Faculty of Engineering Technology

Department of Civil Engineering

The
Open University
of Sri Lanka

Structural Analysis &

Design 1

CVX3441

Block II

Bachelor of Technology in Engineering

Published by
The Open University of Sri Lanka
 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS &
DESIGN 1

CVX3441

Level 03

Bachelor of Technology in
Engineering

Block 2

Department of Civil Engineering

The Open University of Sri Lanka
2019, The Open University of Sri Lanka

ISBN 978 – 955 – 23 – 1424 – 7

All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the express written
permission of the Open University of Sri Lanka.

First Published 1986

Revised in 2004
Revised in 2015
Revised in 2019

Printed in Sri Lanka

by

THE OPEN UNIVERSITY OF SRI LANKA,

NAWALA,
NUGEGODA,
SRI LANKA.

II
COURSE TEAM:
Prof. T. M. Pallewatta
Dr. D.A.R.Dolage
Mr. L.S.S.Wijewardane
Mr. D.I.Fernando
Dr. P.A.K. Karunanda
Mr. D. P. M. B. Thibbotuwawa

LESSON AUTHORS:
Dr. Mrs. P. Sivasegaram
Prof. M. Amarathunga
Mr. Shanmeganayagam
Mrs. G. Karunarathne

LESSON EDITORS:
Mr. L.S.S.Wijewardane
Mr. D. I. Fernando

III
 CONTENTS

CVX3441: Block 2

Pages

Session 21: Structural Design 01 - 06

Session 22: Steel Design 07 - 12
Session 23: Design of Steel Axially loaded Members’ 13 - 26
Session 24: Design of Steel Members Subjected to Bending 27 - 35
Session 25: Design of Steel Portal Frames 36 - 37
Session 26: Wind loads 38 - 51
Session 27: Connections in Steel Design 52 - 67
Session 28: Statistical Basis for Limit State Design 68 - 75
Session 29: Design Example of Steel Roof Truss 76 - 97
Session 30: Design Example of Steel Portal Frame 98 - 100
Dimensional Properties 101 - 120

IV
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 21

Session 21: STRUCTURAL DESIGN

21.0 Introduction

In the sessions dealing with structural design, we will be considering steel and
timber design and study the design of simple steel roof trusses and beams. In
this session, we discuss basic aspects of design to help us understand the
design procedures. The discussion and examples are about building structures at
this stage, as these are the most familiar.

The philosophy of design is discussed later after some initial experience in

designing simple members.

21.1 The purpose of design

Let us consider what our objectives are, when we make any structure or artefact
(i.e. any man made object):
• the structure or artefact should safely and satisfactorily serve the purpose
for which it was required;
• it should be possible to make it in a practical and cost-effective way.
These are the main aims of design.

The design process needs to be systematic in order to be useful. You may know
from experience that it is best to investigate and plan what you are intending to
do before you start. We usually find that there are mistakes, that it takes a longer
time, more material and labour, if we do not initially plan our course of action in
some detail. An experienced person would embark on even a small project, with
some minimum amount of pre-planning, even if the product/artefact happens to
be needed very urgently. If the pre-planning, design and any relevant notes are
recorded on paper, we find that it helps us to trace the cause of any problems
and make improvements the next time.

The process of design has been formalized over a period of time based on the
research and experience built up; this helps to avoid common mistakes. The
planning process itself or Plan of Work, has also been formalized, and would
generally include various stages from the initial feasibility studies to detail
design. These stages have to be adapted to suit the project requirements of
time, cost and quality. They help to establish consultants’ and client’s
requirements, time period and project planning. An example of a plan of work is
included at the end of this session.

It is now mandatory in many countries to present formal calculations for almost

all buildings. The consequences of failure of a building are critical. It is therefore
also necessary in many countries for the calculations to be checked with regard
to principles and method, by an independent engineer. In case there is a failure,
collapse or unexpected damage from natural causes, the calculations would help
to determine whether the design was inadequate or the construction
unsatisfactory. The calculations also help to check the possibility of a change of
use or introduction of a change of load.

1
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 21

Loads

Static loads Dynamic loads

Dead loads Live loads Forces due

from to
occupancy, settlement, Wind
Loads Loads Impact
water, thermal
due to arising from loads
earth, effects,
Wind earthquakes ex.
snow etc. residual
blast
stresses
etc.

