cost of labour
o Lack of trained farmers o Lack of subsidies
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Main products produced:

o Cattle:
• EC, FS, KZN, LP and NC
• Problems:
 Foot and mouth disease and tick problems
 Variable price of beef
 Limited grazing due to SA’s hot conditions
o Maize:
• Highveld
• Staple food of population
• Earner of foreign exchange
• Creates job opportunities
o Sugarcane:
• Provides employment
• Hulett, Illovo, TSB
• Ideal growing conditions:
 Long, warm growing season
 Lots of sunlight and moisture
 Dry, sunny and cool conditions for ripening

Factors favouring agriculture: Factors hindering agriculture:

o Trade opportunities (well-developed o Climate change (effects on soil, water
transport infrastructure) and temperature)
o Research o Droughts and floods
o Climatic variation o Diseases and pests
o Available labour supply o Fluctuating prices
o Government support o Wild fires
o Crime
o Labour strikes
o Lack of funding and training

Food security:
o When enough nutritious food is produced to meet the needs of people
o Famine: lack of food, giving rise to starvation and malnutrition
o Importance:
• Needed to maintain good health of people
• Prevents social uprising
• Prevents hunger and famine
• Malnutrition can be prevented
o Factors affecting food security:
Negatively Positively
o Thin and infertile soils, soil erosion o Greater variety of crops due to climatic
o Droughts and floods variation
o Pests and diseases o Government incentives
o Deforestation o GM seeds
o Lack of capital
o Poor infrastructure in rural areas
o HIV infected workers
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Geography Revision Guide Gr 12/2018

3. Mining

Contribution to SA economy:
o Earner of foreign exchange- export of minerals
o Contribution to GDP- mining companies pay tax
o Job creation
o Industrial development- demand for tools and machinery stimulates industries

Significance of mining to development of SA:

o Discovery of diamonds started the mining industry
o Contributed to rapid urbanisation
o Established the JSE
o Led to development of secondary and tertiary industries as well as infrastructure

Main products produced:

Coal mining: Platinum: Gold:
o Most of SA’s o Large contribution to o Largest foreign income
electricity is coal GDP earner
generated o Labour strikes said to o Challenges:
o Used by Mittal, impact contribution to • Labour strikes
SASOL and is exported GDP • Diseases spreading
o Challenges: o Challenges: in workforce due to
• Labour strikes • Declining mine conditions
• Limited resource competitiveness • Poor working
• Environmental • Labour strikes conditions
issues • Union disputes • Environmental
• Hesitant investors problems

Ways to reduce mine strikes:

o Profit sharing
o Communication improvement between management and workforce
o Improve working conditions
o Skills development programmes

Factors favouring mining Factors hindering mining

o Variety of minerals o Strikes and protests
o Large mineral reserves o Minimum wage increase
o Low production costs of surface o Transport costs
minerals o Fluctuating prices due to foreign
o Lower rock temperatures allow for exchange
deeper mining o Mine disasters
o Access to cheap labour o Distance to markets
o Government assistance
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4. Secondary Sector

A: Contribution to SA economy

o Contribution to GDP- money is generated in the form of taxes

o foreign exchange- money from exports are used on imports for development of the country
o job creation- increases purchasing power of people and improves life quality

B: Types of industries

Heavy industries:
o large scale
o generates pollution
o outskirts of settlement
o close to bulk transport facilities
o uses lots of raw materials and energy
o e.g. Iscor (steel), oil refining, engineering

Light industries:
o small products manufactured
o close to CBD
o small areas used
o little pollution generated
o road transport used
o e.g. clothing manufacturers

Raw material orientated industries:

o locate close to source of raw materials since they are bulky and expensive to transport
o e.g. sugar mill

Market orientated:
o locate close to market/customers since goods produced are perishable
o e.g. cheese industry

Footloose industries:
o location not dictated by access to materials or markets
o service orientated
o no pollution generated
o highly skilled
o e.g. research companies

Ubiquitous industries:
o can locate anywhere
o fulltime services offered
o e.g. telecommunication services

Break-of-bulk industries:
o located between source of raw materials and customers, where transport type changes
o e.g. sugar refineries
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C: Factors favouring industrial development in SA

Raw materials:
o wide range available in abundance

Labour supply:
o access to skilled and semiskilled labour
o access to tertiary education to skill labour force

water supply:
o close to water supply for industrial use (manufacturing or cooling machinery)
o water transfer schemes supplement water supply

Energy supply:
o large coal reserves for electricity generation
o industries locate close to source of energy

transport:
o well established transport infrastructure
o 8 seaports and 4 international airports

Political intervention:
o Government policies in place to support local industries
o Incentives given to industries

