NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

INTRODUCTION TO SCIENCE: TPM 106

FACULTY OF MANAGEMENT SCIENCES

COURSE GUIDE

Course Developer:
Dr. ADEJUMO, Taiye Elisha
Civil Engineering Department
Federal University of Technology, Minna

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 NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

CONTENT

Introduction

Course Content Course Aims and

Objectives

Working through this Course

Course Materials Study Units

Textbooks and References

Assignment File

Presentation Schedule

Assessment Tutor-Marked Assignment (TMAs)

Final Examination and Grading

Course Marking Scheme

How To Get The Most From This Course

Tutors and Tutorials Summary

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Introduction

The course, Introduction to Science (TPM 106) is a first semester core course, which carries two
credit units for first year level students in the Faculty of Management Sciences at the National
Open University, Nigeria. This coursework will be useful in your academic pursuit by
introducing you to science and its philosophies.

This course guide is built partially on prerequisite knowledge in elementary physics and
chemistry. However, its simplicity will make the student assimilate faster. The practice
questions at the end of each unit will also prepare the student for the examination purposes. The
courseware suggests some general guidelines for the amount of time required of users on each
unit in order to achieve the course aim and objectives successfully. In addition, it provides users
with some guidance on their tutor marked assignments (TMAs) as contained herein.

Course Content

The course is made up of fourteen units (four modules) spread across eight (10) lecture hours,
six (6) hours of laboratory practical demonstrations/experiments covering areas such as;

i Mechanics

ii Space and Time

iii Units and Dimensions

iv Vectors Kinematics and Newton’s Laws of motion

v Galilean Invariance

vi Static Dynamic of Particles

vii Universal gravitation

viii Thermal Physic

ix Thermal Properties including Elementary Thermodynamics and Kinetic Theory. Atomic

Structure and the Periodic Classification of Elements

x Introduction to Gas Kinetic

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 xi Introduction to Nuclear Chemistry

xii Solid and Lattice Structure

xiii General Principles of Extraction of metal.

Course Aims and Objectives

This courseware and lecture note have been prepared with the primary aim of introducing Basic
science to 100 Level engineering students as basic science preparatory. The course attempts to
explain the concepts of philosophy of science. The objective is to impart training and help the
students develop engineering thinking skill. This course also aims at inculcating respect for
principles of physical work, and laboratory investigations in addition to some amount of value
addition by being exposed to interdisciplinary science and engineering domains. In addition, the
course is prepared in a way in which the users would easily enhance their previous knowledge
of elementary physics and chemistry. The course further aim to develop critical thinking skills
in students by learning how to carry out basic introductory aspects of basic science. It further
focuses on steering up the students’ ability to visualize and recognize units and dimension of
objects, parts, models or systems.

However, the overall objectives of the course will be achieved by:

i. Introducing and familiarizing students with basic science of mechanics and kinematics.
ii. Development of force concepts, gravitation and Laws of motion.
iii. Discussing atomics structures, lattice structure and kinetics.
iv. Introducing students to Thermal Physics, Nuclear Chemistry and extraction of metals.
Working through the Course
To successfully complete this course, students/users are required to read the study units,
references and other materials on the course.

Each unit contains self-assessment exercises called Student Assessment Exercises (SAE). At
some points in the course, you will be required to submit assignments for assessment purposes.
At the end of the course there is a final examination. This course should take about 10 weeks to
complete and some components of the course are outlined under the course material sub-section.

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Course Material

The major component of the course and what you have to do and how you should allocate your
time to each unit in order to complete the course successfully on time are listed as follows:

1. Course guide
2. Study unit
3. Textbooks
4. Assignment file
5. Presentation schedule

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Study Unit
There are 14 units covered in 4 modules in this course, which should be studied carefully and
diligently.

Module 1: Equilibrium of bodies, Units and Dimensions, Vector kinematics and Galilean
invariance

Unit 1: Mechanics of Space and Time

Unit 2: Units and Dimensions
Unit 3: Vectors Kinematics and Newton’s Laws of Motion
Unit 4: Galilean Invariance

Module 2: Statics/Dynamics properties, Thermal Physics and Gravitation of Bodies

Unit 1: Static/Dynamic Properties of Particles

Unit 2: Kinetic Energy, Heat, Work and Behaviour of Gases
Unit 3: Gravitation of Bodies

Module 3: Thermal Properties, Atomic Structure and Gas Kinetics

Unit 1: Thermal Properties of Elements

Unit 2: Elementary Thermodynamics
Unit 3: Atomic Structure and the Periodic Classification of Elements
Unit 4: Introduction to Gas Kinetic

Module 4: Nuclear Chemistry, Lattice Structure and Extraction of Metals

Unit 1: Introduction to Nuclear Chemistry

Unit 2: Solids and Lattice Structures
Unit 3: General Principles of Extraction of Metal

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References and Other Resources

Every unit contains a list of references and further reading guide. Try to get as many as possible
of those textbooks and materials listed. The textbooks and materials are meant to deepen your
knowledge and understanding of the course.

Assignment File

There are assignments on this course and you are expected to do all of them by following the
schedule prescribed for them in terms of when to attempt them and submit same for grading by
your tutor. The marks you obtain for these assignments will count toward the final mark you
obtain for this course. Further information on assignments will be found in the Assignment File
itself and later in this Course Guide in the section on Assessment.

There are five assignments in this course. The five course assignments will cover: Assignment 1
- All TMAs’ question in Units 1 - 4 of Module 1
Assignment 2 - All TMAs' question in Units 1 - 3 of Module 2
Assignment 3 - All TMAs' question in Units 1 - 4 of Module 3
Assignment 4 - All TMAs' question in Units 1 - 3 of Module 4
Assignment 5 - All TMAs' question in Units 1 - 4 of Module 5

Presentation Schedule

The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives you the important dates for
this year for the completion of tutor-marking assignments and attending tutorials. Remember,
you are required to submit all your assignments by due date. You should guide against falling
behind the schedule.

Assessment

There are two types of assessment of the course. First are the tutor-marked assignments; second,
there is a written examination.

In attempting the assignments, you are expected to apply information, knowledge and
techniques gathered during the course. The assignments must be submitted to your tutor for
formal assessment in accordance with the deadlines stated in the Presentation Schedule and the
Assignments File. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 30 % of your
total course mark.

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At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final written examination of three hours
duration. This examination will also count for 70% of your total course mark.

Tutor-Marked Assignments (TMAs)

There are five tutor-marked assignments in this course. You will submit all the assignments.
You are enjoined to work all the questions thoroughly. The TMAs constitute 30% of the total
score.

Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the Assignment File. You will
be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your text
books, reading and study units. However, it is desirable that you demonstrate that you have read
and researched more widely than the required minimum. You should use other references to
have a broad viewpoint of the subject and also to give you a deeper understanding of the
subject.

When you have completed each assignment, send it, together with a TMA form, to your tutor.
Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given in the
Presentation File. If for any reason, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor
before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be
granted after the due date unless there are exceptional circumstances.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination will be of three hours' duration and have a value of 70% of the total
course grade. The examination will consist of questions which reflect the types of self-
assessment practice exercises and tutor-marked problems you have previously encountered. All
areas of the course will be assessed

Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting for the examination to revise the entire
course material. You might find it useful to review your self-assessment exercises, tutor-marked
assignments and comments on them before the examination. The final examination covers
information from all parts of the course.

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Course Marking Scheme

The table presented below indicate the total marks (100%) allocation.

Assessment Marks
Assignment (Best three assignment out of the five marked) 30%
Final Examination 70%
Total 100%

How to Get the Most from This Course

In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This is one of the great
advantages of distance learning; you can read and work through specially designed study
materials at your own pace and at a time and place that suit you best.

Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a
lecturer might set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your books or
other material, and when to embark on discussion with your colleagues. Just as a lecturer might
give you an in-class exercise, your study units provides exercises for you to do at appropriate
points.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an introduction to the subject
matter of the unit and how a particular unit is integrated with the other units and the course as a
whole. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be
able to do by the time you have completed the unit.

You should use these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the unit you must
go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this
you will significantly improve your chances of passing the course and getting the best grade.

The main body of the unit guides you through the required reading from other sources. This will
usually be either from your text books or from a readings section. Some units require you to
undertake practical overview of historical events. You will be directed when you need to
embark on discussion and guided through the tasks you must do.
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The purpose of the practical overview of some certain historical economic issues are in twofold.
First, it will enhance your understanding of the material in the unit. Second, it will give you
practical experience and skills to evaluate economic arguments, and understand the roles of
history in guiding current economic policies and debates outside your studies. In any event,
most of the critical thinking skills you will develop during studying are applicable in normal
working practice, so it is important that you encounter them during your studies.

Self-assessments are interspersed throughout the units, and answers are given at the ends of the
units. Working through these tests will help you to achieve the objectives of the unit and prepare
you for the assignments and the examination. You should do each self-assessment exercises as
you come to it in the study unit. Also, ensure to master some major historical dates and events
during the course of studying the material.

The following is a practical strategy for working through the course. If you run into any trouble,
consult your tutor. Remember that your tutor's job is to help you. When you need help, don't
hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.

Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

 Organize a study schedule. Refer to the `Course overview' for more details. Note the time you
are expected to spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Important
information, e.g. details of your tutorials, and the date of the first day of the semester is
available from study centre. You need to gather together all this information in one place,
such as your dairy or a wall calendar. Whatever method you choose to use, you should decide
on and write in your own dates for working breach unit.
 Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The
major reason that students fail is that they get behind with their course work. If you get into
difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late for help.
 Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the unit.
 Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is given in the
`Overview' at the beginning of each unit. You will also need both the study unit you are
working on and one of your text books on your desk at the same time.

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 Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been arranged to provide a sequence
for you to follow. As you work through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from
your text books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.
 Up-to-date course information will be continuously delivered to you at the study centre.
 Work before the relevant due date (about 4 weeks before due dates), get the Assignment File
for the next required assignment. Keep in mind that you will learn a lot by doing the
assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course
and, therefore, will help you pass the exam. Submit all assignments no later than the due date.
 Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel
unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor.
 When you are confident that you have achieved a unit's objectives, you can then start on the
next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep
yourself on schedule.
 When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking do not wait for it return
`before starting on the next units. Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned,
pay particular attention to your tutor's comments, both on the tutor-marked assignment form
and also written on the assignment. Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any
questions or problems.
 After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final
examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of
each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).

Tutors and Tutorials

There are some hours of tutorials (1-hour sessions) provided in support of this course. You will
be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials. Together with the name and phone
number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group.

Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress
and on any difficulties, you might encounter, and provide assistance to you during the course.
You must mail your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least
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two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon
as possible.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help.
The following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary.

Contact your tutor if.

i You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings
ii. You have difficulty with the self-assessment exercises
iii.You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor's comments on an
assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance to have face to face
contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any
problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in
discussions actively.

Summary

This course, Introduction to Science (TPM 106), exposes the students to Mechanics, Space and
Time, Units and Dimensions, Vectors Kinematics Newton’s Law; Galilean Invariance; Static
Dynamic of Particles; Universal gravitation, Thermal Physic, Thermal Properties including
Elementary Thermodynamics and Kinetic Theory. Atomic Structure and the Periodic
Classification of Elements; introduction to Gas Kinetic; Introduction to Nuclear Chemistry,
Solid and Lattice Structure. General Principles of Extraction of metal.
On successful completion of this course, the students would have been introduced to basic
rudiments of Elementary science. You would have known the principles of structural mechanics
and kinematics. Also, you would have developed crucial thinking skills to visualize, draft and
analysed the motion and trajectory of objects which form part of engineered devices in a
complex systems designed to solve the problem of mankind using basic mathematical tools.
This courseware is written in very simple language so that even an average student can easily

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grasp the subject matter. With detailed illustrations throughout and simple, clear language, this
is a practical introduction to what can be a very complex subject.

However, to benefit maximally from the course, please try to apply anything you learn in the
course to the arrangement and assembly of engineering parts in the physical projects around you
and other engineering courses. We wish you success in the course and hope that you will find
this material both interestingly instructive and intuitively functional.

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 MODULE ONE
EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES, UNITS AND DIMENSIONS, VECTOR
KINEMATICS AND GALILEAN INVARIANCE

Unit 1: Equilibrium of bodies and Kinematics of Particles

Unit 2: Units and Dimensions

Unit 3: Vector Kinematics and Newton’s Laws of Motion

Unit 4: Galilean Invariance

UNIT 1: EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES AND KINEMATICS OF PARTICLES

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Static Equilibrium of Particles

3.2 Equilibrium of a Solid Body

3.3 Kinematics of Particles

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

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1.0 Introduction

This unit is to discuss the mechanics of bodies including static equilibrium of bodies and
kinematics of particles. It deals with forces acting on a particle which does not move, i.e. is in
equilibrium. The important concept is the resolution of forces to obtain the equations
determining equilibrium. Motion in mechanics is understood as change of position of a
mechanical body in space over time, relative to other bodies.

2.0 Objectives
At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Understand the equilibrium of bodies

• understand the mechanics of bodies in stable equilibrium
• Explain the kinematics of bodies in motion

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Static Equilibrium of Particles

Mechanics studies motion and equilibrium of physical bodies. Motion in its simplest form is,
change of position of a body relative to other bodies. Newton in his Principia (first published in
1687) was the first to formulate the system of principles of mechanics, and although he had
many great predecessors, such as Galileo (1564-1642), Huygens (1629-1695) and others,
Newton is regarded as a founder of modern physics (and, as a matter of fact, a co-founder of
differential-integrable calculus, which provides a natural mathematical language to express
Newton's laws and their consequences).

For 200 years after Newton, in spite of the industrial revolution of the XIX century, principles
of Newtonian mechanics \worked" in all areas of human endeavour and needed not to be
revised. The revisions came only in the beginning of the XX century and concerned atomic
length scales and speeds comparable to the speed of light, which before the end of the XIX
century had been simply out of reach.

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3.1.1 Statics - equilibrium of a particle

This lecture deals with forces acting on a particle which does not move, i.e. is in equilibrium.
The important concept is the resolution of forces to obtain the equations determining
equilibrium. It is essential when solving such problems to start with a good diagram showing all
the forces.

The idea of limiting friction is introduced: this occurs when something is just on the point of
slipping. The key concepts here include;

i Reduction of a number of forces to one resultant force by vector addition.

ii Condition for equilibrium: the resultant force is zero.
iii Resolution of forces in orthogonal directions to determine an unknown force.
iv Frictional force; limiting friction and relation via the coefficient of friction to the normal
reaction.

a) Forces

We consider here the situation of a stationary particle acted on by a number of forces. It is not
very useful to attempt to define exactly what we mean by a force: examples of forces will
suffice. But we can think of a force as something that tends to produce motion. A force is
therefore obviously a vector quantity.

There are (as far as is known at present) four fundamental forces: gravity, electromagnetism,
weak nuclear force and strong nuclear force. Each force is accompanied by a theory and a set of
equations governing the behaviour of the force and objects affected by the force.

All other forces are derived from these forces. Examples in no particular order are friction,
tension in strings, normal reaction forces, air resistance, viscosity, magnetism, gravity, van der
Waals forces between molecules, etc.

For example, for a particle on a rough horizontal table (Figure 1.1) being pulled by a string
(though not hard enough to make the particle move), the forces are as shown in the diagram.
There are two external forces, namely the applied (pulling) force acting along the string, and the

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weight acting downwards. The table exerts two forces on the particle: one is the force of friction
which tends to oppose motion; the other is the reaction of the table on the particle that stops the
particle falling through the table. This latter force is normal to the surface of the table and is
called the normal reaction.

Normal reaction

Figure 1.1: A body acted upon by forces

b) Equilibrium

A particle or body is said to be in equilibrium when all the forces acting on it balance and it is
not in motion. Algebraically, this just means that the vector sum of the forces is zero:

(1.1)

or, equivalently, the components of the vectors in three directions (which must be linearly
independent, of course, but not necessarily orthogonal) sum to zero.

Geometrically, this means that the vectors representing the forces (in both direction and
magnitude) can be joined to form a closed polygon in Figure 1.2.

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 F1
F2 F2

F3
F1
F3

Figure 1.2: Force polygon

Example
A particle of weight, W lies on a fixed rough plane inclined at angle ® to the horizontal. It is
held in position by a force of magnitude T acting up the line of greatest slope of the plane. Find
the frictional force, F, in terms of W, R and T.

Solution: Before anything else, we must draw a good diagram showing all the forces. The
importance of a diagram is seen immediately: as soon as we try to draw in the frictional force F
we realise that we don’t know which way it acts — up or down the plane.

As was stated earlier, the frictional force opposes the motion, so if, in the absence of friction, the
force T is large enough to pull the particle up the plane, friction acts down the plane. If, in the
absence of friction, the weight is enough to pull the particle down the plane, then friction acts up
the plane. We assume first the former: friction acts down the plane Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Forces acting on the body

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The resolution is as follows;

(1.2)

(1.3)

(1.4)

(1.5)

(1.6)

For a given value of frictional coefficient,

(1.7)

Self Assessment Exercise:

Explain the concept of static equilibrium of a body acted upon by forces

3.2 Equilibrium of a Solid Body

This sub-unit deals with forces acting on a body at rest. The difference between the particle of
unit 1 and the body in this unit is that all the forces on the particle act through the same point,
which is not the case for forces on an extended body. The important concept, again, is the
resolution of forces to obtain the equations determining its equilibrium.

The simplest examples involve essentially one-dimensional bodies such as ladders. Again, it is
essential start with a good diagram showing all the forces.

3.2.1 Resolving the Forces

The difference between forces acting on a particle and forces acting on an extended body is
immediately obvious from the intuitive in equivalence of the two situations below: for an
extended body, it matters through which points the forces act — i.e. on the position of the line
of action of the force, Figure 1.4.

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 Figure 1.4: Equilibrium of solid

In general, each force acting on a body can be thought of as having two effects: a tendency to
translate the body in the direction parallel to the line of action of the force; and a tendency to
rotate the body. Clearly, for the body to be in equilibrium these effects must separately balance.