Fig 21.1 – Types of Loading

Fig.21.2 Simply supported beam with maximum dead and live

load

Live load
shown thus:
Fig. 21.1 Types of loads

A B C
(a) Loads for max. sagging moment in AB Dead load
shown thus:

A B C

(b) Loads for max. sagging moment in BC

A B C

(c) Loads for max. hogging moment at B

Fig. 21.3. Live Load arrangements to be considered for 2 span

beam

2
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 21

The structural engineer takes the responsibility for the safety, serviceability,
durability and all aspects related to the structural performance of the structure.
The basic requirements of a structure are that:
• it should be able to carry the required loads safely and satisfactorily;
• it should be stable and robust; (i.e. a small accident or minor misuse should
not cause a disproportionate or large amount of damage.
• there should not be any undesirable amount of deflection, cracking or
movement when the structure is in use or caused by external conditions.
Deflection in structures, or cracking in a concrete structure cannot be avoided
completely; however, the amount of deflection or cracking has to be
controlled. The magnitude that would be acceptable would vary depending on
the type of structure and the applied finishes.
• the structure should be adequately durable and survive for an agreed life time
without significant deterioration;
• different standards of safety and resistance to fire are required by different
types of buildings.

A structure has to be analysed and designed, and analysis requires knowledge of

the loads acting and applied to the structure.

21.1.1 Design Loads

We said that a structure has to safely and satisfactorily carry the loads that may
act on it. We have also said earlier, that loads may be classified as dead, live (i.e.
imposed) loads, as well as wind loads, possible earthquake loads, thermal
stresses, settlement effects etc See fig. 21.1.

We should remember that civil and structural design involves dealing with loads
and forces far greater than we can experience directly as human beings and
engineers have had to devise various ways of representing the real world.

Dead loads are fixed in position and direction and are mainly due to the self-
weight of the structure and finishes. Dead loads of structural components, roof
and other cladding, finishes etc. may be calculated using unit density of the
relevant materials.

Live loads depend on the position and direction of the applied loads. Hence, we
have to consider various combinations and positions of the live loads and
determine the combinations that cause the most critical or adverse effects on the
structure; see examples in fig. 21.2, 21.3.

The magnitude of the Imposed or Live Load depends on usage; i.e. whether the
building is a house or an office; even within an office building, the design load
allowed on the floor of a filing room could be more than the design load required
in toilets or even the actual offices. We also need to consider whether the office
may be used for parties or other purposes and whether the loads could then be
significantly more. This aspect may have to be clarified with the client and the
users of the building.

3
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 21

We generally refer to the BS 6399 Part 1 for guidance on the magnitude of live
loads to be allowed in design, for each type of use. There would generally be
additional costs involved if flexibility of use involves higher loads.

We refer to the loads used in the design as the design loads; these are the dead,
live, or wind loads that are anticipated to act on the structure during its design
life. For example, for a building designed as a residential building, the design
loads would correspond to its use for residential purposes; the design load would
not normally allow it to be used for storage purposes.

Wind loads have to be taken into account when analyzing a structure or element
for critical load conditions. We use the BSCP3: Chapt. V: Part 2 for guidance on
the parameters used for calculating wind loads. The Basic Wind Velocities to be
used for structures in Sri Lanka are based on the Design Manual published by
the Ministry of Housing & Construction in 1980. We discuss wind loads later.

21.2 Alternative solutions

At the conceptual planning stage, the materials and form of the structure are
selected after taking into account the following factors:
 Location of the structure and environmental conditions;
 Site and foundation conditions;
 Weather conditions likely during construction;
 Availability of materials;
 Location and reliability of fabricators;
 Transport of materials and fabricated elements to site;
 Availability and quality of labour for construction;
 Degree of supervision needed for construction;
 Aesthetics
 Required protection against corrosion and fire;
 Likelihood of damage or failure due to fatigue or brittle fracture;
 Possibility of accidental damage;
 Maintenance required after completion of structure;
 Possibility of demolition in the future
 Environmental and Sustainability aspects

There would be number of design solutions for any problem, and the design
solution chosen thus depends on a number of factors, depending on the context.
In steel structures for example, corrosion is a major consideration for buildings
especially along the coast; however, if a steel structure is required because of
time limitations or ease of handling and cannot be avoided, the structure would
need to be protected from corrosion to suit the life expected.