Competition and trade:

o International trade facilitated by harbours and airports
o No trade barriers
o Access to local and international markets promotes competition and trade

D: Factors hindering industrial development in SA

Over-concentration:
o Traffic congestion
o Higher rentals due to demand for land- lower profits
o Higher salary demands

Transport:
o Unreliable
o Repair of roads and railways is costly
o Markets are far away
o Isolated from most world markets
o High export costs make it hard for local industries to compete with industries close to large
international markets

Labour supply:
o Brain drain results in loss of skilled workers, making it necessary to employ foreigners at
high costs
o Lack of funding to uplift education results in lack of skilled labour force
o Workers demand higher pay by striking which hinders production
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Air pollution:

o Industries have the responsibility to reduce air pollution since it is the main contributor.
o Effects of industrial pollution:
• Negative impact on human health
• Kills animals and plants
• Causes imbalance in ecosystems
• Degrades air quality
• Damages buildings
• Reduces quality of life
o Causes of air pollution:
• Lack of policies to control air pollution:
Allows industries to bypass laws
• Unplanned industrial growth:
In industrial towns, pollution level increases above norm
• Use of outdated technology:
Industries rely on old technology that generates large amounts of waste
• May small scale industries:
Escape environmental regulations and release more pollution than normal

Water supply:
o Water is scarce in SA
o Large companies forced to recycle water
o Pollution is dumped into usable water
o Solutions:
• Recycling and reusing water
• Lowering toxicity in operations involving water
• Make production process more water efficient

Raw materials:
o Use of imported raw materials increases production costs
o Cost of imports fluctuates with foreign exchange rate

Competition and trade:

o Local industries cannot compete with imported goods from china
o Fluctuating rand value creates instability
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E: Four Core Industrial Areas of South Africa

PWV- Pretoria Witwatersrand Vereeniging (Gauteng):

Factors favouring location Factors hindering development Main industrial activities
o Market o Overuse of water from Vaal o Chemical
• Dense population river o Iron and steel
resulting in high o Pollution
demand for goods o Great distance from ports o Metal processing
• High buying power o Explosives
o Transport
• Dense network of roads
and railways
o Labour
• Dense population-
larger labor force
o Raw materials
• Gold
• Iron ore
• Maize
• Platinum
o Water
• Eastern half- receives
adequate rainfall
• Vaal river water
supplemented by
TUVA water transfer
scheme
o Electricity
• Cheap since coal is
mined here
• Short distance from
source
o Relief
• On Highveld where
land is flat

Port Elizabeth- Uitenhage

Factors favouring location Factors hindering development Main industrial activities
o market o periodic drought o Car assembly
• import and export of o no coal fields so electricity o Leather goods
goods made easy by is expensive o textiles
harbour o expensive labour and
o transport frequent strikes
• good links with the rest
of SA
• harbour
o raw materials
• wool
• subtropical fruit
• cotton
o relief
• flat land
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Geography Revision Guide Gr 12/2018

Durban-Pinetown (eThekwini)
Factors favouring location Factors hindering development Main industrial activities
o Market o Capacity of harbour is o Oil and sugar refining
• Densely populated limited o Ship building
• High demand for o Hilly topography restricts o Food and drink
manufactured goods growth of harbour o Textiles
o Transport o Footwear
• Harbour o Soap making
• Many links to rest of
the country
o Labour
• Large labour force due
to large population
o Raw materials
• Sugarcane
• Dairy
• Meat
• Subtropical fruit
o Water
• Abundant rain
• Presence of perennial
rivers (Tugela &
Umgeni)

South Western Cape

Factors favouring location Factors hindering development Main industrial activities
o Market o Electricity is expensive o Food processing
• High purchasing power since coal fields are far o Textiles
• Coastal- access to large away o Fish and fruit canning
overseas markets o Water shortages- located on o Wine
o Transport the western half that o Petrol refineries
• Table bay for overseas receives less rainfall
trade o Few mineral resources
• Dense railway network
for local links
o Labour:
• Dense population of
skilled and unskilled
o Raw materials:
• Deciduous fruit
• Grape
• Fish
o Relief:
• Flat land
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Geography Revision Guide Gr 12/2018

F: Strategies for industrial development in SA

Overview of apartheid industrial development strategies

o Good hope plan
• To spread economic wealth in SA
• Lead to the regions making up the 9 provinces
• De-concentration points created
• Isolated industrial development points
• Tax incentives to encourage industrial growth
• Border industries created on homelands