For the translational effects to balance, we need (as in the case of a particle) the vector sum of
the forces to be zero:

(1.1)

i) Moment of a force

In two dimensions, or in three dimensions in the case of a planar body and forces acting in the
same plane as the body, any force tends to rotate the body within the plane or, in other words,
about an axis perpendicular to the plane. In this case, we define:

Moment of a force about a point P = magnitude of the force × the shortest distance between the
line of action of the force and P, with account taken of the direction of the effect: either
clockwise or anticlockwise Figure 1.5. i.e. moment of F about P is F x d

Figure 1.5: Moment of force about a point

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where r is the position vector from P to any point on the line of action of F. Vector moment of
the forces about any point is given by;

(1.8)

Self Assessment Exercise: Explain moment of a force about a point in a body

3.3 Kinematics of Particles

Kinematics studies motion of particles regardless of its cause. The venue for kinematics is
space-time, i.e. an event, an instant of reality, is characterised by where and when it has
occurred. The main object for kinematics is a particle - a point in space which has no size, and
whose radius-vector r is a function of time t, or the point moves along its trajectory. Kinematics
is concerned with the most basic question - how does one describe a trajectory.

Kinematics is the study of particle motion without reference to mass or force. In some ways,
studying kinematics is rather artificial: in almost all realistic situations, the motion would have
been produced by forces and the problem can only be solved by investigating the equations of
motion appropriate to the forces acting. The study of motion produced by forces is called
Dynamics. Note that we deal with particles, which, by definition, are point-like; they can have
mass (though that is not needed in kinematics) but they have no internal structure, so they
cannot, for example, spin. The example of projectile flight is important, historically and in terms
of applications.

3.3.1 Projectiles

Projectiles are normally particles fired in the Earth’s gravitational field. Properly, this should be
treated as a problem in dynamics, since it involves forces but, since the gravitational field may
be treated as uniform, the problem reduces to one of constant acceleration and the mass of the
particle does not matter.

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Example

A particle is projected from a point on a horizontal plane at speed u and at angle of projection α.
Find the equation of the trajectory.

First step: Draw a diagram

Figure 1.6: The projectile path

In most mechanics’ problems, the first step is to draw a good diagram with all the information in
it. This may just be a good way of keeping the data in front of you, but it may also give some
important insight into the problem.

Equations of motion

The next thing to do is to write down the equations of motion, which are in this case just the
mathematical expression of the fact that the acceleration the particle is given:

(1.9)

where a is the gravitational acceleration, which is constant in magnitude and direction.

Choice of axes

The next thing to do, as in most similar problems, is to choose suitable axes and coordinates.
We choose Cartesian axes with origin at the point of projection. We are free to choose the
orientation of the axes, so let the z axis be vertically upwards and let the x-axis be aligned with
the initial velocity. With this choice, the initial velocity is (u cos α, 0, u sin α) and the
acceleration a (due to gravity) is (0, 0, −g), where g is a positive constant.

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Set out the problem in the chosen axes. We now write down the equations of motion in our
chosen axes:

= (1.10)

This gives us three differential equations;

Solve the equations with the given initial conditions. Integrating each one twice and using the
initial conditions x = y = z = 0 and = u cos α, = 0, = u cos α, at t = 0 gives

(1.11)

It can be seen by eliminating t, that, this is a parabola

t + (1.12)

(1.13)

Equation (1.11) s the dynamical (or kinematic) equation of the trajectory, a parabola
parametrised by time t. Equation (1.12) is the geometric equation: it describes a geometric
object with no sense of motion. We could, of course, have just substituted the initial conditions u
= (u cos α, 0, u sin α) and x0 = 0 into the formula (1.13). It is probably better, though, to start
from the equations of motion (1.13) rather than to quote elaborate formulae.

Self Assessment e-Exercise:

Explain the concept of kinematics in the study of particle motion.

4.0 Conclusion

We conclude that a body will remains at rest or in a state of stable equilibrium until a force
pulls of pushes it out of equilibrium. Motion in its simplest form is, change of position of a
body relative to other bodies as result of the action of internal or external forces. Differentiation
of a vector is the same as differentiation of its Cartesian components. In all, we have studied the

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mechanics of particles and rigid bodies with constraints that require progressively more
involved kinematics.

5.0 Summary
In this study unit, we attempt to introduce and familiarize students with the concept of forces,
moment of forces as well as static equilibrium of bodies when subjected to forces. We also
introduce the students to dynamics, as the study of motion produced by forces. Elementary
analysis of forces by resolution using statics and differential calculus were also covered.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) Explain the concept of static equilibrium of a body acted upon by forces
b) Explain the moment of a force about a point in a body.
c) Explain the concept of kinematics in the study of particle motion.
7.0 References/Further Readings
Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001). Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University

Press.

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UNIT 2: UNITS AND DIMENSIONS
CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Units of Measurement

3.2 Dimension of Quantities

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction
This unit will be looked at units and measurements of dimensions. The comparison of any
physical quantity with its standard unit is called measurement. A definite amount of a physical
quantity is taken as its standard unit. The standard unit as well as dimension of quantities to be
measured, should be clearly marked, easily reproducible, unambiguous and internationally
accepted.

2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit student should be able to
i Know the standard units of measurement
ii Understand the importance of proper units and scale of measurement.
iii Explain the standard fundamental units of dimensions in scientific measurements.

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3.0 Main Content

3.1 Units of Measurement

3.1.1 Fundamental Units

Those physical quantities which are independent to each other are called fundamental
quantities and their units are called fundamental units. The international system of units is the
modern form of the metric system. It is the only system of measurement with an official status
of international acceptance. It is sometimes referred to as the ‘SI units’ of measurements. They
are basically summarized in Table 1.1 below.

Table 1.1: SI units of measurement

S/No Fundamental Quantity Fundamental Unit Symbol

1 Length METRE m
2 Mass KILOGRAM kg
3 Time SECOND S
4 Temperature KELVIN kg
5 Electric current AMPERE A
6 Luminous intensity CANDELA Cd
7 Amount of substance MOLE mol

3.1.2 Definition of fundamental SI units

The seven fundamental units of SI are defined as follows.

1. 1 kilogram – A cylindrical prototype mass made of platinum and iridium alloys of height

39 mm and diameter 39 mm. It is mass of 5.0188 x 1025 atoms of carbon-12.

2. 1 metre – 1 metre is the distance that contains 1650763.73 wavelength of orange-red light of
Kr-86.

26
3. 1 second – 1 second is the time in which cesium atom vibrates 9192631770 times in an
atomic clock.

4. 1 kelvin – 1 kelvin is the (1/273.16) part of the thermodynamics temperature of the triple
point of water.

5. 1 candela –1 candela is (1/60) luminous intensity of an ideal source by an area of cm’ when
source is at melting point of platinum (1760°C).

6. 1 ampere – 1 ampere is the electric current which it maintained in two straight parallel
conductor of infinite length and of negligible cross-section area placed one metre apart in
vacuum will produce between them a force 2 x 10-7 N per metre length.

7. 1 mole – 1 mole is the amount of substance of a system which contains a many elementary
entities (may be atoms, molecules, ions, electrons or group of particles, as this and atoms in
0.012 kg of carbon isotope 6C12.

3.1.3 Supplementary Fundamental Units

Radian and steradian are two supplementary fundamental units. It measures plane angle and
solid angle respectively as shown in Table 1.2.

Table 1.2: Supplementary fundamental units

S/No Suppl. Fundamental Suppl. Fund. Unit Symbol

Quantity
1 Plane angle RADIAN rad

2 Solid angle STERADIAN Sr

3.1.4 Derived Units

Those physical quantities which are derived from fundamental quantities are called derived
quantities and their units are called derived units. e.g., velocity, acceleration, force, work etc.

27
3.1.5 System of Units

A system of units is the complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, for all kinds of
physical quantities. The common system of units which is used in mechanics are given below:

1. CGS System – In this system, the unit of length is centimetre, the unit of mass is gram and
the unit of time is second.

2. FPS System – In this system, the unit of length is foot, the unit of mass is pound and the unit
of time is second.

3. MKS System – In this system, the unit of length is metre, the unit of mass is kilogram and the
unit of time is second.

4. SI System – This system contain seven fundamental units and two supplementary
fundamental units.

Self Assessment Exercise: What do you understand by general workshop safety maintenance?

3.2 Dimensions of Measured Quantities

Dimensions of any physical quantity are those powers which are raised on fundamental units to
express its unit. The expression which shows how and which of the base quantities represent
the dimensions of a physical quantity, is called the dimensional formula.

3.2.1 Dimensional Formula of some physical quantities

The formula for the dimensions of some physical quantities are shown is Table 1.3 below

28
 Table 1.3: Dimensional formula of some physical quantities

S/No Physical Quantity Dimensional formula Unit

1 Area [L2] m2
2 Volume [L3] m3
3 Velocity [LT-1] ms-1
4 Acceleration [LT-2] ms-2
5 Force [MLT-2] Newton (N)
6 Work or Energy [ML2T-2] joule (J)
7 Power [ML2T-3] J s-1 or watt
8 Pressure or Stress [ML-1T-2] Nm-2
9 Linear momentum or Impulse [MLT-1] kg ms-1
10 Density [ML-3] kg m-3
11 Strain Dimensionless Unitless
12 Modulus of elasticity [ML-1T-2] Nm-2
13 Surface tension [MT-2] Nm-1
14 Velocity gradient T-1 second-1
15 Coefficient of velocity [ML-1T-1] kg m-1s-1
16 Gravitational constant [M-1L3T-2] Nm2/kg2
17 Moment of inertia [ML2] kg m2
18 Angular velocity [T-1] rad/s
19 Angular acceleration [T-2] rad/S2
20 Angular momentum [ML2T-1] kg m2S-1
21 Specific heat [L2T-2θ-1] kcal kg-1K-1
22 Latent heat [L2T-2] kcal/kg
23 Planck’s constant [ML2T-1] J-s
24 Universal gas constant [ML2T-2θ-1] J/mol-K

29
3.2.2 Application of Dimension
1. To check the accuracy of physical equations.

2. To change a physical quantity from one system of units to another system of units.

3. To obtain a relation between different physical quantities.

Self Assessment Exercise: Discuss the application of dimension of quantities measured.

4.0 Conclusion

The unit established the importance of using clearly marked, easily reproducible, unambiguous
and internationally accepted standard units and dimensions in all measured quantities. The SI
units, which acceptance and application transcend geographical borders should be used in all
measured quantities.

5.0 Summary

This unit explained the concept of a standard internationally accepted metric system of
measurement, known as SI units. The seven fundamental units of SI metric system include;
Length in metre, Mass in kilogram, time in seconds, temperature in kelvin, Electric current in
ampere, Luminous intensity in candela and Amount of substance in mole. The unit also
elucidated standard dimensions of any physical quantity as those powers which are raised on
fundamental units to express its unit.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) Define the basic Fundamental SI units of measurement.
b) Discuss the application of dimension of quantities measured
7.0 References/Further Readings
Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001). Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University
30
Press.

31
UNIT 3: VECTOR KINEMATICS AND NEWTON’S LAWS OF MOTION
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Vector Kinematics

3.2 Dynamics: Force and Newton’s Laws of Motion

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Motion draws our attention. Motion itself can be beautiful, causing us to marvel at the forces
needed to achieve spectacular motion, such as that of a dolphin jumping out of the water, or a
pole vaulter, or the flight of a bird, or the orbit of a satellite. The study of motion is kinematics,
but kinematics only describes the way objects move - their velocity and their acceleration.
Dynamics considers the forces that affect the motion of moving objects and systems. Newton’s
laws of motion are the foundation of dynamics. These laws provide an example of the breadth
and simplicity of principles under which nature functions. They are also universal laws in that
they apply to similar situations on Earth as well as in space.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Understand dynamics and vector kinematics of motion

• Understand Newton’s laws of motion
32
 • Apply Newton's laws of motion to solve problems involving a variety of forces.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Vector Kinematics

Kinematics is the mathematical description of motion. The term is derived from the Greek
word kinema, meaning movement. In order to quantify motion, a mathematical coordinate
system, called a reference frame, is used to describe space and time. Once a reference frame
has been chosen, we can introduce the physical concepts of position, velocity and acceleration
in a mathematically precise manner. Figure 1.7 shows a Cartesian coordinate system in one
dimension with unit vector i pointing in the direction of increasing x -coordinate. The
displacement vector of an object over a time interval is the vector difference between the two
position vectors as shown in Figure 1.8.

Figure 1.7: A one-dimensional Cartesian

Figure 1.8: The displacement vector
coordinate system

33
We denote time by t, position by x, velocity by u or v and acceleration by a. Sometimes,
displacement from the original position of the particle is denoted by s. We might write, for
example, x(t) to emphasise that x is a function of time. Velocity, by definition, is rate of change
of position, so

(1.14)

The overdot always denotes differentiation with respect to time. Acceleration, by definition, is
rate of change of velocity, so

(1.15)

With respect to an origin and in standard Cartesian axes, we write

(1.16)

or, to save space, just (x, y, z). Velocity, by definition, is rate of change of position, so

(1.17)

This last equality (equivalence), obvious though it seems, actually needs proving. Is
differentiating a vector the same as differentiating its components? The answer is yes, provided
that the axes are fixed. Speed is the magnitude of the velocity vector |x|, which is non-negative.
As in one dimension, acceleration is rate of change of velocity, so

(1.18)

We can obtain standard results for constant acceleration by (as is often the case) writing down the
definitions and integrating the resulting differential equations. We have

(1.19)

34
where a is constant, so integrating with respect to time t once gives,

(1.20)

where u is a constant of integration corresponding to the velocity at t = 0. Integrating again gives

(1.21)

where x0 is a constant of integration corresponding to the position at t = 0. Sometimes, this is

written as

(1.22)

where s is displacement from the initial position. We can find distance as a function of velocity
by using (1.21) to eliminate time from (1.22):

(1.23)

which simplifies to

(1.24)

Self Assessment Exercise:

Explain the concept of kinematics to describe the position of object in motion.

3.2 Dynamics: Force and Newton’s Laws of Motion

Dynamics is the study of the forces that cause objects and systems to move. To understand this,
we need a working definition of force. Our intuitive definition of force—that is, a push or a
pull—is a good place to start. We know that a push or pull has both magnitude and direction
(therefore, it is a vector quantity) and can vary considerably in each regard.

3.2.1 Newton’s First Law of Motion: Inertia

Newton’s First Law of Motion, often called the law of inertia, states that a body at rest remains at
rest, or, if in motion, remains in motion at a constant velocity unless acted on by a net external
force. i.e. that an object at rest will remain at rest if left alone, and that an object in motion tends

35
to slow down and stop unless some effort is made to keep it moving. Newton’s first law of motion
describes what happens when zero net force acts, which means that all forces acting must cancel
out.

3.2.2 Newton’s Second Law of Motion: Concept of a System

Newton’s second law of motion states that, the acceleration of a system is directly proportional to
and in the same direction as the net external force acting on the system, and inversely
proportional to its mass. The law is a cause and effect relationship among three quantities that is
not simply based on their definitions. Mathematically, it is expressed as,

(1.25)

This is often written in the more familiar form

(1.26)

3.2.3 Newton’s Third Law of Motion

Newton’s third law of motion states that, whenever one body exerts a force on a second body, the
first body experiences a force that is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force that
it exerts, i.e. action and reaction are equal and opposite in direction.

Example 1 on Newton 2nd Law of Motion

Suppose that the net external force (push minus friction) exerted parallel to the ground on a lawn
mower weighing 24 kg is 51 N. What is its acceleration?

Solution:

Using equation 1.25, ;a= m/s2; So, its acceleration is 2.1 m/s2Ans.

Example 21 on Newton 2nd Law of Motion

Calculate the magnitude of force exerted by each rocket, called its thrust T, for the four-rocket
propulsion system and it free body diagram shown in Figure 1.9. The sled’s initial acceleration is

36
49 m/s2, the mass of the system is 2100 kg, and the force of friction opposing the motion is
known to be 650 N.

Figure1.9: Rocket thrust accelerating the sled

Solution:

Ans

Examples of Newton’s third law are easy to find. As a professor paces in front of a whiteboard,
she exerts a force backward on the floor. The floor exerts a reaction force forward on the
professor that causes her to accelerate forward. Similarly, a car accelerates because the ground
pushes forward on the drive wheels in reaction to the drive wheels pushing backward on the
ground. You can see evidence of the wheels pushing backward when tires spin on a gravel road
and throw rocks backward. In another example, rockets move forward by expelling gas backward

37
at high velocity. This means the rocket exerts a large backward force on the gas in the rocket
combustion chamber, and the gas therefore exerts a large reaction force forward on the rocket.
This reaction force is called thrust. It is a common misconception that rockets propel themselves
by pushing on the ground or on the air behind them. They actually work better in a vacuum,
where they can readily expel the exhaust gases.

Helicopters similarly create lift by pushing air down, thereby experiencing an upward reaction
force. Birds and airplanes also fly by exerting force on air in a direction opposite to that of
whatever force they need. For example, the wings of a bird force air downward and backward in
order to get lift and move forward.

Self Assessment Exercise:

State Newton’s laws of motion and give examples of their applications.

4.0 Conclusion
We conclude that applying kinematics and Newton’s laws of motion give a comprehensive
description of the how objects under the action of forces (internal and or external) move. These
laws provide an example of the breadth and simplicity of principles under which nature functions.
They are also universal laws in that they apply to similar situations on Earth as well as in space.

