TOPIC 5

DEVELOPMENT OF FINGERPRINTS

INTRODUCTION

The pattern of the epidermal ridges on our fingers, palms and soles, the first colloquially called
fingerprints, is part of our every-day life. It is characterized by almost parallel ridges that form
distinguishable configurations. On the fingertips three main pattern types are discriminated:
whorls, loops and arches.

TOPIC CONTENT

1. Formation of fingerprints
2. Dogmatic principles of fingerprints
3. Legal basis of fingerprint evidence
4. The friction skin and its structure
5. Allied sciences of fingerprints
6. Ridge formation and Ridge destruction
7. Ridge characteristics

TOPIC OBJECTIVES
This topic aims the students to:

1. Examine the formation/development of fingerprints

2. Discuss the principles of fingerprints
3. List the basis of fingerprint evidence
4. Elaborate the friction skin and its structure
5. Discuss the allied sciences in the study of fingerprint
6. Determine the factors involving ridge formation and ridge destruction
7. List the different ridge characteristics

TOPIC OUTCOME
At the end of the topic the students will be able to:

1. Examine the formation/development of fingerprints

2. Discuss the principles of fingerprints
3. List the basis of fingerprint evidence
4. Elaborate the friction skin and its structure
5. Discuss the allied sciences in the study of fingerprint
6. Determine the factors involving ridge formation and ridge destruction
7. List the different ridge characteristics

Formation of Fingerprints

Ridges begin to form on the human fetus five to six months before birth. Since the ridges are the
basis for fingerprint identification they seemed to appear as continuous lines-some short and
curved, others long and straight, and a few like islands containing a single pore structure. During

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 55
the process of growth and development these ridge formations are not continuous lines but
consist of a series of island, each containing a small opening or pore.

As they grow, they fuse together and eventually the round contours flatten and straighten out to
form a continuous straight or short line.

Fig. 1. Development of ridges

A person’s fingerprints are based on the patterns of skin ridges (called dermatoglyphs) on the
pads of the fingers. These ridges are also present on the toes, the palms of the hands, and the
soles of the feet. Although the basic whorl, arch, and loop patterns may be similar, the details of
the patterns are specific to each individual.

The basic size, shape, and spacing of dermatoglyphs appear to be influenced by genetic factors.
Studies suggest that multiple genes are involved, so the inheritance pattern is not straightforward.
Genes that control the development of the various layers of skin, as well as the muscles, fat, and
blood vessels underneath the skin, may all play a role in determining the pattern of ridges. The
finer details of the patterns of skin ridges are influenced by other factors during fetal
development, including the environment inside the womb. These developmental factors cause
each person’s dermatoglyphs to be different from everyone else’s. Even identical twins, who
have the same DNA, have different fingerprints (https://medlineplus.gov/genetics/understanding/traits/fingerprints/)

Dogmatic Principles of Fingerprints

1. Principle of Permanency – is the principle of fingerprint science that states that fingerprints of a
person is unchanging or constant from birth until the decomposition of the body of the person. This is
sometimes called as principle of constancy / persistency (Manlusoc, 2008 p.9-10).

2. Principle of Individuality – is the principle of fingerprint science that says “there are no two
fingerprints that are exactly alike,” except if two fingerprints were taken from the same finger and the
same person. Two fingerprints maybe alike in its pattern or design but considering its minute
characteristics, they differ.

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 56
3. Principle of Infallibility – this principle states that fingerprints are the most reliable means of
personal identification. It is for the reason that fingerprints are permanent; therefore they cannot be
forged nor changed.

Legal Basis of Fingerprint Evidence

1. People vs. Jennings (1911, Illinois) – pass upon the admissibility of fingerprint evidence.

2. State vs. Cerciello (New Jersey) – fingerprint evidence was permitted to be introduced.

3. State vs. Conners – it was held competent to show by a photograph the fingerprints upon
a balcony post of a house entered, without producing that post in court.

4. People vs. Coral (California) – it is completely settled law that fingerprints are the
strongest evidence of the identity of a person. It was reasserted in another California case,
People v. Riser – fingerprint evidence is the strongest evidence of identity and is
ordinarily sufficient aid to identify the defendant.