Let us consider another example to illustrate the alternatives that could be

considered. The roof structure itself may be provided in numerous different ways:

• large span steel roof trusses and secondary steel or timber members such as
in many institutional buildings in Sri Lanka;

4
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 21

• small or medium span timber roof structures and the other supporting
members of timber as in many houses and smaller institutional buildings
especially of an earlier era, when timber of good quality was easily available
and affordable;
• concrete framed roofs preferred for particular structures .
• steel or concrete portals as in many factories;
• large span steel framed arches or concrete shells as in aircraft hangars;
• a concrete flat roof with or without access or a roof garden;
• a concrete shell roof.

It can also be seen that the type of roof structure would be influenced by, and
also influence the type of building of which it is a part. The choice of materials,
finishes, shape and layout of the structure are all interlinked.

Hence, it becomes clear that any brief can be met in a number of ways since the
materials used and the form of the structure could be varied. However, the
solution that meets the client’s and users’ expectations and is the most cost-
effective should be chosen. Hence, the alternative design solutions should
always be explored before one selects a particular system or methods of
designing the structure.

21.3 Summary

We discussed the principal aims of structural design and basic factors that need
to be taken into account in design. It is necessary that alternative designs be
taken into consideration and evaluated based on structural performance, life,
maintenance, re-use (sustainability & environmental impact), aesthetics and
choice of material(s) of construction, fabrication & erection.

We briefly discussed the need for formal design calculations and the evolution of
Design Standards. The steel design we will consider at this stage will be based
on the BS 449 and for timber we will refer to BS 5268.

Objectives

At the end of this session, you should be able

 to explain the need for formal calculations and design standards.
 the type of loads taken into account in design
 the need to consider alternative arrangements of live load.
 the need to consider alternative solutions and criteria before
selecting the most suitable design.

5
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 21

REFERENCES
1. MacGinley T J & Choo B S: Reinforced Concrete, Design Theory &
Examples 2nd edition, E & F N Spon 1990
2. Handbook to British Standard BS 8110:1985 – Structural Use of Concrete
1987
3. Kong F K & Evans R H – Reinforced and Prestressed Concrete, 2nd
edition
4. Schodek Daniel L – Structures, Harvard, Prentice Hall, 4th edition, 2000
5. Heyman Jacques – Elements of the theory of Structures, Cambridge
University press, 1996
6. The Open University of Sri Lanka, - CED2201Theory & Design of
Structures II, 1995
7. Addis, William – Introduction, Studies in the History of civil Engineering,
vol.12, Ashgate Publishing Ltd. 1999
8. MacGinley, T J – Steel Structures, 2nd ed., E & FN Spon, 1998

6
 CVX3441: Block 2 – Session 22

Session 22: STEEL DESIGN

We discussed the main aims of structural design briefly in the previous

session. It would be easier to appreciate detailed discussions about design
only after we have some experience in actual design of structures. The main
structural design studied in this course will be for a steel truss; we study this
in relation to the elastic method of design, based on the British Standard
BS449: Part 2: 1969 incorporating amendments up to December 1995. In this
session, we will discuss the basis of this design method.

Let us first note the behaviour and properties of steel relevant to structural
design; we have discussed the properties of steel in detail in previous courses
and will therefore only note the relevant properties.

22.1 Behaviour of structural steel

Let us consider a steel specimen tested in tension.

The behaviour of steel when it is first loaded is much closer to true elastic
behaviour than that of other structural materials. Fig.2.1 shows the stress-
strain characteristics of structural steel; in the elastic region, the slope of the
graph is practically constant with a Young’s Modulus of Elasticity E of
approximately 200000 N/mm2. This holds true until the material reaches its
proportional limit.

Beyond the proportional limit, steel continues to carry increasing load but with
more deformation than in the elastic range. This takes place over a relatively
small range of stress, until it reaches the yield point.
At the yield point, the steel deforms at a constant stress.
Beyond the yield point, the steel becomes plastic and undergoes large
deformations at relatively constant stress level.

However, as the deformations increase, the steel begins to be able to carry

small additional loads until it reaches the maximum stress that it can carry;
this is the ultimate strength of the material. After this level is reached, the
steel deforms extremely rapidly, reduces in cross-sectional area and finally
pulls apart or ruptures.

Design of structural steel members as we consider in this course, is based on

this ductile property of steel.