5.0 Summary
This unit deals with kinematics, as the description of the way objects move - their velocity and
their acceleration. Dynamics considers the forces that affect the motion of moving objects and
systems. Newton’s laws of motion were x-rayed as the foundation of dynamics. Newton’s first,
second and third laws were used to describe the velocity and acceleration of objects in motion.
Real life applications of Newton’s laws were also given.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) Explain the concept of kinematics to describe the position of object in motion
b) State Newton’s laws of motion and give examples of their applications.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

38
Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001). Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

39
UNIT 4: GALILEAN INVARIANCE AND RELATIVITY

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Frames of Reference

3.2 Galilean Transformation and Newtonian Relativity

3.3 Einsteinian Relativity

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Galilean invariance or Galilean relativity states that the laws of motion are the same in all inertia
(or non-accelerating) frames. Galileo Galilei first described this principle in 1632 using the
example of a ship travelling at constant velocity, without rocking on a smooth sea; any observer
doing experiments below the deck would not be able to tell whether the ship was moving or
stationary. The fact that the earth orbits around the sun at approximately 30 km/s offers a
somewhat more dramatic example, though it is technically not an inertia reference frame. In other
words, given two observers A and B moving at a constant velocity with respect to one another, it
is not possible by any experiment whatsoever to determine which of the observers is ‘at rest’ or
which is ‘in motion’.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Describe Galilean invariance or Galilean relativity.

40
i. Explain the use of reference frame in describing the motion of object with respect to space and
time.
ii. Understand the translational properties of moving object and their relativity in space and time
with respect to reference axes.
3.0 Main Content

3.1 Frames of Reference

Physical processes either directly or indirectly involve the dynamics of particles and/or fields
moving or propagating through space and time. As a consequence, almost all of the fundamental
laws of physics involve position and time in some way or other e.g. Newton’s second law of
motion earlier stated in eqn. 1.26

(1.26)

when applied to a particle responding to the action of a force will yield the position of the particle
as a function of time. Likewise, Maxwell’s equations will yield the wave equation

(1.27)

for the propagation of a light wave through space and time. Implicit in these statements of these
fundamental physical laws is the notion that we have at hand some way of measuring or
specifying or labelling each point in space and different instants in time. So, in order to describe
in a quantitative fashion the multitude of physical processes that occur in the natural world, one
of the important requirements is that we be able to specify where and when events take place in
space and time.

Of course, for the purposes of formulating a mathematical statement of a physical law describing,
say, the motion of a particle through space, or the properties of an electromagnetic or some other
field propagating through space, a precise way of specifying the where and when of events is
required, that is, the notion of a frame of reference, or reference frame, must be more carefully
defined.

41
3.1.1 Construction of Arbitrary Reference Frame

A frame of reference can be constructed in essentially any way, provided it meets the
requirements that it labels in a unique fashion the position and the time of the occurrence of any
event that might occur. A convenient way of imagining how this might be done is to suppose that
all of space is filled with a three dimensional (2-D projected) lattice or scaffolding – something
like a fishing net, perhaps.

3.1.2 Event

The idea and use of the term ‘event’ here simply to connote a point in space and time. With this
point specified by the spatial coordinates of the point in space, and the reading of a clock at that
point. An event will have different coordinates in different reference frames. It is then important
and useful to be able to relate the coordinates of events in one reference frame to the coordinates
of the same event in some other reference frame. In Newtonian physics, this relation is provided
by the Galilean transformation equations, and in special relativity by the Lorentz transformation.

3.1.3 Reference Frame or Frame of Reference

As we have just seen, a reference frame can be defined in a multitude of ways, but quite
obviously it would be preferable to use the simplest possible, which brings to mind the familiar
Cartesian set of coordinate axes. Thus, suppose we set up a lattice work of rods as illustrated in
Figure 1.10 in which the rods extend indefinitely in all directions. Of course, there will be a third
array of rods perpendicular to those in the figure is the Z direction.

Figure 1.10: Cartesian coordinate system in 2-dimensions

Therefore, we can use frames of reference to specify the where and when of things other than the
position of a particle at a certain time. For instance, the point in space-time at which an explosion
occurs, or where and when two particles collide etc., can also be specified by the four numbers (x,

42
y, z, t) relative to a particular frame of reference. In fact any event occurring in space and time
can be specified by four such numbers whether it is an explosion, a collision or the passage of a
particle through the position (x, y, z) at the time t. For this reason, the four numbers (x, y, z, t)
together are often referred to as an event.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Briefly state Galilean invariance and the importance of reference frame.

3.2 Galilean Transformation and Newtonian Relativity

Galilean invariance state that Newton’s laws holds in all inertia frame. Newtonian mechanics
assumes that there exist an absolute space and that time is universal. The arguments in the
previous sub-unit do not tell us whether there is one or many inertial frames of reference, nor, if
there is more than one, does it tell us how we are to relate the coordinates of an event as observed
from the point-of-view of one inertial reference frame to the coordinates of the same event as
observed in some others. These transformation laws are essential if we are to compare the
mathematical statements of the laws of physics in different inertial reference frames. The
transformation equations that are derived below are the mathematical basis on which it can be
shown that Newton’s Laws are consistent with the principle of relativity. In establishing the
latter, we can show that there is in fact an infinite number of inertial reference frames.

3.2.1. Galilean Transformation

To derive these transformation equations, consider an inertial frame of reference S and a second
reference frame S՛ moving with a velocity vx relative to S as shown in Figure 1.11.

vx

S S0
‘event’
Y Y0

0 X 0 X0
v4'-5"
xt x
1'-5"

Figure 1.11: A frame of reference S՛ moving with a velocity vx relative to the inertial frame S

Let us suppose that the clocks in S and S՛ are set such that when the origins of the two reference
frames O and O՛ coincide, all the clocks in both frames of reference read zero i.e. t = t՛ = 0.
According to ‘common sense’, if the clocks in S and S՛ 0 are synchronized at t = t՛ = 0, then they

43
will always read the same, i.e. t = t՛ always. This, once again, is the absolute time concept
introduced by Einstein. Suppose now that an event of some kind, e.g. an explosion, occurs at a
point (x՛, y՛, z՛, t՛) according to S՛. Then, by examining Figure 1.11, according to S, it occurs at the
point

and at time t (1.28)

These equations together are known as the Galilean Transformation, and they tell us how the
coordinates of an event in one inertial frame S are related to the coordinates of the same event as
measured in another frame S՛, which is moving with a constant velocity relative to frame S.

3.2.2 Newtonian Relativity

By means of the Galilean Transformation, we can obtain an important result of Newtonian

mechanics which carries over in a much more general form to special relativity. We shall
illustrate the idea by means of an example involving two particles connected by a spring. If the X
coordinates of the two particles are x1 and x2 relative to some reference frame S then from
Newton’s Second Law the equation of motion of the particle at x1 is

(1.29)

where k is the spring constant, l the natural length of the spring, and m1 the mass of the particle.
If we now consider the same pair of masses from the point of view of another frame of reference
S՛ moving with a velocity vx relative to S, then

and (1.30)

so that

and

(1.32)

Thus, substituting the last two results (1.31 and 1.32) into Eq. (1.29) gives
44
 (1.33)

Now according to Newtonian mechanics, the mass of the particle is the same in both frames i.e.
(1.34)
where m՛ is the mass of the particle as measured in S՛. Hence

(1.35)

which is exactly the same equation obtained in S, Eq. (1.29) except that the variables x1 and x2
are replaced by x՛1 and x՛2. In other words, the form of the equation of motion derived from
Newton’s Second Law is the same in both frames of reference. This result can be proved in a
more general way than just masses on springs, and we are lead to conclude that the mathematical
form of the equations of motion obtained from Newton’s Second Law are the same in all inertial
frames of reference.

Self Assessment Exercise:

State Galilean transformation equations and explain them

3.3 Einsteinian Relativity

The difficulties with the Newtonian relativity was overcome by Albert Einstein who made two
postulates that lead to a complete restructuring of our ideas of space time, and the dynamical
properties of matter.

3.3.1 Einstein’s Postulates

The difficulty that had to be resolved amounted to choosing amongst three alternatives:

1. The Galilean transformation was correct and something was wrong with Maxwell’s equations.

2. The Galilean transformation applied to Newtonian mechanics only.

3. The Galilean transformation, and the Newtonian principle of relativity based on this
transformation were wrong and that there existed a new relativity principle valid for both
mechanics and electromagnetism that was not based on the Galilean transformation.

45
3.3.2 Lorentz Transformation

In deriving this transformation, we will eventually make use of the constancy of the speed of
light, but first we will derive the general form that the transformation law must take purely from
kinematic/symmetry considerations. Doing so is based on two further assumptions which seem to
be entirely reasonable:

Homogeneity: The intrinsic properties of empty space are the same everywhere and for all time.

In other words, the properties of the rulers and clocks do not depend on their positions in (empty)
space, nor do they vary over time.

Spatial Isotropy: The intrinsic properties of space is the same in all directions. In other words,
the properties of the rulers and clocks do not depend on their orientations in empty space.

There is a third, much more subtle condition:

No Memory: The extrinsic properties of the rulers and clocks may be functions of their current
states of motion, but not of their states of motion at any other time.

Einstein concluded that the transformation equations represent a property that space and time
must have in order to guarantee that light will always be observed to have the same speed c in all
inertial frames of reference. But given that these transformation equations represent an intrinsic
property of space and time, it can only be expected that the behaviour of other material objects,
which may have nothing whatsoever to do with light, will also be influenced by this fundamental
property of space and time. This is the insight that Einstein had, that the Lorentz transformation
was saying something about the properties of space and time, and the consequent behaviour that
matter and forces must have in order to be consistent with these properties.

Self Assessment Exercise:

State the Einstein postulates and discuss Einsteinian relativity

4.0 Conclusion

The principle of relativity can be understood as saying that the equations describing a law of
nature take the same mathematical form in all frames of reference moving at a constant velocity
with respect to each other. However, the velocity of the reference frame does not appear

46
anywhere in these equations. But in order to guarantee that the principle of relativity holds true
for all physical processes, including the postulate concerning the constancy of the speed of light,
Einstein later proposed, along with a new perspective on the properties of space and time,
modified versions of the familiar Newtonian concepts of force, momentum and energy, leading,
amongst other things, to the famous equation E = mc2.

5.0 Summary

The principle of relativity was accepted (in somewhat simpler form i.e. with respect to the
mechanical behaviour of bodies) by Newton and his successors, even though Newton postulated
that underlying it all was ‘absolute space’ which defined the state of absolute rest. This amounts
to saying that any physical process taking place in space and time should proceed in a fashion that
takes no account of the reference frame used to describe it. In other words, it ought to be possible
to write down the laws of physics in terms of quantities that make no mention whatsoever of any
particular reference frame. In accomplishing this task, Einstein was able to show that the force of
gravity could be understood as a reflection of underlying geometrical properties of space and time
that space and time can be considered as a single geometric entity that can exhibit curvature.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) State what you understand by Galilean invariance or Galilean relativity.

b) Explain the use of reference frame in describing the motion of object with respect to space
and time.

c) State Galilean transformation equation and explain them

d) State the Einstein postulates and discuss Einsteinian relativity

7.0 References/Further Readings

Cresser, J.D. (2005). Lecture Notes on Special Relativity, Department of Physics, Macquarie

University, Sydney.

Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

47
Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001). Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

48
 MODULE TWO

STATICS, DYNAMICS AND THERMAL PROPERTIES AND GRAVITATION OF

BODIES

Unit 1: Statics and Dynamic Properties of Materials

Unit 2: Kinetic Energy, Heat, Work and Behaviour of Gases

Unit 3: Gravitation of Bodies

UNIT 1: STATIC AND DYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Static Properties of Materials/Bodies

3.2 Dynamic Properties of Materials/Bodies

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Statics is the mechanics of things that don’t move. But everything does move, at least a little. So
statics doesn’t exactly apply to anything. The statics equations are, however, a very good
approximation of the more general dynamics equations for many practical problems. The statics
equations are also easier to manage than the dynamics equations. When there is a net force there

49
is acceleration of mass, and when there is acceleration of mass there is a net force and the body is
in dynamic state.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Identify static properties of materials and objects

• Understand the dynamic properties materials.
• Relate the materials’ inertia to their mobility function

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Static Properties of Materials/Bodies
In statics we set the right hand sides of (Eq. 1.36) to zero. The neglected terms involve mass
times acceleration and are called the inertial terms. For statics we set the inertial terms and C

to zero. Thus, we replace the linear and angular momentum balance equations with their
simplified forms

which are called the force balance and moment balance equations and together are called the
equilibrium equations. The forces to be summed are those that show on a free body diagram of
the system. The torques that are summed are those due to the same forces (by means of
) plus those due to any force systems that have been replaced with equivalent couples. If
the forces on a system satisfy Eqn. 1.36, the system is said to be in static equilibrium or just in
equilibrium.

A system is in static equilibrium if the applied forces and moments add to zero. Which can also be
stated as – The forces on a system in static equilibrium, considered as a system, are equivalent to
a zero force and a zero couple. The approximating assumption that an object is in static
equilibrium is that the forces mediated by an object are much larger than the forces needed to
accelerate it. The statics equations are generally reasonably accurate for;

a) Things that a normal person would call “still” such as a building or bridge on a calm day, and
a sleeping person; for
50
 b) Things that move slowly or with little acceleration, such as a tractor ploughing a field or the
arm of a person holding up a book while seated in a smooth-flying airplane; and for
c) Parts that mediate the forces needed to accelerate more massive parts, such as gears in a
transmission, the rear wheel of an accelerating bicycle, the strut in the landing gear of an
airplane, and the individual structural members of a building swaying in an earthquake.

3.1.2 Procedure for solving static problems

The practice of statics involves:

1. Drawing free body diagrams of the system of interest and of appropriate subsystems;
2. Write out equations in (Eqn. 1.29) for each free body diagram; and
3. Use vector manipulation skills to solve for unknown features of the applied loads or
geometry.

NOTE:

For one-force body, i.e., if only one force is acting on a body in equilibrium that force is zero. If a
body in static equilibrium is acted on by two forces, (i.e. two-force body or two-force member)
then those forces are equal, opposite, and have a common line of action. For a three-force body to
be in equilibrium, the forces (a) must be coplanar, and (b) must either have lines of action which
intersect at a single point, or the three forces are parallel.

3.1.3 Lack of Equilibrium as a Sign of Dynamics

Surprisingly, statics calculations often give useful information about dynamics. If, in a given
problem, you find that forces cannot be balanced this is a sign that the related physical system
will accelerate in the direction of imbalance. If you find that moments cannot be balanced, this is
a sign of rotational acceleration in the physical system.

Self Assessment Exercise:

State the principles of static equilibrium of a body and the procedure for solving static problems.

3.2 Dynamic Properties of Materials/Bodies

In statics we neglected the inertial terms (the terms involving acceleration times mass) in the
linear and angular momentum balance equations. In dynamics these terms are of central interest.
In statics all the forces and moments cancel each other. In dynamics the forces and moments add
51
to cause the acceleration of mass. As the names imply, statics is generally concerned with things
that don’t move, or at least don’t move much, whereas dynamics with things that move a lot.
How to quantify what is ‘still’ (statics) vs ‘moving’ (dynamics) is itself a dynamics question. A
big part of learning dynamics is learning to keep track of motion of objects or bodies, i.e.
kinematics.

3.2.1 Force and Motion in 1-D

We now limit our attention to the special case where one particle moves on a given straight line.
For problems with motion in only one direction, the kinematics is particularly simple.

3.2.2 Position, Velocity, and Acceleration in 1-Dimension

If, say, we call the direction of motion the direction, then we can call x the position of the
particle we study Figure 2.1. Even though we are neglecting the spatial extent of the particle, to
be precise we can define x to be the x coordinate of the particle’s centre.

x ( t)

dx
dt
0 t* t
v ( t)

dv

dt

0 t

Figure 2.1: Graph of x(t) vs v(t)

We can write the position , velocity and acceleration as

(1.37)

3.2.4 Differential Equations in Dynamics

A differential equation is an equation that involves derivatives. Thus the equation relating
position to velocity is

52
 (1.38)

is a differential equation. An Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE) is one that contains ordinary
derivatives (as opposed to partial differential equations which we will not use in this unit).

3.2.5 Equation of Dynamics

Linear momentum balance
For a particle moving in the x direction the velocity and acceleration are , and .
Thus, the linear momentum and its rate of change are

Thus, the equation of linear momentum balance, or right hand part of Eqn. 1.39, or Newton’s
second equation of motion (Eqn. 1.26) can be thus be written as

(1.40)

When applying the laws of mechanics, we must be sure that when we differentiate vectors we do
so with respect to a Newtonian frame. In typically static situations, therefore, the applied force is
not lost or dissipated or absorbed. Instead, it is opposed by the equal and opposite reaction force
that results from the tendency of the material that has been deformed to return to its resting shape.
No material is totally rigid; even blocks of the stiffest materials, such as metals and diamonds,
deform when they are loaded. The reason that this deformation was such a hard discovery to
make is that most structures are so rigid that their deflection is tiny; it is only when we use
compliant structures such as springs or bend long thin beams that the deflection common to all
structures is obvious. So, the principles of statics and dynamics applies to bodies or part in real
life situations.

Self Assessment Exercise:

State the relationship of material’s mass in the momentum and its acceleration when propelled by
force.

4.0 Conclusion

In statics we neglected the inertial terms (the terms involving acceleration times mass) in the
linear and angular momentum balance equations. In statics all the forces and moments cancel
each other. As the names imply, statics is generally concerned with things that don’t move, or at

53
least don’t move much, whereas dynamics with things that move a lot. When applying the laws of
mechanics, we must be sure that when we differentiate vectors we do so with respect to a
Newtonian frame.