5. Moon vs. State, Arizona Supreme Court, June 7, 1921, 198 Pac., 288 – It is now well
settled that evidence as to the correspondence of finger prints is admissible for the
purpose of proving identity

6. Bilangawa vs. Amador (Philippines) – a fingerprint expert and constabulary sergeant

testified and successfully defended fingerprint evidence based on eight identical ridge
points.

7. People vs. Medina - the first leading judicial decision in the Philippine jurisprudence on
the science of fingerprinting.

Summary of the Case: People vs. Medina:

On February 12, 1932, at night, Mariano Medina breaks into and enters through the window of
the house of James C. Rockwell. Medina took several personal properties of Rockwell. One of
the properties taken by Medina is a box, which was discovered in the vicinity of the scene of the
crime. A Constabulary Officer named Agripino Ruiz discovered a fingerprint in the surface of
the box which was compared to the fingerprints of the accused-Medina. It was found out that the
Right Middle Finger of Medina matched with the latent print lifted from the silver box in 10
points. A case was filed against the defendant and was later on convicted.

The Friction Skin and its Structure

Ninety-five (95%) percent of the body skin is smooth and relatively featureless, apart from hairs,
pores and creases. The remaining five (5%) percent covering the palms of the hands and soles of
the feet is markedly different. These areas although often creased and containing many pores are
completely hairless and covered by numerous small lines formed by the ridges of the skin and
their consequent furrows (http://www.met.police.uk.history/fingerprints.htm).

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 57
Friction Skin is an epidermal hairless skin found on the ventral or lower surface of the hands
and feet covered with minute ridges and furrows and without pigment or coloring matters. This
refers also to the strips of skin on the inside of the end joints of our fingers and thumbs by which
fingerprints are made (Montojo, 2006 Lessons 2.1-6).

It is also called as epidermal or papillary. The ridges have definite contour and appear in several
ridge formations of patterns, each possessing definite individual detail by which positive
identification can be made.

The skin on the palmar surface of the hands and plantar surface of the feet is specialized. It is
called friction ridge skin because the skin occurs in a corrugated fashion with elevated ridges
broken up by lower furrows. In other words, this skin is not flat and smooth like other skin.
Friction ridge skin is slightly elastic in nature and assists in gripping objects and surfaces.

Friction ridges form in the uterus by the fourth month of fetal development and remain
unchanged and absolute for a person's lifetime, only decomposing after death. These unique
factors make friction ridge skin ideal for use in personal identification. Once friction ridge skin
was recognized as valuable and reliable for personal identification, different people began to
work on systems for taking these prints and then organizing them
(https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/friction-ridge-skin-and-personal-identification-history-
latent-fingerprint-analysis)

Fig. 2. The Friction skin and friction ridges

Components of the Friction Skin (Manlusoc, 2008 )

1. Ridge Surface – is the component of the skin that actually forms the fingerprint impression.
a) Ridges – are tiny elevation or hill like structures found on the epidermis layer of the
skin containing sweat pores. It appears as black lines with tiny white dots called pores in an
inked impression.
b) Furrows – are the canal-like impression or a depression found between the ridges
which may be compared with the low area in a tire thread. They appear as white lines in an
inked impression.

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 58
2. Sweat pores – is a small opening found anywhere across the ridge surface but it is usually
found near the center. Sometimes called an “islands’ with colors white in plain impression.
3. Sweat Duct – Is a long-host like structure that serves as the passage way for the sweat that
exists as its mouth, the pore.
4. Sweat Glands – are found in the dermis layer of the skin which is responsible for the
production of the sweat (watery substance).
A normal person has 10 fingers namely, thumb, index, middle, ring and little fingers. The tips of
each of the finger is called bulb that contains the elevated portion of skin called ridges.

Fig. 3. Layers of the Skin

Layers of The Skin

There are three layers of skin, the epidermis, dermis and subcutaneous layer.

1. Epidermis – the outer covering of the skin.

The main layers of epidermis:

a. Stratum Corneum – the outer layer of the epidermis layer of the skin.