22.2 The importance of Ductility

Let us now consider the behaviour of a beam under increasing load, to clearly
understand why the ductility is important.

We design a beam so that when it is loaded with the worst anticipated load
arrangements, the maximum stresses in it would remain within the elastic
range. We achieve this by choosing beam sizes such that the maximum
design stresses that are allowed in the beam due to the worst anticipated load
combinations, are less than or equal to, the permissible stresses. The
permissible stresses specified by the BS are less than the yield stress.

7
 CVX3441: Block 2 – Session 22

We also calculate the maximum deflections of the beam for these loads.
Design procedures require that maximum deflections are suitably limited and
not obviously visible to the naked eye.

Fig.22.1 Stress-strain graph for structural steel

8
 CVX3441: Block 2 – Session 22

Hence, if the actual loads on the beam exceed the anticipated worst loads,
the flexural stresses and strains would increase beyond the stresses and
deflections allowed in the design.

As applied loads are increased to more than the design loads, the stresses
and strains would also increase until the yield point is reached. After this, the
beam would undergo large strains and begin to deflect visibly. However, the
plastic behaviour of steel allows a slight increase in its load carrying capacity;
this provides reserve strength so that the beam would not fail immediately.
The large deflections that take place after yield point is reached, give warning
of impending failure.

The beam would be able to carry a slight increase in load due to the
increased stresses possible before the ultimate strength is reached, even
though deflections would be large and not acceptable. The beam would fail
only after ultimate strength is reached. Hence, a beam designed on the basis
of the permissible or allowable stresses and deflections would generally have
a significant reserve load carrying capacity.

The ductile or plastic behaviour is therefore a desirable property in structural

materials. The behaviour of a steel member in the plastic range offers reserve
strength and the large deflections provide a warning against failure at ultimate
strength.

22.3 Structural Steel

In design based on the British Standard BS 449: ‘The Use of structural Steel
in Building’, we assume that all the structural components, and the complete
structure act elastically and therefore recover their original state if the loads
are removed before any component reaches the yield point.
BS 449: Part 2: 1969 is applicable only to steel complying with grade 43, 50
and 55 of BS 4360: ‘Weldable structural steels’. Hot-rolled Mild steel and High
Yield steels are acceptable for design based on BS 449.

Structural steel members are manufactured in various ways:

Universal beams and columns and common sections are of hot-rolled steel.
Light-weight sections of cold-rolled steel are manufactured for use as purlins
etc. but are not much used in this country.

22.4 Design procedure

In analysing the structure, we consider it loaded with the ‘working loads’,

i.e. the maximum loads to which it would be subjected to, during its life.
We carry out elastic analysis, and combine the various load cases by
superposition, in order to derive the most critical member-forces for design.

22.4.1 Permissible stresses used in elastic design method

In design based on elastic theory, we use permissible stresses to determine

the member sections. The members are selected and detailed so that the
actual stresses caused by the working (i.e. actual) loads do not exceed the
permissible stresses at any point in the structure.
actual total tensile load
For example, the actual stress in a tension member = .
area of cross section

9
 CVX3441: Block 2 – Session 22

yield stress
The permissible stress in tension = .
factor of safety
The actual stress is ensured to not exceed the permissible stress and thus
incorporates a factor of safety on the yield stress.
The factor of safety incorporates an allowance for possible variation in
material strengths and loads, and inaccuracies in fabrication, to ensure a safe
design.

The permissible stress in compression includes a reduction on that allowed

for tension. This is to avoid the buckling of the compression member, a
phenomenon we discussed in Unit 1.
The permissible stress in compression, is dependent on the various critical
aspects of the slenderness of the member, and is adjusted to avoid instability
due to buckling. The permissible compressive stresses have been
appropriately reduced to allow for the possibility of buckling of slender
compression members, unsupported compression flanges of slender beams,
deep webs etc. Hence,
elastic critical buckling stress
Permissible stress where stability is critical =
factor of safety

The permissible flexural stresses are also adjusted similarly. The permissible
compressive flexural stress is also less than the permissible flexural tensile
stress, in order to avoid possible instability due to flexural compression.

22.4.2 The Factor of safety

The factor of safety used in elastic design methods, as in BS 449, takes

account of the following:
 Variations in the strength of the material
 Inaccuracies in fabrication
 Possible overloads
However, no factor of safety allows for erroneous calculations, design or
fabrications.