5.0 Summary

The unit has introduced the principle of statics and dynamics of objects’ motion. It can be
summarized as, if I give a push to a ball that is initially at rest, it will accelerate in that direction
at a rate proportional to the force and inversely proportional to its mass. The great step forward in
Newton’s scheme was that, together with the inverse square law of gravity, it showed that the
force that keeps us down on earth is one and the same with the force that directs the motion of the
planets.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

a. State the principles of static equilibrium of a body and the procedure for solving static
problems.
b. Discuss some Non-destructive test methods for metallic and non-metallic materials
c. State the relationship of material’s mass in the momentum and its acceleration when
propelled by force.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001). Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

54
UNIT 2: KINETIC THEORY, HEAT, WORK AND BEHAVIOUR OF GASES

CONTENTS
1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Kinetic theory of Gases

3.2 Heat Work and Ideal Gas Behaviour

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Almost all materials expand on heating – the most famous exception being water, which contracts
as it is warmed from 0 degrees Celsius to 4 degrees. Heat can be transferred in various
forms/ways such as conduction, convection and radiation. Bodies in “thermal contact” eventually
come into “thermal equilibrium”, meaning they finally attain the same temperature, after which
no further heat flow takes place. (i.e. the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics)

2.0 Objective
At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Understand thermal properties of materials/medium.

• Explain thermal conductivity and thermodynamics of medium/materials
• Understand how thermal conductivity affects kinetic energy of materials

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases

Daniel Bernoulli, in 1738, was the first to understand air pressure from a molecular point of view.
He drew a picture of a vertical cylinder, closed at the bottom, with a piston at the top, the piston
55
having a weight on it, both piston and weight being supported by the air pressure inside the
cylinder. He described what went on inside the cylinder as follows Figure 2.2: “Let the cavity
contain very minute corpuscles, which are driven hither and thither with a rapid motion; so that
these corpuscles, when they strike against the piston and sustain it by their repeated impacts, form
an elastic fluid which will expand of itself if the weight is removed or diminished…”

Figure 2.2: Bernoulli apparatus

Most scientists believed that the molecules in a gas stayed more or less in place, repelling each
other from a distance, held somehow in the ether. Newton had shown that PV = constant followed
if the repulsion were inverse-square, i.e. P1V1=P2V2.

3.1.1 Molecular Energy and Pressure

It is not difficult to extend Bernoulli’s picture to a quantitative description, relating the gas
pressure to the molecular velocities. As a warm up exercise, let us consider a single perfectly
elastic particle, of mass m, bouncing rapidly back and forth at speed v inside a narrow cylinder of
length L with a piston at one end, so all motion is along the same line. For example what is the
force on the piston shown in Figure 2.3?

L
V

Figure 2.3: Relating gas theory to molecular velocity

56
Obviously, the piston doesn’t feel a smooth continuous force, but a series of equally spaced
impacts. However, if the piston is much heavier than the particle, this will have the same effect as
a smooth force over times long compared with the interval between impacts. So what is the value
of the equivalent smooth force? Using Newton’s law in the form force = rate of change of
momentum, we see that the particle’s momentum changes by 2mv each time it hits the piston. The
time between hits is 2L/v, so the frequency of hits is v/2L per second. This means that if there
were no balancing force, by conservation of momentum the particle would cause the momentum
of the piston to change by 2mv×v/2L units in each second. This is the rate of change of
momentum, and so must be equal to the balancing force, which is therefore F = mv2/L.

We now generalize to the case of many particles bouncing around inside a rectangular box, of
length L in the x-direction (which is along an edge of the box). The total force on the side of area
A perpendicular to the x-direction is just a sum of single particle terms, the relevant velocity
being the component of the velocity in the x-direction. The pressure is just the force per unit area,
P = F/A. Of course, we don’t know what the velocities of the particles are in an actual gas, but it
turns out that we don’t need the details. If we sum N contributions, one from each particle in the
box, each contribution proportional to vx2 for that particle, the sum just gives us N times the
average value of vx2. That is to say,

where there are N particles in a box of volume V. Next we note that the particles are equally
likely to be moving in any direction, so the average value of vx2 must be the same as that of vy2 or
vz2, and since v2 = vx2 + vy2 + vz2, it follows that,

The macroscopic pressure of a gas relates directly to the average kinetic energy per molecule.
Furthermore, it is well established experimentally that most gases satisfy the Gas Law over a
wide temperature range:

for n moles of gas, that is, n = N/NA, with NA as Avogadro’s number and R, the gas constant.
57
Introducing Boltzmann’s constant k = R/NA, it is easy to check from our result for the pressure
and the ideal gas law that the average molecular kinetic energy is proportional to the absolute
temperature,

k is Boltzmann’s constant, k = 1.38.10-23 joules/K.

3.2 Heat Work and Ideal Gas Behaviour

The Kinetic Theory (covered in the previous sub-unit), often called the ideal gas model, ignores
interactions between molecules, and the finite size of molecules. In fact, though, these only
become important when the gas is very close to the temperature at which it become liquid, or
under extremely high pressure. In this lecture, we will be analyzing the behaviour of gases in the
pressure and temperature range corresponding to heat engines, and in this range the Ideal Gas
Model is an excellent approximation. Essentially, our program here is to learn how gases absorb
heat and turn it into work, and vice versa. This heat-work interplay is called thermodynamics.

The simplest way to see what’s going on is to imagine the gas in a cylinder, held in by a piston,
carrying a fixed weight, able to move up and down the cylinder smoothly with negligible friction
Figure 2.4 The pressure on the gas is just the total weight pressing down divided by the area of
the piston, and this total weight, of course, will not change as the piston moves slowly up or
down: the gas is at constant pressure.

Movable
Piston

Gas

Figure 2.4: Gas at constant pressure in a chamber

58
3.2.1 The Gas Specific Heats CV and CP

Consider now the two specific heats of this same sample of gas, let’s say one mole: Specific heat
at constant volume, CV (piston glued in place), Specific heat at constant pressure, CP (piston free
to rise, no friction). We already worked out CV in the Kinetic Theory lecture above: at
temperature T, recall the average kinetic energy per molecule is kT , so one mole of gas –
Avogadro’s number of molecules – w ill have total kinetic energy, which we’ll label internal
energy,

Therefore, (2.6)

If the area of piston is A, then the gas at pressure P exerts force PA. If on heating through one
degree the piston rises a distance Δh the gas does work

(2.7)

And, for one mole of gas, PV= RT, so at constant P

(2.8)

Therefore, the work done by the gas in raising the weight is just RTΔ, the specific heat at constant
pressure, the total heat energy needed to raise the temperature of one mole by one degree, and

(2.9)

It’s worth having a standard symbol for the ratio of the specific heats is:

(2.10)

3.2.2 Tracking a Gas in the (P, V) Plane: Isotherms and Adiabats

An ideal gas in a box has three thermodynamic variables: P, V, T. But if there is a fixed mass of
gas, fixing two of these variables fixes the third from (for n moles). In a heat engine, heat can
enter the gas, then leave at a different stage. The gas can expand doing work, or contract as work

59
is done on it. To track what’s going on as a gas engine transfers heat to work, say, we must follow
the varying state of the gas. We do that by tracing a curve in the (P, V) plane.

3.2.3 Isothermal behaviour of Gas

The gas is kept at constant temperature by allowing heat flow back and forth with a very large
object (a “heat reservoir”) at temperature T. From PV=nRT, it is evident that for a fixed mass of
gas, held at constant T but subject to (slowly) varying pressure, the variables P, V will trace a
hyperbolic path in the (P, V) plane.

This path, PV=nRT, is called the isotherm at temperature T1. Here are two examples of isotherms
in Figure 2.5:

Figure 2.5: Isotherm behaviour in gas

3.2.4 Adiabatic behaviour of Gas

“Adiabatic” means “nothing gets through”, in this case no heat gets in or out of the gas through
the walls. So all the work done in compressing the gas has to go into the internal energy Eint.

Cylinder of insulating material

Gas

Adiabatic Compression

Figure 2.6: Adiabatic behaviour of gas confined in impregnable walls

60
As the gas is compressed, it follows a curve in the (P, V) plane called an adiabat. To see how an
adiabat differs from an isotherm, imagine beginning at some point on the blue 273K isotherm on
the above graph, and applying pressure so the gas moves to higher pressure and lower volume.
Since the gas’s internal energy is increasing, but the number of molecules remains the same, its
temperature is necessarily rising, it will move towards the red curve, then above it. This means
the adiabats are always steeper than the isotherms. Adiabats and isotherms are compared in
Figure 2.7 below.

Figure 2.7: Isotherms and adiabats for one mole

Self Assessment exercise:

Differentiate between ‘isotherm’ and ‘adiabat’ in gas behaviour.

4.0 Conclusion

In this unit, we have learn and analyzed the behaviour of gases in the pressure and temperature
range corresponding to heat engines, and in this range the Ideal Gas Model provided an excellent
approximation and a case study. Essentially, our program made us learn how gases absorb heat
and turn it into work, and vice versa. This heat-work interplay is called thermodynamics. The unit
also introduced students to elementary thermodynamics.

61
5.0 Summary
The average kinetic energy of ideal gas is 3/2Kt, and one mole of gas, of Avogadro number of
molecules will have total kinetic energy Eint = 3/2RT. Heat can be transferred in various
forms/ways such as conduction, convection and radiation. Bodies in “thermal contact” eventually
come into “thermal equilibrium”, meaning they finally attain the same temperature, after which
no further heat flow takes place (i.e. the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics).

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) Discuss the kinetic theory of gases
b) Relate gas pressure to molecular velocity
c) Differentiate between ‘isotherm’ and ‘adiabat’ in gas behaviour

7.0 References/Further Readings

Cohen, M.R., and Drabkin, I.E. (1966). A Source Book in Greek Science, Harvard University

Press.

Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

Knowles Middleton, W.E. (1966). A History of the Thermometer and its Uses in Meteorology,

Johns Hopkins Press.

Magie, W.F. (1935). A Source Book in Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001). Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

62
UNIT 3: GRAVITATION OF BODIES
CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

3.2 Gravitational Interactions with Spherically Symmetric Bodies

3.3. Weight and Gravitational Potential Energy

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

The unit aims at studying the effects of gravity on the acceleration of the earth and the associated
potential gravitational energy Ugrav. The study further consider gravitation in a more general
manner through the Law of Gravitation enunciated by Newton in 1687.

2.0 Objective
Under this unit student should be able to

• Understand Newton’s law of gravitation.

• Understand gravitational interaction between spherically symmetrical bodies.
• Explain the relationship between weight and gravitational potential energy.
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Newton’s Law of Gravitation

Newton pondered why things tended to fall toward the Earth, as opposed to other directions and
what kept the moon orbiting around the Earth and the Earth around the sun. He theorized that the

63
force of something he called “gravity” is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the centres of the masses. Because of his Third Law of Motion, Newton also realized
that forces exist in pairs, meaning if the Earth pulls on objects, those objects pull on Earth as well.
He then theorized that the force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of the masses of
the objects. Simply put, Therefore, Newton Universal law of gravitation, which applies to all
objects states that;

Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is directly
proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely proportional to the
square of the distance between them.

When considering the force of attraction between any two objects: The force is greater when the
mass of either of the two objects is greater. Earth, with its huge mass has a relatively large
attractive force with all of the objects near its surface. The moon has less mass than Earth, so the
moon has less attraction for objects on its surface than Earth does. (Objects on the surface of the
moon weigh less than on Earth because the gravitational force of the moon is less than the
gravitational force of Earth.) The reason we do not notice the attraction between ordinary sized
objects when we are on earth is that the force that the earth exerts on objects is so great; the force
of attraction between other objects is very small. The closer the two objects are, the greater the
force. When an object such as a space vehicle moves away from Earth, the gravitational attraction
between Earth and the vehicle becomes less and less.

Mathematically, this law, and the magnitude of the force due to the gravitational interaction
between two particles, is expressed as;

(2.11)

where G = 6.67 ×10−11 N⋅m2 /kg2 is the universal gravitational constant, m1 and m2 the particles
masses, and r the distance between them. Eqn. 2.11 is however not complete since the force due
to gravitation is vectorial in nature. If we define the vectors r1 and r2 for the positions of m1 and
m2, respectively, and the unit vector that points from r1 to r2 is = (r2 − r1)/ − , then the
force that m2 exerts on m1 is

64
Conversely, accordingly to Newton’s Third Law, the force that m1 exerts on m2 is

Equations (2.12) and (2.13) taken together show that gravitation is an attractive force, i.e., the two
masses are drawn to one another.

Self Assessment Exercise:

State and explain Newton’s universal gravitational law

3.2 Gravitational Interactions with Spherically Symmetric Bodies

Although the related calculations are beyond the scope of our studies, it can be shown that
gravitational interactions involving spherically symmetric bodies (e.g., uniform spheres, cavities,
and shells) can be treated as if all the mass was concentrated at the centres of mass of the bodies
(Figure 2.8). This property is especially useful when dealing with the earth, other planets and
satellites, as well as the sun and stars, which can all be approximated as being spherically
symmetric.

There are other interesting results that can be derived for spherically symmetric bodies. For
example, the gravitational force felt by a mass m located at a radius r inside a spherical shell of
radius R and mass M (i.e., with r ≤ R) is zero. That is,

Figure 2.8: Gravitational attraction of two spherical symmetrical bodies

(2.14)

with er the unit vector directed from the centre of the shell to the mass. It therefore follows from
this that the gravitational force felt by a mass located inside/outside a uniform spherical shell can

65
be shown to be equal to the portion of the mass of the sphere contained within the radius r.
Mathematically this can expressed with

(2.15)

The result when the mass is located inside the sphere, i.e., when r < R, can be explained by
considering the relation between the mass M, the mass density ρ (units of kg/m3), and the volume
V (units of m3) of the sphere. More precisely, we have that

with

for a sphere. If the sphere is uniform, then the density ρ is constant throughout. It follows that the
mass Mr contained within a volume Vr (with a radius r ≤ R) is

(2.17)

from Eqn. 2.16

(2.18)

We can then use equation (2.13) to write down the force felt by the mass when it is located inside
the sphere (when r ≤ R)

and

We thus recover the first of equations (2.15).

66
Self Assessment Exercise:

Obtain the gravitational force felt by a mass m located at a radius r inside a spherical shell of
radius R and mass M (i.e., with r ≤ R) is zero.

3.3 Weight and Gravitational Potential Energy

Recall the modelled force exerted by the earth on a particle of mass m by its weight as

(2.21)

with g the gravitational acceleration due to the earth. Referring to Problem 2 above, we can now
easily evaluate this quantity by equating the weight with the gravitational force exerted by the
earth at its surface. That is,

(2.24)

as was expected. It should however be clear, and it is important to note, that the gravitational
acceleration and force exerted by the earth vary with the position of the particle above the
surface of the earth; they both decrease as the particle is located further away from the surface
(or the centre) of the earth.

The gravitational force is only a function of the initial and final positions of the path traced by the
particle. This in turn means that the gravitational force is (minus) the gradient of the gravitational
potential energy Ugrav.

(2.25)

For a particle located at a position r ≥ RE the gravitational force exerted by the earth is

(2.26)

67
where m is once again the mass of the particle and er is the unit vector pointing from the centre of
the earth to the position occupied by the particle. Combining equations (2.25) and (2.26), we
write

It can readily be verified that

is a solution consistent with equations (2.25) and (2.27). Equation (5.28) is however different to
the relation we have used so far for the gravitational potential energy

where the quantity Δr can be conveniently chosen to be the position of the particle relative to the
surface of the earth. We will now establish that this apparent disparity is solely due to our
previously implied assumption that the particle is located very near the surface of the earth, where
the gravitational acceleration can, to a good approximation, considered constant at g.

Let us then assume that

(2.30)

with Δr RE . Inserting equation (2.30) in equation (2.28) yields

since Δr RE

68
We now modify equation (2.31) to

We finally make two observations: i) the quantity in parentheses in the second term on the right-
hand side of equation (2.33) is simply the gravitational acceleration at the surface of the earth (see
equation (2.24)) and ii) as was stated above, the potential gravitational energy can only been
defined up to constant, and thus the first term on the right-hand side of equation (2.33), which is
constant, can be ignored (if one wishes) and the potential gravitational energy near the surface of
the earth redefined to

This justifies the relation we have used so far. When the particle moves from a point r1 to another
point at r2 in the earth’s gravitational field we have

(2.30)

since = −1/ r . Using equation (2.28) we then write

(2.31)

This once again verifies that the gravitational force is indeed conservative, since the change in
potential energy is not a function of the path taken between the initial and final points. Although
these results were derived using the gravitational interaction with the earth as an example, they
apply to any body in general.

69
Self Assessment Exercise:

Show that the change in potential energy of gravitational bodies is not a function of the path taken
between the initial and final points between them.

4.0 Conclusion

The unit conclude that, every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a
force that is directly proportional to the product of the masses of the particles and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between them. The closer the two objects are, the
greater the gravitational force. Gravitational force is (minus) the gradient of the gravitational
potential energy.

5.0 Summary
When considering the force of attraction between any two objects. The force is greater when the
mass of either of the two objects is greater. The force of gravity is directly proportional to the
product of the masses of the objects. All particles in the universe gravitationally attract all other
particles, and that gravitational attraction is inversely proportional to the square of the distance
between the objects and directly proportional to the product of the masses.

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) State and explain Newton’s universal gravitational law
b) Obtain the gravitational force felt by a mass m located at a radius r inside a spherical shell of
radius R and mass M (i.e., with r ≤ R) is zero.
c) Show that the change in potential energy of gravitational bodies is not a function of the path
taken between the initial and final points between them.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Cohen, M.R., and Drabkin, I.E. (1966). A Source Book in Greek Science, Harvard University

Press.

Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

Knowles Middleton, W.E. (1966). A History of the Thermometer and its Uses in Meteorology,

70
 Johns Hopkins Press.

Magie, W.F. (1935). A Source Book in Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001). Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

71
 MODULE THREE
THERMAL PROPERTIES, ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND GAS KINETICS

Unit 1: Thermal Properties of Elements

Unit 2: Elementary Thermodynamics

Unit 3: Atomic Structure and Periodic Classification of Elements

Unit 4: Introduction to Gas Kinetic

UNIT 1: THERMAL PROPERTIES OF ELEMENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Heat Capacity and Thermal Expansion of Elements

3.2 Thermal Conductivity and Thermal Stresses of Elements

3.3 Mechanism of heat Conduction

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Thermal properties of elements include Heat capacity, Thermal expansion, thermal conductivity,
and Thermal stresses. Thermal stresses can be generated due to restrained thermal
expansion/contraction or temperature gradients that lead to differential dimensional changes in
different part of the solid body. Stress and pressure induced by heat can result in plastic
deformation or eventual fracture of the material.
72
2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Know the effect of heat on properties of elements.