Overview of post-apartheid industrial development strategies

o Reconstruction and Development Programme (RDP)
• Improved quality of life
• Redistribution of wealth, healthcare, jobs, and basic services
• Aimed at local development
o Growth, Employment and Redistribution (GEAR)
• Macro-economy policy
• Focuses on redistribution of wealth to eliminate poverty
• Attracts foreign investment
• Focuses on country as a whole by:
 Creating jobs
 Increasing exports
 Developing infrastructure
o Accelerated and shared growth in SA
o National development plan

Industrial development zones (IDZs)

o Specialised industrial zone

o Promotes competition and attracts foreign investment
o Locate near harbours and airports
o World-class infrastructure and industrial parks
o Government incentives offered (tax deductions and reduced import costs)
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o East London IDZ:

o Automotive
o Marine aquaculture
Industry types o Agro-processing
o Pharmaceuticals
o ICT & electronics and business processes
o Excellent transport
o Automotive industry provides economic growth
Advantages of location o Clustered industries reduce logistics cost
o Close to ports
o Duty free imports for goods used in manufacturing
o Zero VAT on supplies used to manufacture export goods
Incentives o Discounted utility services and affordable land prices
o Lack of skilled labour
Flaws o Poor harbour facilities
o Limited electricity supply
o High demand for water

Spatial development initiatives (SDIs)

o Development corridor: development along a major transport route

o Links IDZs
o Provides communities with opportunities to participate in economic activities
o Promotes job creation
o Promotes use of local resources to generate economic growth
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o Phalaborwa SDI
o Limpopo
Location o Favourably situated for economic links with other countries
o Runs through Great North Road
o Platinum, iron ore, coal, diamonds
Resources o Wood
o Mangoes, papayas, avocados, potatoes
o Use underutilised resources sustainably
Objectives o Develop small-scale mining
o Integrate urban and rural areas
o Promote tourism
o Poverty and unemployment
Challenges o Unmaintained roads
o Poor infrastructure
o Lack of clean water

o West Coast SDI

Location o Stretches from Cape Town to Northern Cape border
o Rich in avian resources- Lambert’s Bay Waterfront
o Cultural heritage
Resources o Fish
o Rich in biodiversity
o fruit
o protect west coast environment
Objectives o promote job opportunities and economic growth
o develop social well-being of people
o promote infrastructure development
o lack of technical skills
Challenges o inadequate marketing
o growing informal settlements
o xenophobia
o sand mining decreases tourism

G: Industrial centralisation and decentralisation

Advantages of centralisation Disadvantages of centralisation

o 4 core areas highly developed o Uneven spread of wealth
o Clustering of similar industries o Peripheral areas remain underdeveloped
o Infrastructure and service network o Congestion and pollution
establishment o Social problems
o Good market o Labour issues due to poor living conditions
o Large labour force o Demand for housing
o Declination of rural towns

Decentralisation
Reasons to move out of Effects Reasons to move into rural Effects
urban areas areas
o Depletion of o Job losses o Available land o Improved
primary resources o New office parks o Cheaper land infrastructure
o Decreased demand o Urban blight o Closer to market o Improved services
o Functional o Job creation
magnetism
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5. Tertiary sector

o Involve selling of goods and provision of services

o Hairdressers, doctors, internet cafes, repair companies

Contribution to SA economy:
o Provides employment to skilled population
o Contributes to GDP via tax
o Provides population with higher incomes and better standard of living
o Encourages growth of financial and business services

The role of international trade in economic development:

o Benefits of international trade
• Access to foreign currency
• Variety of goods for consumers
• Promotes competition
• Better international relations
• Exchange of technical knowhow
• Increases sales and profits
o Disadvantages of international trade:
• Local production suffers
• Rich countries influence poorer nations and take control

The role of transport in economic development:

o Dense transport infrastructure results in high level of development
o Better accessibility to markets
o Efficient transport reduces costs
o Provides employment
o Encourages domestic and international trade

6. Informal sector

o Definition: unregistered workers

o Characteristics
• Self-employed workers
• Casual labour
• Unskilled or semiskilled workers

o Importance:
• Provides income and reduces unemployment
• Consumers can buy goods in small quantity cheaply
• Allows for people to grow entrepreneurial skill

o Reasons for development:

• Large scale job losses due to mechanisation
• Many people lack formal qualifications and they cannot get jobs in formal sector
• Immigrants cannot find legal employment
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Geography Revision Guide Gr 12/2018

o Problems faced:
• Traders harassed by authorities
• Traders lack assess to proper trading facilities
• Unreliable income
• Banks do not grant loans to traders

o Measures to improve informal sector:

• Introduce licensing requirements
• Dedicate areas for informal trading
• Provide infrastructure for traders
• Provide easier access to bank loans

Written by Zaid Ganie, in accordance with The Department of Basic Education, Geography Examination Guidelines,
Grade 12, 2017.