The Five Subdivisions of the Stratum Corneum (Manlusoc, 2008 p.12):

a) Corneus Layer
b) Transparent Layer
c) Granucar Layer
d) Malpigian layer
e) Generating Layer

b. Stratum Mucosum – is the layer immediately beneath the covering layer.

2. Dermis – The inner layer of the skin containing blood vessels, arrector pili muscles,
sebaceous glands, sweat glands and nerves. It is where the dermal papillae are found.

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 59
 3. Subcutaneous layer – the innermost layer of skin that also contains blood vessels,
connective tissue, nerves and fat lobules (a rounded division or projection of an organ or
part in the body, especially in the lungs, brain, or liver).

ALLIED SCIENCES OF FINGERPRINT

There are cases where fingerprints are not available as evidence against the accused. Other
sciences maybe used to provide evidence in the identification of the accused.

1. Chiroscopy – is the science of palm print identification. The term was derived from two
Greek words - “cheir” which means “a hand” and “skopein” which means “to examine.”
(Tubid, 1996 p.197).

2. Podoscopy – science of footprints identification. Derived from the Greek words - “podo”
which means “the foot” and skopein which means “to examine.” (Tubid, 1996 p.212).

3. Poroscopy – science which deals with the study of the pores found on the papillary or
friction ridge of the skin for the purpose of identification. The term was derived from the
Greek words – “poros” which means “a pore” and skopein which means “to examine.”

Dermatoglyphics

Study of the lines, tracings, ridges of the skin of fingers, palms and hands. Derived from the
words: “derma” which means “skin” and “glyphein” which means “to study.” (Cummins, 1992).

Ridge Characteristics

Humans have characteristically ridged skin on their fingertips, palms, and soles. This roughened
skin makes it easier to grip things and, up close, it appears as patterns of tiny ridges and furrows.
The fingertips, palms, and soles can sometimes create a transfer of these patterns when they
come into contact with surfaces and objects. The most important of these transfers are
fingerprints, made when the tips of the fingers and thumbs make impressions. Fingerprints have
long been used for forensic identification purposes thanks to features within their patterns called
ridge characteristics or minutiae (https://www.encyclopedia.com/science/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/ridge-
characteristics)

A single fingerprint pattern consists of several ridge formation/characteristics or formations. These ridge
formations are very useful in the classification of fingerprints and in naming or interpreting the
fingerprint. Some of the ridge formations are follows:

1. Type lines- are the two innermost ridges which start parallel, diverge, and surround or tend to
surround the pattern area. Type lines are the basic boundaries of most fingerprints. They are formed
by ridges which run parallel, starting from the lower corner or corners of the pattern and flowing
inward and upward toward the edge of the pattern area, where they diverge or separate, then surround
or tend to surround the pattern area. Everything that is required to interpret a pattern will be found
inside these type lines (Yamauchi, 2007 p.7).

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 60
2. Pattern Area refers to the area of a fingerprint is that part which lies within the area surrounded by
the type lines. In other words, it is that part of a fingerprint in which are found the cores, deltas other
ridges pertaining to a particular pattern types. It is the area inside the type line and the only part of a
fingerprint which is of importance in regard to interpretation and classification. It is present in all
patterns, but in many arches and tented arches it is impossible to define. This is not important,
however, as the only patterns in which there is need to define the pattern area for classification are
loops and whorls (Tubid, 1996 p.30).
In order to interpret a pattern, nothing is considered that lies outside the type lines. However, ridges
outside the pattern area may be used to compare two fingerprints to determine whether or not they
were both made by the same finger. This is the part of the fingerprint which lies within the area
surrounded by the type lines. It is also the area considered by expert for the ultimate purpose of
personal identification.

Focal Points located within the pattern area of loops and whorls and are enclosed, the focal point is
used to classify them. They are called delta and core.