• Explain Pressure and stress variation in Elements under heat.
• Understand the characteristics and behaviour of Elements when subjected to heat.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Heat Capacity and Thermal Expansion of Elements
Thermal properties of elements include Heat capacity, Thermal expansion, thermal conductivity,
and Thermal stresses. The heat capacity and thermal expansion sub-themes include;

Heat capacity

• atomic vibrations, phonons

• temperature dependence

• contribution of electrons

Thermal expansion

 connection to anharmonicity of interatomic potential

 linear and volume coefficients of thermal expansion

3.1.1 Heat capacity

The heat capacity, C, of a system is the ratio of the heat added to the system, or withdrawn from
the system, to the resultant change in the temperature:

Heat capacity can be measured under conditions of constant temperature or constant volume.
Thus, two distinct heat capacities can be defined:

73
CP is always greater than CV - Why?

Hint: The difference between CP and Cv is very small for solids and liquids, but large for gases.
Heat capacity is a measure of the ability of the material to absorb thermal energy. Thermal energy
= kinetic energy of atomic motions + potential energy of distortion of interatomic bonds.

The higher is T, the higher the mean atomic velocity and the amplitude of atomic vibrations, and
the higher the thermal energy. The coupling of atomic vibrations of adjacent atoms results in
waves of atomic displacements. Each wave is characterized by its wavelength and frequency. For
a wave of a given frequency ν, there is the smallest “quantum” of vibrational energy, hν, called
phonon.

Thus, the thermal energy is the energy of all phonons (or all vibrational waves) present in the
crystal at a given temperature. Scattering of electrons on phonons is one of the mechanisms
responsible for electrical resistivity

3.1.2 Thermal expansion

Materials expand when heated and contract when cooled

(3.2)

where lo is the initial length at T0, lf is the final length at Tf. αl is the linear coefficient of thermal
expansion. Similarly, the volume change with T can be described as

(3.3)

where αV is the volume coefficient of thermal expansion.

Thermal expansion is related to the asymmetric (anharmonic) shape of interatomic potential. If

the interatomic potential is symmetric (harmonic), the average value of interatomic separation
does not change, i.e. no thermal expansion.

3.2 Thermal conductivity and Thermal stresses

Thermal properties of elements include Heat capacity, Thermal expansion, thermal conductivity,
and Thermal stresses. Thermal stresses can be generated due to restrained thermal
expansion/contraction or temperature gradients that lead to differential dimensional changes in

74
different part of the solid body. Stress and pressure induced by heat can result in plastic
deformation or eventual fracture of the material.
Thermal conductivity

• heat transport by phonons and electrons

Thermal stresses

 stress induced by heat exchange

3.2.1 Thermal conductivity

Thermal conductivity: heat is transferred from high to low temperature regions of the material.

where q is the heat flux (amount of thermal energy flowing through a unit area per unit time) and
dT/dx is the temperature gradient, and k is the coefficient of thermal conductivity, often called
simply thermal conductivity.

3.2.1 Thermal stress

Stresses due to change in temperature or due to temperature gradient are termed as thermal
stresses(σthermal).

Thermal sty will be of compressive nature if it is heated, and vice versa. Engineering materials
can be tailored using multi-phase constituents so that the overall material can show a zero thermal
expansion coefficient. For example Zerodur – a glass-ceramic material that consists of 70-80%
crystalline quartz, and the remaining as glassy phase. Sodium-zirconium-phosphate (NZP) have a
near-zero thermal expansion coefficient.

Self Assessment exercise:

Discuss thermal energy and state CP is always greater than CV.

75
3.3 Mechanisms of heat conduction

Heat is transferred by phonons (lattice vibration waves) and electrons. The thermal conductivity
of a material is defined by combined contribution of these two mechanisms:
(3.6)
where kl and ke are the lattice and electronic thermal conductivities.
Lattice conductivity: Transfer of thermal energy phonons
Electron conductivity: Free (conduction band) electrons equilibrate with lattice vibrations in hot
regions, migrate to colder regions and transfer a part of their thermal energy back to the lattice by
scattering on phonons.
The electron contribution is dominant in metals and absent in insulators.
Since free electrons are responsible for both electrical and thermal conduction in metals, the two
conductivities are related to each other by the Wiedemann-Franz law:

(3.7)

where σ is the electrical conductivity and L is a constant

Self Assessment Exercise:
Discuss the mechanism of heat conduction.

4.0 Conclusion
Physical property of a solid body related to application of heat energy is defined as a thermal
property. Thermal properties of elements include Heat capacity, Thermal expansion, thermal
conductivity, and Thermal stresses.

5.0 Summary

Thermal conductivity is ability of a material to transport heat energy through it from high
temperature region to low temperature region. Heat is transported in two ways – electronic
contribution, vibrational (phonon) contribution. In metals, electronic contribution is very high.
Thus, metals have higher thermal conductivities.

6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) Discuss thermal energy and state CP is always greater than CV.

b) Discuss thermal expansion in asymmetric objects.
c) Discuss the mechanism of heat conduction.

76
7.0 References/Further Readings

Cohen, M.R., and Drabkin, I.E. (1966). A Source Book in Greek Science, Harvard University

Press.

Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

Knowles Middleton, W.E. (1966). A History of the Thermometer and its Uses in Meteorology,

Johns Hopkins Press.

Magie, W.F. (1935). A Source Book in Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001). Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R. and Ruina, A. (2009). Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

77
UNIT 2: ELEMENTARY THERMODYNAMICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Basic Concept of Thermodynamic Systems

3.2 Basic Laws of Thermodynamics

3.3 The Steam cycle

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that describes and correlates the physical properties of
macroscopic systems of matter and energy. In other words, it is concerned with heat and related
thermal phenomena. The various laws of thermodynamics enable us to accurately describe
processes involved in heat energy.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Understand the basic concepts of thermodynamic systems.

• Explain the laws of thermodynamics.
• Understand the characteristics and behaviour of thermodynamic system due to heat
exchange.

78
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Basic Concept of Thermodynamic Systems
A thermodynamic system is defined as a quantity of matter of fixed mass and identity on which
attention is focused for study. Everything external to the system is the surroundings, and the
system is separated from the surroundings by the system boundaries. These boundaries may be
either movable or fixed.

3.1.1 Thermodynamic system

In Figure. 3.1, the gas in the cylinder is considered to be the system. When the cylinder is heated
from below, the temperature of the gas will increase and the piston will rise. As the piston rises,
the boundary of the system moves. Heat and work cross the boundary of the system during this
thermodynamic process, but the matter that comprises the system can always be identified. Mass,
as well as heat and work (and momentum), can flow across the control surface; Example is air
compressor (Controlled volume).

Example of a thermodynamic system.

Weights

Piston

System boundary

Gas

Figure 3.1: Example of thermodynamic system

3.1.2 Process and cycles

Whenever one or more of the properties of a system change, a Change in State has occurred. For
example, when one of the weights on the piston in Figure 3.1 is removed, the piston rises and a
change in state occurs, for the pressure decreases and the specific volume increases. The path of
the succession of states through which the system passes is called the process.

3.1.3 Energy

One of the very important concepts in a study of thermodynamics is the concept of energy.
Energy is a fundamental concept, such as mass or force and, as is often the case with such
79
concepts, is very difficult to define. Energy is defined as the capability to produce an effect. It is
important to note that energy can be stored within a system and can be transferred (as heat, for
example) from one system to another.

3.1.4 Specific volume

The specific volume of a substance is defined as the volume per unit mass, and is given the
symbol v.

(3.8)

The density of a substance (r) is defined as the mass per unit volume, and is therefore the
reciprocal of the specific volume.

(3.9)

3.1.5 Pressure

Pressure is defined as the normal component of force per unit area.

(3.10)

Most thermodynamics investigations are concerned with absolute pressure. Most pressure and
vacuum gauges, however, read the difference between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric
pressure existing at the gauge. This is referred to as gauge pressure.

3.1.5 Temperature

Although temperature is a familiar property, an exact definition of it is difficult. Thus, we define

equality of temperatures. Two bodies have equality of temperatures if, when they are in thermal
communication, no change in observable property occurs.

3.2 Basic Laws of Thermodynamics

Like all sciences, the basis of thermodynamics is experimental observations. In thermodynamics

these findings from the experimental observations have been formalized into certain basic laws,
which are known as the first, second, and third law of thermodynamics. In addition to these laws,
the zeroth law of thermodynamics, which precedes the first law.

80
Self Assessment Exercise:
Discuss the basic concepts of thermodynamic systems.

3.2.1 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics

The zeroth law of thermodynamics states that when two bodies have equality of temperatures
with a third body, they in turn have equality of temperatures with each other. Simply put, it states
that, if two systems A and B are in thermal equilibrium with a third system C, then they are in
equilibrium with each other i.e. A is in equilibrium with C or B is in equilibrium C. We can then
determine the direction of heat flow when two systems (A and B) are put in contact. One system
A is said to be hotter than another B if heat flows from the former (A) to the latter (B) when they
are in thermal contact.

This then allows us to introduce a parameter, called an empirical temperature, which is the same
for all bodies that are in thermal equilibrium with each other. This is done by constructing a
system, called a thermometer which allows us to ascribe a number to the temperate.

3.2.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics

Also called the law of conservation of energy, i.e. energy is neither lost nor created. The first law
of thermodynamics states that during any systemic process, the integral of the heat is equal to the
integral of the work. The Law tells us that heat is a form of energy which is conserved. The 1st
Law applies to closed systems, i.e. for a given amount of matter, and is expressed in the form of
an energy balance equation:

The above equation states that a small change (du) in the internal energy (u) of a closed system is
the sum of a small amount (dq) of heat supplied to the system and the work performed (dw) on
the system. Note that, dq may be positive or negative and that dw can assume many different
forms depending on the type of action to which the system is subjected.
Here we will assume work done to be;

where Pext = external pressure applied in order to perform work, which causes a change in volume
dV. The negative sign implies compression (dV<0) when dw should be positive.
Now Eqn. 3.11 becomes
81
depending on whether the internal pressure, Pint of the system is higher or lower than Pext
respectively. In particular, if
(3.14)
The quantities or variables U, P, and V are called functions of state or state variables. The
absolute temperature T (in Kelvin) is also a function of state.
The equation of state of a system can therefore be written as:

(3.14)

where b is the effect of finite size of the molecule, is the effect of the attractive (dispersion)

forces. It follows that from the ideal gas model,

We can now write on equation of state in a PV – diagram where, for each T, the P-V relationship
describes a curve, called an isotherm Figure 3.2. The PV – diagram can also be used to represent
a reversible change of a system. Each point (V, P) corresponds to definite values of both T and U
Figure 3.3.
1 2 3 P U1 U2 U3
P

B
B
P
P
A
A

V
V d
d v
V Figure 3.3: PV – diagram, reversible change
Figure 3.2: PV – diagram showing Isotherm

The specific heat can be defined at constant pressure or at constant volume. At constant volume,
it is known as Isochoric heat energy, cv, (dV=0) given by

(3.17)

82
Or at constant pressure, it is known as Isobaric heat energy, cp, given by

(3.18)

3.2.2 The Second and Third Laws of Thermodynamics

There exist many statements of the 2nd Law of thermodynamics; all of them essentially, are
equivalent. For example, Lord Kelvin postulated that: “No process is possible whose sole result is
the conversion of heat to an equivalent amount of useful work” Work can of course always be
converted to heat, for example in the form of frictional losses, but Kelvins statement tells us that
it is impossible to retrieve this heat and convert it back entirely to work.

The Second Law acknowledges that processes proceed in a certain direction but not in the
opposite direction. A hot cup of coffee cools by virtue of heat transfer to the surroundings, but
heat will not flow from the cooler surroundings to the hotter cup of coffee. Or it may be stated
that, during a spontaneous process, the total entropy of an isolated system increases. It remains
constant for reversible changes of state.

Now, according to the 1st Law, the amount of PV- work W, performed by the gas on the
surrounding must be equal to:

Recall that along the isotherm the internal energy of a perfect gas is constant so that any heat
absorbed (evolved) should exactly match the PV work done (absorbed). Therefore,

(3.20)

And similarly,

(3.21)

Let us now consider an infinitesimal adiabatic compression or expansion of the gas: Since

(3.23)
83
With small simultaneous change in P, V, and T, substituting to have

(3.24)

(3.25)

(3.26) or

(3.27)

Thus, along a reversible adiabatic:

Since γ is obviously > 1, adiabatics are always “steeper” then isotherms, for which PV = constant.

The third law of thermodynamics

The entropy of all pure substances can be assigned the value of zero at the absolute zero of
temperature. When there is entropy difference between two points, it’s a bit like potential energy.
Actually, though, there is a natural base point: a system at absolute zero temperature has zero
entropy. This is sometimes called the Third Law of Thermodynamics, or Nernst’s Postulate, and
can only be really understood with quantum mechanics, which is not covered in this course.

Self Assessment Exercise:

State the laws of thermodynamics and explain them.

3.3 The Steam Cycle

A heat Engine may be defined as a device that operates in a thermodynamics cycle and does a
certain amount of net positive work through the transfer of heat from a high-temperature and to a
low-temperature body. A simple steam power plant is an example of a heat engine Figure 3.4.
The ideal cycle for a simple steam power plant is the Rankine cycle, shown in Figure 3.5.

84
 QH

Boiler

Work
Pump Turbine

Condenser

System boundary
QL

Figure 3.4: A heat engine in steady flow process

3 T

Turbine

Boiler
4 3
2'

P=c
2 Condenser 2
1 4

a b c s
1
Pump

Figure 3.5: Steam cycle in a steam power plant

The processes that comprise the cycle are.
1-2: Reversible adiabatic pumping process in the pump.
2-3: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the boiler.
3-4: Reversible adiabatic expansion in the turbine
4-1: Constant-pressure transfer of heat in the condenser.

If changes of kinetic and potential energy are neglected, heat transfer and work may be
represented by various areas on the T-S diagram. The heat transferred to the working fluid is
represented by area a-1-2-2՛-3-b-a, and the heat transferred from the working fluid by area a-1-4-
b-a. From the first law we conclude that the area representing the work is the difference between
these two areas, area 1-2-2՛-3-4-1. The thermal efficiency is defined by the relation

85
Self Assessment Exercise:
Discuss the concept of steam cycle.

4.0 Conclusion
Heat, like work, is a form of energy transfer to or from a system. Total energy, including heat
energy, is always conserved. It is impossible to devise an engine which, working in a cycle, shall
produce no effect other than the extraction of heat from a reservoir and the performance of an
equal amount of mechanical work.

5.0 Summary

Thermodynamics is the science that deals with heat and work and these properties of substances
that bear a relation to heat and work. Like all sciences, the basis of thermodynamics is
experimental observation. In thermodynamics these findings have been formalized into certain
basic laws, which are known as the first, second, and third law of thermodynamics. In addition to
these laws, the zeroth law of thermodynamics, which in the logical development of
thermodynamics precedes the first law, has been set forth.

6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment

d) Discuss the basic concepts of thermodynamic systems.

e) State and explain the laws of thermodynamics.
f) Discuss the concept of steam cycle.
7.0 References/Further Readings

Cohen, M.R., and Drabkin, I.E. (1966). A Source Book in Greek Science, Harvard University

Press.

Dill, K., and Bromberg, S. (2002). Molecular Driving Forces, McGraw-Hill, New York).
Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

Huang, K. (1987). Introduction to Statistical Physical, 2nd Edition 1987. John Wiley Publishers,

New York.

86
Knowles Middleton, W.E. (1966). A History of the Thermometer and its Uses in Meteorology,

Johns Hopkins Press.

Magie, W.F. (1935). A Source Book in Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001); Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009); Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Perrin, J. (2005). Brownian Motion and Molecular Reality, Dover, New York, 2005.

Pauli, W. (2000). Pauli lectures on Physics Volume 4, Statistical Mechanics. Dover, New York.

Reif, F. (1965). Fundamentals of statistical and thermal Physics, 1st Edition, McGraw-Hill

Publishers. New York.

Zallen, R. (1983). The Physics of Amorphous Solids, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Zemansky, M.W., and Dittman, R.H. (1997). Heat and Thermodynamics (McGraw-Hill, New

York.

87
UNIT 3: ATOMIC STRUCTURE AND THE PERIODIC CLASSIFICATION OF
ELEMENTS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Atomic Structure of Elements

3.2 Periodic Classification of Elements

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

The classic model of an atom (the Bohr model) has protons and neutrons in the middle,
surrounded by circling electrons. An atom has protons and neutrons in the middle, surrounded by
circling electrons. In the Bohr model, electrons are stuck in their orbits unless something pushes
them out. These orbits are called “shells,” or “energy levels”. Each shell can only have certain a
certain number of electrons. The outermost shell contains special electrons called valence
electrons. These electrons are very important because they determine how reactive the atom is.
Elements are organized in the Periodic Table. Printed on a Periodic table are several important
pieces of information, which described the number of protons and electron of the particular
element.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Understand the basic structure of the atoms making up the element

• Understand the interaction of the atomic make-ups of elements

88
 • Understand and explain the basis of grouping and classification of elements.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Atomic Structure of Elements

According to Rutherford, Atoms must consist of a small, but very massive, positively charged
nucleus in order to explain the observed scattering of α-particles on gold atoms. However, the
first model that could account for the spectra of atomic hydrogen was that of Bohr in 1913. The
classic model of an atom (the Bohr model) has protons and neutrons in the middle, surrounded by
circling electrons. In the Bohr model, electrons are stuck in their orbits unless something pushes
them out. These orbits are called “shells,” or “energy levels”. Each shell can only have certain a
certain number of electrons. The outermost shell contains special electrons called valence
electrons. These electrons are very important because they determine how reactive the atom is. A
full shell means the atom cannot react.

Figure 3.6: The Structure of an atom

Atomic spectra of hydrogen is not continuous but consists of discrete lines. Bohr suggested that
the electron can adopt only certain distances r (orbits) where k is a constant (Bohr radius = 52.9
pm, also a0), and n is any integer = QUANTUM NUMBER of the orbit

Figure 3.7: The outer shells of an atom (Bohr)

89
Each allowed orbit corresponds to a different energy level:

from centrifugal force = coulombic attraction; (3.31)

quantizing of the angular momentum (3.31)

Energy = kinetic energy + potential energy,

With these three equations, the radius, the energy and the velocity of the electron of the H atom
with quantum number n (and nuclear charge Z) can be calculated.

3.1.1 Emission and absorption spectra

Atoms are excited either via electrical discharge (A, above) or with a white light source (B,
below) in Figure 3.8. After passing through a prism the absorbed energy appears as discrete lines.
The excited sample and emission spectra is upper mode. While the unexcited prism and
absorption spectra mode is below.

Figure 3.8: Emission and absorption spectra

Ionization energy is proportional to Z2 (nuclear charge). Radius of hydrogen atom in ground state
(n =1) is 52.9 pm (Bohr radius). The radius is inversely proportional to Z. The excited state radius
is proportional to n2. In the ground state the electron has a velocity of v = 2.187x108 cms–1.
Bohr’s model allows accurate prediction of the hydrogen atom spectrum BUT fails to describe
atoms or ions with more than ONE electron.

90
3.1.2 Electron: Particle or Wave?

Depending on the experimental conditions, electrons appear either as particles, or show properties
usually associated with waves. Electrons are diffracted by crystalline materials, just as observed
with X-rays according to De Broglie relationship: h: Planck’s constant, mev: momentum of
electron. In addition, the photoelectric effect revealed a linear relationship between the kinetic
energy of the photon and frequency:

3.1.3 Periodic trends in atomic properties

The trends in the atomic properties of elements include:

a) Effective nuclear charge

b) Ionization energies
c) Electron affinities
d) Covalent and ionic radii
e) Bond strength
f) Electronegativity
g) Orbital energies
h) Promotion energies
i) Common oxidation states
j) Relativistic effects

3.1.4 Ionization energy

1) Energy required to remove an electron from an atom or ion

1st ionization energy or ionization potential (IE or IP)

2nd ionization energy or ionization potential (IE or IP)

• Depends on the effective nuclear charge experienced by the electron and the average distance
from the nucleus.

• –> with increasing Zeff increases IP

91
• –> with increasing distance decreases IP

• Note: Distance increases as principle quantum number increases (n)

3.1.5 Electron affinity

- Energy change associated with addition of an electron to an atom or ion 1st electron affinity
(EA)
- Favourable process for most elements
- Influenced by Zeff and atom size (principle quantum number)
- Note: Positive sign per definition:

F + e– –> F– EA = + 328 kJmol–1 ΔH = – 328 kJmol–1

- Trends in EAs parallel those of IPs, but for one lower Z value
- Exceptions:
- EA of F is lower than of Cl
- EA of N is lower than of P
- EA of O is lower than of S;
Smaller size of F (and N or O) cause greater electron-electron repulsion

3.2 Periodic Classification of Elements

Different kinds of atoms make different elements. Elements are organized in the Periodic Table.
Printed on a Periodic Table are several important pieces of information, which described the
number of protons and electron of the particular element.

Periodic table is arranged according to the valence electron at the outer shell of the element
according to Figure 3.9. Elements are classified into Groups on the vertical (columns) and
Periods horizontally (rows). There are Three Broad classifications, namely; 1Metals, 2Metalloids
and 3Non-metals. There are 8 Groups, I – VII, and O.

92
 Periodic
Table

Figure 3.9: Atomic weight of element

3.2.1 Mendeleev periodic table

Mendeleev believed that the atomic mass of an element was the most fundamental property in
classifying elements. Mendeleev arranged elements in the increasing order of their atomic masses
and observed that the elements showed repetition after certain intervals in their physical and
chemical properties. He arranged the known elements in the increasing order of their atomic
masses in horizontal rows, till he encountered an element which had properties similar to the first
element. Mendeleev placed the element below the first element and started the second row of
elements. Proceeding in this way, he created the first periodic table containing 63 elements,
arranged according to their properties. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law: The physical and chemical
properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses as shown in Table 3.1.
Table 3.1: Mendeleev’s Periodic table of element

3.2.1 Modern periodic table

In 1913, Henry Moseley proved that the atomic number is the fundamental property rather than
its atomic mass. Modern Periodic Law: Properties of elements are a periodic function of their
atomic numbers. The periodic table, based on the Modern Periodic Law is called the Modern
Periodic Table as shown in Table 3.2.

93
 Table 3.2: Modern Periodic table of element

Periods
The horizontal rows in the Modern Periodic Table are called periods.
The Modern Periodic Table consists of seven periods which are numbered from 1 to 7.
In each period, a new shell starts filling up. The period number is also the number of shell
which starts filling up.
The elements in a period have consecutive atomic numbers, and the number of elements in
each period is given below
First period contains 2 elements and is called a very short period.
Second and third periods contain 8 elements and are called as short periods.
Fourth and fifth periods are long periods and contain 18 elements each.
Sixth period is the longest and contains 32 elements.
Seventh period is an incomplete period.
Groups
i. The vertical columns are called groups and consist of eighteen groups numbered from 1 to 18.
ii. Elements having the same number of valence electrons are present in the same group.
iii. Elements present in the same group show the same chemical properties.
iv. Group 1 contains alkali metals and these elements contain 1 electron in their outermost shell.
v. Group 2 contains alkaline earth metals and these elements contain 2 electrons in their
outermost shell.
vi. Groups 3 to 12 have their two outermost shells incomplete.
vii. Groups 13 to 18 group contain 3 to 8 electrons in their outermost shell.
viii. Group 18 elements have complete outermost shells. So they are called noble elements or
noble gases.

94
 ix. The element hydrogen has been placed at the top of group 1 because its electronic
configuration is similar to alkali metals.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Classify and discuss the periodic table of elements

4.0 Conclusion
The classic model of an atom (the Bohr model) has protons and neutrons in the middle,
surrounded by circling electrons. Electrons are stuck in their orbits unless something pushes them
out. These orbits are called “shells,” or “energy levels”. Each shell can only have certain a certain
number of electrons.

5.0 Summary

Element contains microscopic particles called atoms. The atoms of an element always have as
many electron as protons. Atoms usually have about as many neutrons as protons. Different
kinds of atoms make different elements. Elements are organized in the Periodic Table. Printed on
a Periodic Table are several important pieces of information, which described the number of
protons and electron of the particular element.

6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) Describe the atomic structure of an element.

b) Classify and discuss the periodic table of elements.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Atkins, P., and De Paula, J. (2010). Atkins’ Physical Chemistry. Ninth Edition. Oxford University

Press. UK.

Engel, T., and Reid, P. (2005). Physical Chemistry. Pearson Cummings. San Francisco. New

York.

Levine, N.I. (2009). Physical Chemistry.5th Edition. Higher Education. Boston.

Monk, P. (2004). Physical Chemistry: Understanding the Chemical World. John Wiley and Sons

Ltd. England.

95
Onuchukwu, A.I. (2008). Electrochemical technology. Spectrum Books Limited. Nigeria.

96
UNIT 2: INTRODUCTION TO GAS KINETICS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases

3.2 Maxwell’s Distribution

3.3 Thermodynamics and Equation of State for Ideal gas

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

The Kinetic theory of gases attempts to explain all of the concepts of classical thermodynamics,
such as temperature and pressure, in terms of an underlying microscopic theory based on atoms
and molecules. One of the most fundamental properties of any macroscopic system is the so-
called equation of state. This is the equation that specifies the exact relation between pressures P,
volume V, and temperature T for a substance. The equation of state for a gas is very different to
the equation of state of a liquid.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Understand the basic concepts of atomic and molecular movement of gas during reactions.
• Explain the dynamics of motion in gas and its equation of state.
• Understand the characteristics and behaviour ideal gas due to heat exchange.

97
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases
The kinetic theory of gas provides connection between the microscopic and macroscopic
behaviour of gases. In this note we shall encounter an explanation for the fact that heat always
flows spontaneously from a hot object to a cold object and never in the reverse. This fact is
encapsulated in the second law of thermodynamics.

3.1.1 A Microscopic View of a Gas

The history of studies into the nature of gases is very long. We know from experiments too
numerous to go into here (and the theory we shall present in this note) that an ordinary volume of
gas is comprised of billions of molecules. At normal temperatures the molecules move in all
directions at high speeds. We infer that the motion of any one molecule, if it could be followed,
would be quite random. At any instant the molecules do not all move at the same speed, but with
a range or distribution of speeds, some faster some slower. The speed distribution of a typical gas
(N2) at 20 °C has been studied in detail; it is drawn in Figure 3.10.

Figure 3.10: The distribution of molecular speeds in a volume of nitrogen gas at a temperature of
20 ˚C as determined by experiment

Figure 3.10 indicates that although we cannot state what speed a particular molecule moves at
(because, in fact, we cannot follow its movements), we can state what is its most likely or
probable speed. You can see from the figure that 20% of the molecules have a speed in the range
500 – 600 ms–1. Some, of the order of 0.5%, are moving very slowly, in the range 0 – 100 ms–1.
Others, of the order of 0.5%, are moving very quickly, in the range 1100 -1200 ms–1.
98
3.1.2 Assumption in kinetic energy
The bulk properties of an ideal gas are described exactly by the equation of state for ideal gas:

(3.34)

Eqn. 34 is known as the ideal gas law. To simplify our task of describing a gas theoretically we
shall make these additional assumptions about it:

1. It consists of many identical monatomic molecules of mass m.

2. Its molecules move randomly within the gas and collide elastically with the walls of the
container.

We may also write the equation of state in the form;

(3.35)

where the function f depends on the particular system. The simplest system is an ideal gas. In this
case, the equation of state is:

(3.36)

where N = Number of particles, and K is the Boltzmann constant. For Vander Waal’s gas, the
equation of state is:

(3.37)

where a and b are constants

Note that R = NA K, ,n , where n = number of moles, N= number of molecules, NA =

Avogadro’s number = 6.02x1023 Mol-1

The equation of state of a Vander Waal’s gas reduces to that of an ideal gas for a = b = 0.

The equation of state can be represented on a graph of pressure Vs. Volume, often called a PV
diagram.

Example1: Derive a formula for the work done by any gas (ideal or not) which expands
isobarically.

Solution: If P is a constant then,

99
Self Assessment Exercise:
State the kinetic theory of gas and discuss its application.

3.2 Maxwell’s Distribution

The Maxwell distribution of velocities describes the thermal motions of distribution of classical
particles.
Consider a one-dimensional (along x-axis say) system of ideal particles of mass m. The
distribution function f(x, vx, t), is such that f(x, vx, t) dxdvx, is the probability of finding a particle
between x and x+dx with velocity between vx and vx +dvx.
The total probability must be equal to unity so we have:

(3.38)

where is the length of the system.

The Maxwell distribution applies to a thermal distribution, at a temperature T. It is stationary
(independent of t) and homogeneous (independent of x) with the specific form as:

(3.39)

Now, the standard integral:

(3.40)

For a particle in 3 - D, equation (3.38) becomes

(3.41)
with d3xd3v = dx dy dz dvx dvy dvz as Cartesians coordinates

(3.42) in spherical polar coordinates

100
Similarly, in 3 – D, equation (3.39) becomes,

(3.43)

A Maxwellian distribution corresponds to a distribution of the form: exp [-ε/KT] where =

is the Kinetic Energy of the particle. This form generalizes a canonical distribution for the state
with energy of any system. We are only concerned (at the present) with the case of a classical
ideal gas.

Self Assessment Exercise:

State Maxwell’s distribution of kinetic energy of gas particles in motion

3.3 Thermodynamics and Equations of State for Ideal gas

3.3.1 Thermodynamics of an ideal gas

The basic properties of an ideal gas can be calculated using the Maxwellian distribution function.
Two important quantities are the internal energy and the pressure for a given N, V & T. The
internal energy of an ideal gas consisting of N particle in a volume V at a temperature T may be
evaluated as follows: The energy of each individual particle is = , and the total energy is

found by summing oven all the particles in the system. The total energy for a statistical
distribution is N times the mean energy where,
Mean energy (3.44)
i.e., U = N
Evaluating the mean energy of the particles by averaging over the Maxwellian distribution
(equation 3.43) gives;
(3.45)

Which is the internal energy of an ideal gas. If the gas consists of particles (such as molecules)
that can rotate or oscillate, then Equation (3.45) generalizes to where g is the number

of degrees of freedom. The specific form of equation (3.45) corresponds to g =3 degrees of

freedom for a structure-less particle with these being its motion in the x, y, z directions for
example.

101
3.3.2 The equation of state for an ideal gas

Another property of an ideal gas is the equation of state. The pressure may be calculated by
noting that it is the force per unit area on the surface of the system.
Consider a system which is a cube of sides L, so that its volume is V=L3. Consider the force on
the surface in the x – y plane. Each particle that reflects from the surface has change sign. This
corresponds to an impulse, 2mvx. The problem reduces to a one-dimensional problem because the
vy and vz components are unaffected.
The number of particles between vx and vx + dvx reflecting from the plane per unit time is
. The force exerted is;

(3.46)

Evaluating this for a Maxwellian distribution, and dividing by the area L2 to get the force per unit
area gives.

(3.47)

Equation (3.47) is the perfect gas Law.

3.3.3 The Entropy of an ideal gas

The entropy determines whether or not a change can occur spontaneously: a change can occur
only if the entropy does not increase. The thermodynamics of an ideal gas can be determined
given the equation of state, , and the assumption that Cv is independent of
temperature. In particular, one may then derive explicit expressions for the entropy and for all the
state functions. from , with and , we have,

(3.48)

(3.49)

(3.50)

where S0, T0 and V0 are constants of integration.

Now, for a monatomic gas, with ,

102
 (3.51)

Combining all the constants in (3.50) and (3.51) into a single constant, and with cv/NK = 3/2, the
entropy can then be written as:
(3.52)

3.3.4 Adiabatic equation of state

Consider changes at constant entropy, called adiabatic changes. An adiabatic change is reversible.
For an ideal gas, dS = 0 in (3.48) implies that;

(3.53)

Integrating (3.53), we find that,

(3.54)

Eliminating T using PV = NKT, this relation may be rewritten in the form

= (3.55)

where Г is called the adiabatic index.

For a monatomic gas, cv = 3/2, then Г = 5/3

3.3.5 The Entropy of mixing

A simple example of the increase in entropy is when two gases mix. Consider a system at a fixed
temperature, in which initially there are N1 particle in a volume V1 and N2 particles in a volume
V2, and that these are allowed to mix so that there N1 + N2 particles in a volume V1+V2 . The
change in entropy is:

(3.56)

In the particular case when, , and , then Eqn. (3.56) reduces to

(3.57)
103
It follows that the entropy increases in this case and it is not difficult to see that the entropy
change as a result of mixing is always positive.

Remark: We have not said whether the gases are identical or not. If they are identical then the
change in entropy must be zero, and yet the calculation seems to suggest that there is a change in
entropy. This is referred to as the Gibb’s Paradox. There is no simple physical resolution of the
Gibbs Paradox within the framework of classical statistical mechanics.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Discuss the enthalpy and entropy of an ideal gas with respect to the equation of state.

4.0 Conclusion
The kinetic theory of gas can be used to determine the thermal energy and specific heats of
various systems. The Maxwell distribution of velocities describes the thermal motions of
distribution of classical particles. The thermodynamics of an ideal gas can be determined when its
equation of state is known. The entropy determines whether or not a change can occur
spontaneously: a change can occur only if the entropy does not increase.

5.0 Summary

The units revealed that kinetic theory of gases explains the concepts of classical thermodynamics,
such as temperature and pressure, in terms of an underlying microscopic theory based on atoms
and molecules. It further developed the equation of state, which is one of the most fundamental
properties of any macroscopic system. This is the equation that specifies the exact relation
between pressures P, volume V, and temperature T for a substance. The equation of state for a gas
is very different to the equation of state of a liquid.

6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) State the kinetic theory and discuss its application.

b) State Maxwell’s distribution of kinetic energy of gas particles in motion
c) Discuss the enthalpy and entropy of an ideal gas with respect to the equation of state.
7.0 References/Further Readings

Cohen, M.R., and Drabkin, I.E. (1966). A Source Book in Greek Science, Harvard University

Press.

104
Dill, K., and Bromberg, S. (2002). Molecular Driving Forces, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2002).
Feynman, R.P., Leighton, R.B., and Matthew, S.M. (1963). The Feynman Lectures on Physics,

Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, p. 12-20.

Huang, K. (1987). Introduction to Statistical Physical, 2nd Edition. John Wiley Publishers,

New York.
Magie, W.F. (1935). A Source Book in Physics, McGraw-Hill, New York.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2001); Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Pratap, R., and Ruina, A. (2009); Introduction to Statics and Dynamics, Oxford University Press.

Perrin, J. (2005). Brownian Motion and Molecular Reality, Dover, New York, 2005.

Pauli, W. (2000). Pauli lectures on Physics Volume 4, Statistical Mechanics. Dover, New York.

Reif, F. (1965). Fundamentals of statistical and thermal Physics, 1st Edition, McGraw-Hill

Publishers. New York.

Zallen, R. (1983). The Physics of Amorphous Solids, John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Zemansky, M.W., & Dittman, R.H. (1997). Heat and Thermodynamics (McGraw-Hill, New

York.