3. Delta - is a point on the first ridge formation found at or directly in front of and nearest the center of
the divergence of the type lines (Depayso, 2008 p. 36)
The word delta is an old Greek word, and is the fourth letter of the Greek alphabet. It
corresponds to the letter “D” in our alphabet (Tubid, 1996 p.31).
Like the banks of a river, the type lines of a fingerprint run parallel and suddenly diverge
when they reach a delta. The ridge formation at or nearest the center of the divergence of the type
lines is the delta. A delta may be:
1. A dot;
2. A bifurcation;
3. A short ridge;
4. A converging ridge;
5. A meeting of two ridges;
6. An abrupt ending ridge; and
7. Any variant of an angle.

4. Area or point of divergence – refers to the area where delta can be found inside the two diverging
ridges.

5. Core - is the center or the heart of anything, and as applied to fingerprint, the core is the approximate
center of the pattern.

6. Diverging Ridges - are two ridges flowing side by side and suddenly separating, one ridge going one
way and the other ridge going another way.

7. Recurving Ridges - are ridges that curve back in the direction from which it started. is the recurve.
Notice that it is rounded, that it turns back gradually, that it has no angles. This is sometimes called
looping ridge.

8. Sufficient Recurve – The curve at the top or closed end of a recurving ridge. It is also a part of
recurving ridge between the shoulders of a loop, free from any appendages abutting upon the outside
of the recurve. It has the innermost and outermost sufficient recurves.

9. Shoulders of a Loop – this refers to the point where the sufficient recurves start to curve or form a
looping ridge.

10. Rod or Bar – single ending ridge located inside the innermost sufficient recurve in a loop pattern.

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 61
11. Furrows – refers to the depression or canals between the ridges which maybe compared with the low
area.

12. Bifurcating Ridge - This is a single ridge which splits into two ridges, forming a Y shape structure. It
is referred to as a fork.
13. Converging ridge - This is a ridge formation whose closed end is angular and serves as a point of
convergence, usually pointed and abrupt.

14. Appendage or Abutment - This is a short ridge that spoils the sufficiency of a recurve located at the
top or summit of a recurve usually at right angle (Manlusoc, 2008 p. 25).

15. Spike – is also known as rod or bar that appears inside the innermost sufficient recurve (PNP Crime
Lab Fingerprint Training Manual).

16. Fragment – a ridge of approximately short in length not more than 3 millimeters.

17. Short ridge – refers to a ridge that is insufficient in length other than the fragment.

18. Series of Short Ridges – refers to a group of short ridges found inside a pattern area.

19. Dot Ridge – any dot or point that can be observed inside a fingerprint pattern.

20. Series of Dot ridges – the group of dots as printed inside a pattern area

21. Ridge Ending – An abrupt end of any ridge formation.

22. Island or Lake – refers to a formation of ridge that forms a lake-like smaller in size than the
enclosure.

23. Enclosure – is a bifurcation which does not remain open but in the legs of the bifurcation, after
running alongside for a short distance, come together to form a single ridge once more.

24. Envelope – is a single recurving ridge enclosing one or more bars, short or dot ridge.

25. Staple – Single recurving ridge on the center of the pattern area. It can be located along the looping
ridges.

26. Crossover or Bridge ridge – refers to a ridge that connects atleast two ridges. It must have crossed
and connected two ridges.

27. Puckering Ridge – As growth ceases at several ends, the ends curls slightly.

28. Incipient Ridges – Ridges that were never counted because they are only the result of dirt, blurred
impressions, dirty fingerprint paraphernalia and other factors, the short narrow and badly formed
ridges found between two well-formed ridges (Montojo, 2006 Lesson 2.5)

29. Dissociated Ridges – are usual ridge structure having a no well-defined pattern, the ridge are
extremely short, they appear like series of patches caused by disturbance during developmental
process at early fetal life of an individual.

30. Creases – thin, usually straight narrow white lines running transversely, or formed side to side, across
the print, causing the puckering of the ridges. They are caused mainly by minor surface damaged,
work and tear or advanced of age.

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 62
 Fig. 4. Ridge Characteristics

**END OF TOPIC 5**

Topic 5: Module in Forensic 2: Personal Identification Techniques. Prepared by: Jomel B. Pinera, Ph.D. Crim. Page 63