105
 MODULE FOUR
NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY, LATTICE STRUCTURE AND EXTRACTION OF METALS

Unit 1: Introduction to Nuclear Chemistry

Unit 2: Solid and Lattice Structures

Unit 3: General Principles of Extraction of metal

UNIT 1: INTRODUCTION TO NUCLEAR CHEMISTRY

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Nucleus and Radioactivity

3.2 Nuclear Stability

3.3 Types of Radioactive Emissions

3.4 Nuclear Reactions and Nuclear Equations

4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

When an element has two or more species of atoms, each with the same number of protons but a
different number of neutrons, the different species are called isotopes. Different isotopes of the
same element have the same atomic number, but they have a different mass number, which is the

106
sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. In the context of nuclear science,
protons and neutrons are called nucleons, because they reside in the nucleus. The atom’s mass
number is often called the nucleon number, and a particular type of nucleus, characterized by a
specific atomic number and nucleon number, is called a nuclide.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Know the nuclear model and composition of atom.

• Explain what is responsible for the stability of atom.
• Understand nuclear reaction and radioactivity of elements.

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Nucleus and Radioactivity
3.1.1 The nucleus of an atom
Atoms of each element are not necessarily identical; they can differ with respect to the number of
neutrons in their nuclei. When an element has two or more species of atoms, each with the same
number of protons but a different number of neutrons, the different species are called isotopes.
Different isotopes of the same element have the same atomic number, but they have a different
mass number, which is the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. In the
context of nuclear science, protons and neutrons are called nucleons, because they reside in the
nucleus. The atom’s mass number is often called the nucleon number, and a particular type of
nucleus, characterized by a specific atomic number and nucleon number, is called a nuclide.
Nuclides are represented in chemical notation by a subscript atomic number (Z) and superscript
nucleon number (A) on the left side of the element’s symbol (X) as shown in Figure 4.1:

Mass No (nucleon No)

Z
X
Element symbol
Atomic No (proton No)

Figure 4.1: Chemical notation of a nuclide or Nuclide symbol

107
For example, the most abundant nuclide of uranium has 92 protons and 146 neutrons, so its

atomic number is 92, its nucleon number is 238 (92 + 146), and its symbol is . Often, the

atomic number is left off of the symbol. Nuclides can also be described with the name of the
238
element followed by the nucleon number. Therefore, is commonly described as U or

uranium-238.

Example 1

A nuclide that has 26 protons and 33 neutrons is used to study blood chemistry. Write its nuclide

symbol in the form of . Write two other ways to represent this nuclide.

Solution

Because this nuclide has 26 protons, its atomic number, Z, is 26, identifying the element as iron,
Fe. This nuclide of iron has 59 total nucleons (26 protons + 33 neutrons), so its nucleon number,
A, is 59. Therefore, its nuclide symbol is written as; or 59Fe or iron-59

3.1.2 Radioactivity of an atom

The spontaneous decay of an unstable nucleus with accompanying emission of radiation is termed
radioactivity. As the atomic number increases, more neutrons are needed to help bind the nucleus
together, so there is a high neutron: proton ratio. Many heavy elements undergo several sequential
emissions before forming a more stable nuclei.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Explain the nucleus of an atom and its radioactivity

3.2 Nuclear Stability

Two forces act upon the particles within the nucleus to produce the nuclear structure. One, called
the electrostatic force (or electromagnetic force), is the force that causes opposite electrical
charges to attract each other and like charges to repel each other. The positively charged protons
in the nucleus of an atom have an electrostatic force pushing them apart. The other force within
the nucleus, called the strong force, holds nucleons (protons and neutrons) together.

108
If one proton were to encounter another, the electrostatic force pushing them apart would be
greater than the strong force pulling them together, and the two protons would fly in separate
directions. Therefore, nuclei that contain more than one proton and no neutrons do not exist.
Neutrons can be described as the nuclear glue that allows protons to stay together in the nucleus.
Because neutrons are uncharged, there are no electrostatic repulsions between them and other
particles. At the same time, each neutron in the nucleus of an atom is attracted to other neutrons
and to protons by the strong force. Therefore, adding neutrons to a nucleus increases the attractive
forces holding the particles of the nucleus together without increasing the amount of repulsion
between those particles. As a result, although a nucleus that consists of only two protons is
unstable, a helium nucleus that consists of two protons and two neutrons is very stable. The
increased stability is reflected in the significant amount of energy released when two protons and
two neutrons combine to form a helium nucleus as shown in Figure 4.2.

P 4
P n n He 2+
+ + 2

+ + + + Energy

Figure 4.2: Formation of helium nucleus

For many of the lighter elements, the possession of an equal number of protons and neutrons

leads to stable atoms. For example, carbon-12 atoms, C, with six protons and six neutrons, and

oxygen-16 atoms, O, with eight protons and eight neutrons, are both very stable. Larger atoms

with more protons in their nuclei require a higher ratio of neutrons to protons to balance the
increased electrostatic repulsion between protons. Table 4.1 shows the steady increase in the
neutron-to-proton ratios of the most abundant isotopes of the elements in group 15 on the periodic
table.

Table 4.1: Neutron-to-Proton Ratio for the Most Abundant Isotopes of the Group 15 Elements

Element No of neutrons No of protons Neutrons-to-Proton

ratio
Nitrogen, N 7 7 1 to 1

109
Phosphorus, P 16 15 1.07 to 1
Arsenic, As 42 33 1.27 to 1
Antimony, Sb 70 51 1.37 to 1
Bismuth, Bi 146 83 1.52 to 1

There are 264 stable nuclides found in nature. The graph in Figure 4.1 shows the neutron-to-
proton ratios of these stable nuclides. Collectively, these nuclides fall within what is known as the
band of stability.

220
Island of stability
200
180
Nu
160
mbe
r of 140
neu 120
tron Band of stability
s 100
80
One to one
60 neutron to
proton ratio
40
20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120

Number of protons

Figure 4.1: The band of stability

A nuclide containing numbers of protons and neutrons that place it outside this band of stability
will be unstable until it undergoes one or more nuclear reactions that take it into the band of
stability. We call these unstable atoms radioactive nuclides, and the changes they undergo to
reach stability are called radioactive decay. Note that the band of stability stops at 83 protons. All
of the known nuclides with more than 83 protons are radioactive, but scientists have postulated
that there should be a small island of stability around the point representing 114 protons and 184
neutrons. The relative stability of the heaviest atoms that have so far been synthesized in the
laboratory suggests that this is true.

110
Self Assessment Exercise:
Discuss the bands of nuclear stability in atoms.

3.3 Types of Radioactive Emissions

One of the ways that nuclides with more than 83 protons change to reach the band of stability is
to release two protons and two neutrons in the form of a helium nucleus, which in this context is
called an alpha particle. Natural uranium, which is found in many rock formations on earth, has
three isotopes that all experience alpha emission, the release of alpha particles. The isotope
composition of natural uranium is 99.27% uranium-238, 0.72% uranium-235, and a trace of
uranium-234. The nuclear equation for the alpha emission of uranium-238, the most abundant
isotope, is:

(4.1)

Figure 4.2: Alpha emission in natural uranium

In nuclear equations for alpha emission, the alpha particle is written as either or He. Note that

in alpha emission, the radioactive nuclide changes into a different element, with an atomic
number that is lower by 2 and a mass number that is lower by 4.
Some radioactive nuclides have a neutron-to-proton ratio that is too high, placing them above the
band of stability. To reach a more stable state they undergo beta emission ( -). In this process, a
neutron becomes a proton and an electron. The proton stays in the nucleus, and the electron,
which is called a beta particle in this context, is ejected from the atom.
n → p + e-

111
 -
In nuclear equations for beta emission, the electron is written as either , , or e. Iodine -131,

which has several medical uses, including the measurement of iodine uptake by the thyroid, is a
beta emitter Figure 4.3:

(4.2)

Figure 4.3: Beta emission/radiation

Note that in beta emission, the radioactive nuclide changes into a different element, with an
atomic number that is higher by 1 but the same mass number.

If a radioactive nuclide has a neutron-to-proton ratio that is too low, placing it below the band of
stability, it can move toward stability in one of two ways, positron emission or electron capture.
Positron emission ( ) is similar to beta emission, but in this case, a proton becomes a neutron
and an anti-matter electron, or anti-electron. The latter is also called a positron because, although
it resembles an electron in most ways, it has a positive charge. The neutron stays in the nucleus,
and the positron speeds out of the nucleus at high velocity.

p → n + e+

In nuclear equations for positron emission, the electron is written as either , e or e.

Potassium-40, which is important in geologic dating, undergoes positron emission:

(4.3)

112
 Figure 4.4: Positron emission from potassium

Note that in positron emission, the radioactive nuclide changes into a different element, with an
atomic number that is lower by 1 but the same mass number.

The second way that an atom with an excessively low neutron-to-proton ratio can reach a more
stable state is for a proton in its nucleus to capture one of the atom’s electrons. In this process,
called electron capture, the electron combines with the proton to form a neutron.

e- + p → n

Iodine-125, which is used to determine blood hormone levels, moves toward stability through
electron capture. Like positron emission, electron capture causes the radioactive nuclide to
change to a new element, with an atomic number that is lower by 1 but with the same mass
number.

(4.4)

Figure 4.5: Electron capture process

Because radioactive decay leads to more stable products, it always releases energy. Some of this
energy is released in the form of kinetic energy, adding to the motion of the product particles, but
often some of it is given off as the form of radiant energy called gamma rays. Gamma rays can
be viewed as streams of high energy photons. For example, cesium-137 is a beta emitter that also
releases gamma radiation. The energy released in the beta emission leaves the product element,
barium-137, in an excited state. When the barium-137 descends to its ground state, it gives off
photons in the gamma ray region of the radiant energy spectrum, Figure 4.6.

113
 Figure 4.6: Gamma rays radiation

Self Assessment Exercise:

Describe the types of radioactive emissions.

3.4 Nuclear Reactions and Nuclear Equations

3.4.2 Nuclear reactions

During nuclear reaction, matter is converted to energy and huge amounts of energy is released.
The energy thus generated, can be harvested, transmitted and distributed for use thereafter.
Nuclear reactions involve a specific isotope of an element, and different isotopes of an element
may undergo different nuclear reactions.

3.4.2 Differences between chemical reactions and nuclear reactions

1 Atomic number of nuclei may change (elements are converted to other elements or an
element can be converted to an isotope of that element).
2 Nuclear reactions involve changes in the nucleus, whereas chemical reactions involve the
loss, gain, and sharing of electrons.
3 Different isotopes of the same element may undergo very different nuclear reactions, even
though an element’s isotopes all share the same chemical characteristics.
4 Unlike chemical reactions, the rates of nuclear reactions are unaffected by temperature,
pressure, and the presence of other atoms to which the radioactive atom may be bonded.
5 Nuclear reactions, in general, give off much more energy than chemical reactions.

3.4.3 Nuclear equations

The equations that describe nuclear reactions are different from those that describe chemical
reactions because in nuclear equations charge is disregarded. If you study the nuclear changes for

114
alpha, beta, and positron emission already described in this section, you will see that the products
must be charged. For example, when an alpha particle is released from a uranium-238 nucleus,
two positively charged protons are lost. Assuming that the uranium atom was uncharged initially,
the thorium atom formed would have a -2 charge. Because the alpha particle is composed of two
positively charged protons and two uncharged neutrons (and no electrons), it has a +2 overall
charge.

(4.5)

The ions lose their charges quickly by exchanging electrons with other particles. Because we are
usually not concerned about charges for nuclear reactions, and because these charges do not last
very long, they are not usually mentioned in nuclear equations. Therefore, nuclear equations must
clearly show the changes in the atomic numbers of the nuclides (the number of protons) and the
changes in their mass numbers (the sum of the numbers of protons and neutrons). Note that in
each of the following equations, the sum of the superscripts (mass numbers, A) for the reactants
is equal to the sum of the superscripts for the products. Likewise, the sum of the subscripts
(atomic numbers, Z) for the reactants is equal to the sum of the subscripts for the products.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Briefly explain nuclear reactions and nuclear equations.

4.0 Conclusion
Certain nuclides are more stable than we might have expected them to be if the trend for the
change in binding energy per nucleon were smooth. During nuclear reaction, matter is converted
to energy and huge amounts of energy is released. Nuclear reactions involve a specific isotope of
an element, and different isotopes of an element may undergo different nuclear reactions.

5.0 Summary

A nuclide containing numbers of protons and neutrons that place it outside the band of stability
will be unstable until it undergoes one or more nuclear reactions that take it into the band of
stability. We call these unstable atoms radioactive nuclides, and the changes they undergo to
reach stability are called radioactive decay. The band of stability stops at 83 protons. All of the

115
known nuclides with more than 83 protons are radioactive. Although, scientists have postulated
that there should be a small island of stability around the point representing 114 protons and 184
neutrons.

6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) Explain the nucleus of an atom and its radioactivity.

b) Discuss the bands of nuclear stability in atoms
c) Describe the types of radioactive emissions.
d) Differentiate between chemical reaction and nuclear reaction.
e) Briefly explain nuclear reactions and nuclear equations.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Broda, E. (1995). Nuclear Chemistry, University Printing Press, 335-365, Vienna, Austria.
Chopping, G., Liljenzin, J. and Rydberg J. (2002). Radiochemistry and Nuclear chemistry, 3rd
edition.
Ehmann, W.D., and Vance, D.E. (1991). Radiochemistry and Nuclear Method of Analysis
Friedlander, G., Kennedy, J.W., Macias, E.S., and Miller, J.M. (1991). Nuclear and
Radiochemistry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Isbin, H.S.R. (1963). Introduction Nuclear Reactor Theory, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Koskinen, A.N. (2009). Nuclear chemistry: New Research, Nova science.
Knoll, G.F. (2000). Radiation detection and measurement.
Korff, S.A. (1995). Electron and Nuclear Counters, McGraw-Hill, New York.
Loveland, W.D., Morrissey, D.J., and Seaborg, G.T. (2017). Modern Nuclear Chemistry, 2nd
edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Lieser, K.H. (2001), Nuclear and Radiochemistry, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Powell, C.F., and Occhialini, G.P.S. (1947). Nuclear Physics in Photographs, Oxford Press,
Oxford.
Vertes, A., Nagy, S., Klencars, Z., Lovas, R.G., and Rosch, F. (2011). Handbook of Nuclear
Chemistry, 2nd edition. Springer.

116
UNIT 2: SOLIDS AND LATTICE STRUCTURES

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Nature and Structure of Crystalline Solids

3.2 Specification of unit cells and primitive cells
3.3 Lattice Plane and Directions
4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Solid can be categorized into either crystalline or non-crystalline solids. A crystal is a solid in
which the constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeated
pattern extending in all three spatial dimensions. Crystals are structures found in crystalline
solids. Solids are made up of crystals, while crystals are made up of lattice and basis. The lattice
is the underlying pattern of the crystal. A crystal structure consists of identical copies of the same
physical units called the basis assigned to all the points of the lattice. The crystal is being
described by the lattice that can contain more than one atom/ion assigned to each point of the
lattice, usually referred to as a basis.

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Understand the nature and structure of solids.

• Know the specification of unit cells and primitive cells.
• Understand the planes and directions of basis and lattice in crystals.

117
3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Nature and Structure of Crystalline Solids

3.1.1 The nature of solids

In an assembly of atoms or molecules a solid phase is formed whenever the interatomic
(intermolecular) attractive forces significantly exceed the disruptive thermal forces and thus
restrict the mobility of atoms, forcing them into more-or-less fixed positions. From energy
considerations it is evident (as discussed in previous units) that in such solids the atoms or
molecules will always attempt to assume highly ordered structures which are characterized by
symmetry. Depending on the nature of the acting interatomic forces, all solids may be subdivided
into:

(a) Ionic solids (NaCl)

(b) Covalent solids (Diamond)

(c) Metallic solids (Fe, Ni, etc.)

(d) Van der Waals solids (ice, solid He)

Solids as we encounter them in nature may or may not reflect the internally ordered arrangement
in their appearance. We find, for example, well-formed quartz crystals, garnets, diamonds and
snowflakes which are all characterized by flat bounding planes which intersect at characteristic
angles. On the other hand, we also observe rounded stones and man-made cast solid objects with
no external evidence of internal order Figure 4.7.

c2
c1
c4 c
3
c5

Figure 4.7: Crystals, internal order and external appearance

To understand the external appearance of the solid state it is necessary to consider the formation
of solids from different phases. Solids, for example, are formed upon cooling of liquids (melts) -
by freezing or solidification; this solidification process normally proceeds in total confinement
and the resulting “cast” structure will have an external appearance which reflects in detail the
118
confining geometry (and not the internal order). Moreover, depending on solidification
conditions, the solid body may be either a single crystal or polycrystalline. Polycrystalline solids
(in excess of 95% of the solid state encountered) may be thought of as an assembly of
microscopic single crystals with random orientation held together like a maze structure by the
interwoven irregular shapes of the individual crystals.

A typical example of an “unconfined” phase transformation is the formation of snowflakes where

the external boundaries of the solid have assumed crystalline appearance, reflecting in detail the
internally ordered molecular (H2O) arrangement.

Another unconfined formation of a solid is precipitation from solution (sugar crystals, CuSO4
and the like). Similarly, the formation of crystals from the vapour phase leads to bodies which
externally reflect elements of internal order.

3.1.2 The structure of crystal

From the earlier discussion it should be apparent that, when strong interatomic forces exist, atoms
tend to pack closely together - the closeness of packing being particularly pronounced in the solid
state. In this case atoms can be regarded as hard spheres and the problem of close packing can be
treated as one in which the whole assembly has a tendency toward efficient packing. A little
thought or a few simple experiments with ping-pong balls quickly convince us that regular
arrangements of the spheres generally lead to more compact assemblies than irregular
arrangements, Figure 4.8. The same principle applies to arrangement of atoms in the solid state.
Where strong attractive forces are exerted we find that the atoms or molecules concerned arrange
themselves in a regular three-dimensional pattern.

Figure 4.8: The packing density of ordered solid systems

It is this regularity which is the basis of crystallinity in materials: i.e., a crystal structure is
nothing more than an orderly array of atoms or molecules. This definition of a crystal is distinct

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from the popular concept based on observation of external symmetry of crystals, often seen
during the study of elementary chemistry, in which some crystals appear cubic, others needle-
shaped and so on. The regular external shape is obtained only when the conditions of
crystallization are favourable to development of flat, geometric faces. In most instances,
particularly with metals, these conditions are absent, and the crystals have irregular surfaces even
though the internal arrangement is perfectly geometric.

3.1.3 Space Lattice

Atomic arrays in crystals are conveniently described with respect to a three-dimensional net of
straight lines. Consider a lattice of lines, as in Figure 4.9, dividing space into equal-sized prisms
which stand side-by-side with all faces in contact, thereby filling all space and leaving no voids.
The intersections of these lines are points of a space lattice, i.e., a geometrical abstraction which
is useful as a reference in describing and correlating symmetry of actual crystals. These lattice
points are of fundamental importance in describing crystals for they may be the positions
occupied by individual atoms in crystals or they may be points about which several atoms are
clustered. Since prisms of many different shapes can be drawn through the points of a space
lattice to partition it into cells, the manner in which the network of reference lines is drawn is
arbitrary. It is not necessary that the lines be drawn so that atoms lie only at corners of unit
prisms.

Figure 4.9: Space lattice prism with atoms lying at centres and corners

3.1.4 Crystal system and bravais lattice

There are fourteen space lattices (fig. 4). That is, no more than fourteen ways can be found in
which points can be arranged in space so that each point has identical surroundings. Of course,

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there are many more than fourteen ways in which atoms can be arranged in actual crystals; thus
there are a great number of crystal structures. Too often the term “lattice” is loosely used as a
synonym for “structure”, an incorrect practice which is frequently confusing. The distinction can
be clearly seen if we remember that a space lattice is an array of points in space. It is a
geometrical abstraction which is useful only as a reference in describing and correlating
symmetry of actual crystals. A crystal structure, however, is the arrangement of atoms or
molecules which actually exists in a crystal. It is a dynamic, rather than a static, arrangement and
is subject to many imperfections.

Name 7 Crystal 14 Bravais Lattices

systems

Figure 4.10: The 7 crystal systems and the 14 Bravais lattices

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Self Assessment Exercise:
Briefly describe the nature and structure of crystalline solids

3.2 Specification of unit cells and primitive cells

3.2.1 Specifying unit cells and primitive cells

To specify a given arrangement of points in a space lattice, it is customary to identify a unit cell
with a set of coordinate axes, chosen to have an origin at one of the lattice points (Figure 4.11). In
a cubic lattice, for example, we choose three axes of equal length that are mutually perpendicular
and form three edges of a cube. Each space lattice has some convenient set of axes, but they are
not necessarily equal in length or orthogonal. Seven different systems of axes are used in
crystallography, each possessing certain characteristics as to equality of angles and equality of
lengths. These seven crystal systems are tabulated in Table 4.1 (to be considered in conjunction
with Figure 4.10.

β α
b
a γ y

Figure 4.11: Unit cell parameters

Table 4.1: The seven crystal systems

System Parameters Interaxial angles
Triclinic a b c α β γ
Monoclinic a b c α = γ = 90° β
Orthorhombic a b c α=β=γ

Tetragonal a=b c α=β=γ

Cubic a=b=c α = β = γ = 90°

Hexagonal a=b c α = β = 90°, γ = 120°

Rhombohedral a=b=c α = β = γ 90°

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3.2.2 Unit cells vs Primitive cells

In the literature we often find reference to unit cells and to primitive cells. The primitive cell may
be defined as a geometrical shape which, when repeated indefinitely in three dimensions, will fill
all space and is the equivalent of one atom. The unit cell differs from the primitive cell in that it is
not restricted to being the equivalent of one atom. In some cases the two coincide. For instance,
in Figure 4.10 all fourteen space lattices are shown by their unit cells. Of these fourteen, only
seven (which are those?) are also primitive cells.

Primitive cells are drawn with lattice points at all corners, and each primitive cell contains the
equivalent of one atom. For instance, a simple cubic unit cell has an atom at each corner.
However, at any of these given corners, this atom must be shared with seven other identical cubes
which fill the volume surrounding this point. Thus there is effectively only 1/8 of the atom which
can be assigned to that particular unit cell. Since there are eight corners in a cube, there is the
equivalent of one atom, and thus the primitive cell and unit cell coincide.

Continuing, consider the body-centred cubic (BCC) lattice. In this case there is one atom at the
centre of the cube and one atom contributed by the eight corners. This cell, then, has two atoms
and, to avoid confusion, should be termed a unit cell. In the face-centred cubic lattice there are six
face atoms, but each face atom is shared by two cells. Consequently, each face contributes 1/2 an
atom. The faces thus contribute three atoms and the corners one, for a total of four atoms in the
unit cell. The face-centred cubic structure (FCC) can also be considered as four interpenetrating
simple cubic cells.

In the study of crystals the primitive cell has limited use because the unit cell more clearly
demonstrates the symmetrical features of a lattice. In other words, the unit cell can usually be
visualized readily whereas the primitive cell cannot. For example, the cubic nature of the face-
centred cubic lattice is immediately apparent in the unit cell, but it is not nearly so obvious in the
rhombohedral primitive cell.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Briefly discuss on specification of unit cell and primitive cells and their differences.

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3.3 Lattice Plane and Directions

It is desirable to have a system of notation for planes within a crystal or space lattice such that the
system specifies orientation without giving position in space. Miller indices are used for this
purpose. These indices are based on the intercepts of a plane with the three crystal axes – i.e., the
three edges of the unit cell. The intercepts are measured in terms of the edge lengths or
dimensions of the unit cell which are the unit distances from the origin along the three axes. For
instance, the plane that cuts the x-axis at a distance from the origin equal to one-half the x-
dimension of the cell is said to have an x-intercept equal to 1/2, and if it cuts the y-axis at 1/2 the
y-dimension of the cell, the y-intercept is 1/2, regardless of the relative magnitudes of the x- and
y-dimensions. If a plane is parallel to an axis, it intercepts the axis at infinity. To determine Miller
indices (hkl) of a plane, we take the following steps:

1. Find the intercepts on the three axes in multiples or fractions of the edge lengths along each
axis.

2. Determine the reciprocals of these numbers.

3. Reduce the reciprocals to the three smallest integers having the same ratio as the reciprocals.

4. Enclose these three integral numbers in parentheses, e.g., (hkl).

A cube has six equivalent faces. If we have a definite orientation and wish to discuss one specific
plane of these six, it is possible to specify this plane by using the proper Miller indices.
Parentheses are used around the Miller indices to signify a specific plane. On the other hand, it is
often advantageous to talk about planes of a “form” – i.e., a family of equivalent planes such as
the six faces of a cube. To do this it is customary to use the Miller indices, but to enclose them in
curly brackets (braces).

Self Assessment Exercise:

Explain the planes and direction of lattice in crystalline solids.

4.0 Conclusion

Solids are made up of crystals and crystals are made up of lattice. The lattice is the underlying
pattern of the crystal. A crystal structure consists of identical copies of the same physical units
called the basis assigned to all the points of the lattice. The crystal is being described by the
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lattice that can contain more than one atom/ion assigned to each point of the lattice, usually
referred to as a basis.

5.0 Summary

The units deals with the structures found in crystalline solids i.e. crystals. Solid can be
categorized into either crystalline or non-crystalline solids. A crystal is a solid in which the
constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are packed in a regularly ordered, repeated pattern
extending in all three spatial dimensions x, y, and z.

6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) Briefly describe the nature and structure of crystalline solids.

b) Differentiate between unit cells and primitive cells.
c) Discuss the specification of unit cells and primitive cells.
d) Explain the planes and direction of lattice in crystalline solids.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Ashcroft, N.W., and Mermin, N.D. (1976). Solid State Physics, Holt-Saunders Int’l edition,

Saunders College, Philadelphia.

De Graef, M., and McHenry, M.E. (2010). Structure of materials: An Introduction to

Crystallography, Cambridge University Press, Oxford.

Elliot, S.R. (1956). The Physics and Chemistry of Solids, John Wiley Publishers, New York.

Hook, J.R., and Hall, H.E. (1991). Solid State Physics, 2nd edition, John Wiley Publishers, New

York.

Kittel, C. (2004). Introduction to Solid State Physics, 8th edition John Wiley Publishers, New

York.

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UNIT 3: GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EXTRACTION OF METALS

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 Objectives

3.0 Main Content

3.1 The Principle of Extractive Metallurgy

3.2 Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore
3.3 Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy
4.0 Conclusion

5.0 Summary

6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment

7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 Introduction

Metal extraction process is the combination of similar and unique kind of steps known as Unit
Processes/Unit Operations. Unit operations are physical operations, while unit processes are
chemical processes, both of which are combined to extract metals from the ores. Some metal
oxides get reduced easily while others are very difficult to be reduced (reduction means electron
gain or electronation). In any case, heating is required. To understand the variation in the
temperature requirement for thermal reductions (pyrometallurgy) and to predict which element
will suit as the reducing agent for a given metal oxide (MxOy),

2.0 Objective

At the end of this unit student should be able to

• Know the various techniques used in extraction of metals.

• Understand the processes involved in extraction of metals.
• Understand the model of selecting the correct process routes, reactors, optimize and control
metallic extraction.

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3.0 Main Content
3.1 The Principle of Extractive Metallurgy

3.1.1 What is extractive metallurgy?

Extractive metallurgy deals with extraction of metals from its naturally existing ore/minerals and
refining them. These minerals include inorganic compounds with more than one metals in
association with non-metals like S, O, N etc. Naturally existing minerals include sulphides,
oxides, halides like: Hematite (Fe2O3), Magnetite (Fe3O4), Chalcopyrite (CuFeS2), Dolomite
(CaCO3.MgCO3) etc.

3.1.2 Sources of metals

Sources of metals include:

Earth Crust (Aluminium: 8.1%, Iron 5.1%, Calcium: 3.6%, Sodium: 2.8%, Potassium: 2.6%,
Magnesium: 2.1%, Titanium: 2.1%, Manganese: 0.10%).

Ocean water (Na: 10500 g/ton, Mg: 1270 g/ton, Ca: 400 g/ton, K: 380 g/ton);

Ocean nodules (Mn: 23.86%, Mg 1.66%, Al 2.86%, Fe 13.80 %..)

Recycled scrap (at the end of metals’ life)

The mineral map of the word is shown in Figure 4.12.

Figure 4.12: The mineral map of the world (www.mapsofworld.com )

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 3.1.3 Types of ores

1. Oxide ores: Examples: Fe2O3, Fe3O4

Apart from Fe, other heavy metals which are produced from oxide ores are: Manganese,
Chromium, Titanium, Tungsten, Uranium and Tin.

2. Sulphide ores: Copper ore (CuFeS2, Chalcopyrite), Sphalerite (Zn,Fe)S, Galena PbS, Pyrite
FeS2. Others sulphide ores include: Nickel, Zinc, Mercury and Molybdenum

3. Halide ores: Rock salts of Sodium, Magnesium chloride in sea water

3.1.4 Metal extraction processes

Metal extraction process is the combination of similar and unique kind of steps known as Unit

Processes/unit operations.

i. Unit operations: Physical operations like crushing, grinding, sizing, mixing through agitation,
filtration, distillation, and comminution.
ii. Unit processes: Chemical processes like leaching, smelting, roasting, Electrolysis,
decarburization, dephosphorization, degassing, deoxidation etc.
Combination of all unit steps/processes results in a chart known as the extraction Flow-Sheets.

3.1.5 Classification of unit processes/operation by different criteria

a) According to phases involved:

i. Gas-Solid: Roasting, Gas reduction

ii. Gas-liquid: steelmaking blowing/refining, Distillation
iii. Liquid-Liquid: Slag metal reactions
iv. Solid-solid: Leaching, precipitation etc.

b) According to equipment involved:

i. Fixed bed: Sintering, percolation leaching

ii. Fluidized bed: Fluidized roasting and reduction
iii. Shaft furnace: Iron blast furnace, lime calcination kiln
iv. Rotary kiln: Drying and calcination
v. Ritort: Coke open, carbothermic zinc production, Mg production by Pidgeon
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 vi. Reverberatory furnace: Matte smelting (Cu etc.), open hearth steelmaking
vii. Electric arc furnace: Steelmaking, matte smelting, ferro alloy production
viii. Cell for salt fuse electrolysis: Production and refining of aluminium
ix. Cell for aqueous electrolysis: Electrolytic reduction and refining

c) According to chemical reaction

i. Oxidation: Roasting, sintering, LD steelmaking

ii. Reduction: Blast furnace ironmaking
iii. Slag metal reactions: Steelmaking, matte smelting
iv. Chlorination: Titanium (converting to tetrachloride)
v. Electrolytic reduction: Zinc and Aluminium production
vi. Electrolyte refining: Refining of Copper and Nickel

d) According to methods of metal extraction

i. Physical separation/Mineral processing

The objective is to concentrate the metallic content in the ore, achieved by a series of
comminution (crushing and grinding), screening and separation process

ii. Pyrometallurgy

It involves the smelting, converting and refining of metal concentrate.

iii. Hydrometallurgy

It involves the precipitation of metal in an aqueous solution.

iv. Electrometallurgy

Electrolysis process to extract metal. Electro-winning: Extraction of the metal from electrolyte;
Electro-refining: Refining of impure metals in the form of an anode.

Majority of metals are extracted by pyrometallurgical route because it is fast, easily adaptable and
is the cheapest of all.

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Self Assessment Exercise:
What is extractive metallurgy and briefly state the sources of metals and types of ores.

3.2 Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore

3.2.1 Calcination:
Calcination is a process of heating the ore strongly either in a limited supply of air or in the
absence of air. During this process the following changes take place:
i. The volatile matter is removed.
ii. Moisture is removed.
iii. Water from the hydrated oxides is removed.
iv. The ore becomes porous.

Carbonates decompose to oxides in the form;

3.2.2 Roasting:

Roasting is the process of heating the ore strongly in the presence of excess or regular supply of
air in a furnace at a temperature below the melting point of the metal.

Examples of Sulphide ores roasted include:

3.2.2 Reduction of oxide to the metal:

Reduction of the metal oxide usually involves heating it with some other substance acting as
reducing agent (C or CO or even another metal). The reducing agent (e.g., carbon) combines with
the oxygen

During reduction, the oxide of a metal decomposes:

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Some metal oxides get reduced easily while others are very difficult to be reduced (reduction
means electron gain or electronation). In any case, heating is required. To understand the
variation in the temperature requirement for thermal reductions (pyrometallurgy) and to predict
which element will suit as the reducing agent for a given metal oxide (MxOy), Gibbs energy
interpretations (not covered in this courseware) are made.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Briefly discuss the processes involved in the extraction of crude metal from concentrated ores.

3.3 Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy

In the reduction of molten metal salt, electrolysis is done which is based on electrochemical
principles following equation

(4.6)

where n is the number of electrons and E0 is the electrode potential of redox couple.

More reactive metals have large negative values of the electrode potential and are difficult to
reduce. Figure 4.13 shows the electrolytic cell for the extraction of Aluminium. Na3AlF6 or CaF2
is added to alumina to lower the melting point, and to increase the conductivity of the electrolyte.
The overall reaction is

Figure 4.13: Electrolytic cell for the extraction of Aluminium

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This electrolytic process is known as Hall−Heroult process. The oxygen liberated at the anode
reacts with the carbon of the anode to produce CO and CO2. The cell reactions are;

3.3.1 The role of cryolite in the metallurgy of aluminium

1. To decrease the melting point of the mixture from 2323 K to 1140 K.

2. To increase the electrical conductivity of Al2O3.

3.3.2 The role of graphite rod in the electrometallurgy of aluminium

In the electrometallurgy of aluminium, a fused mixture of purified alumina (Al2O3), cryolite

(Na3AlF6) and fluorspar (CaF2) is electrolysed. In this electrolysis, graphite is used as the anode
and graphite-lined iron is used as the cathode. During the electrolysis, Al is liberated at the
cathode, while CO and CO2 are liberated at the anode, according to the following equation.

If a metal is used instead of graphite as the anode, then O2 will be liberated. This will not only
oxidise the metal of the electrode, but also convert some of the Al liberated at the cathode back
into Al2O3. Hence, graphite is used for preventing the formation of O2 at the anode. Moreover,
graphite is cheaper than other metals.

Self Assessment Exercise:

Explain the basis of reduction of a molten metal salt.

4.0 Conclusion

Metal extraction process is the combination of similar and unique kind of steps known as Unit
Processes/Unit Operations. Unit operations are physical operations, while unit processes are
chemical processes, both of which are combined to extract metals from the ores. Combination of
132
all unit steps/processes results in a chart known as the extraction Flow-Sheets. Some metal oxides
get reduced easily while others are very difficult to be reduced (reduction means electron gain or
electronation).

5.0 Summary

The units deals with the principles of extractive metallurgy. It also deals with extraction of crude
metal from concentrated ores. It further expatiated on electrochemical principles of metallurgy.
Extractive metallurgy deals with extraction of metals from its naturally existing ore/minerals and
refining them. Reduction of the metal oxide usually involves heating it with some other substance
acting as reducing agent (C or CO or even another metal).

6.0. Tutor-Marked Assignment

a) What is extractive metallurgy and briefly state the sources of metals and types of ores.

b) Briefly classify the unit processes/operation in metal extraction by different criteria

c) Briefly discuss the processes involved in extraction of crude metal from concentrated ores.

d) Explain the basis of reduction of a molten metal salt.

7.0 References/Further Readings

Biswas, A.K., and Davenport, W.G. (2002). Extractive Metallurgy of Copper, 5th edition,

PERGAMON publishing company.

Habashi, F. (2016). Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy, Wiley-VCH.

Rosenqvist, T. (2004). Principles of Extractive Metallurgy, 2nd edition, Tapir Academic Press.

Ray, H.S., and Ghosh, A. (1993). Principles of Extractive Metallurgy, WEL Publishing.

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