22.4.3 Stresses due to wind forces

BS 449 allows an increase in the permissible stresses when the increase in

the stress arises from wind forces only.
Consider a member which is satisfactory with regard to the allowable stresses
arising from dead and imposed loads; clause 13 states that the allowable
stresses may be exceeded by 25 % if the excess stress is solely due to wind
forces.

22.5 Other considerations in Design

22.5.2 Deflections

 span 
The B the limit   . This ensures that any deflection that takes place will
 360 
not affect the strength and efficiency of the structure and does not cause
damage to finishes and partitions. In special structures, it may become
necessary to limit deflections further.

10
 CVX3441: Block 2 – Session 22

22.5.3 Corrosion of steel

Steel is very susceptible to corrosion which is an electrochemical process

where iron is oxidized in the presence of air, water and other chemicals and
pollutants. It is necessary to protect steelwork against corrosion because
corrosion is progressive and leads to loss of serviceability and eventual
failure.

Minimum thickness of metal

The BS 449 clause 12 recommends a minimum thickness of steel for

members except those for which special protection against corrosion is
provided.

1. Generally the minimum thickness of all steel, except sealed tubes and
sealed box sections, shall be as follows:
 for external construction exposed to the weather or other
corrosive influences, steel should not be less than 8 mm thick
 for construction not so exposed, the steel should not be less
than 6 mm thick.
The webs of the BS rolled steel joists (RSJ) and channels do not need
to satisfy this requirement.

2. The minimum thickness of Sealed tubes and Sealed box sections

shall be as follows:
 not thinner than 4 mm for external construction exposed to the
weather;
 not thinner than 3mm in construction not so exposed.

Corrosion protection

The BS 5493 provides a guide to the corrosion protection system that may be
most suitable for a structure. The system is selected depending on
 the degree of internal or external exposure,
 the type of environment, chemicals, including humidity, to which it
would be exposed,
 the frequency of maintenance envisaged
 the life required of the structure.

For each system, the BS5493 system specifies the following:

- surface preparation
- degree of/quality of cleanliness
- desirable surface profile.

22.5.4 Fire Protection

Structural steelwork performs badly in a fire. The temperature during a fire

may exceed about 1000°C whereas the critical temperature for steel is about
550°C.

The fire resistance required depends on the type and height of a building, its
contents, and whether a fire extinguishing system is provided. The protection
required for a member depends on its type and location.

11
 CVX3441: Block 2 – Session 22

The means of protection and control of fire damage are:

i) early detection by smoke and heat detectors or manual sighting,
followed by the extinguishing of the fire by automatic sprinklers, or
use of fire extinguishers.
ii) Containment of the fire by provision of fire walls, so that the
building is divided into fire resistant compartments, preventing
spread of fire and smoke and provision of escape routes of
specified fire resistance.
iii) Fire protection for the loadbearing structural components to ensure
that the escape routed are operable for a specified length of time,
and/or the fire extinguished, and that the building can be repaired.

Methods ii) and iii) have to be taken account of in the design process of all
steel structures. However, these may not be mandatory for some single
storied and some industrial buildings.

22.6 Summary

We discussed the basis for design according to BS 449, which provides

recommendations for the elastic design method for structural steel.

Objectives

At the end of this session, you should be aware of the

 importance of ductility in structural steel design
 the relevance of the factor of safety incorporated in the
permissible stresses
 the need to limit deflections
 the necessity for reduced values of permissible stresses for
direct or flexural compression
 the factors taken into account in the corrosion protection and
fire protection of steel structures.

References

1. MacGinley, T J – Steel Structures, E & FN Spon, 2nd ed., 1998

2. Schodek Daniel L – Structures, Harvard, Prentice Hall, 4th edition,
2000
3. BS 449: Part 2: 1969 incorporating amendments to 1995.

12
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 23

Session 23: DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS

23.0 Introduction

All the design calculations in this course will be based on BS 449: Part 2:
1969 incorporating amendments issued up to 1995.
The BS 449 will be referred to as the BS in these sessions dealing with steel
design. Only clauses, design tables and sectional properties of steel sections,
relevant to this stage of our studies are included in this unit.
We commence our study with design of simple axially loaded members. The
design calculations are based on the assumptions made for analysis of pin-
jointed trusses discussed in Unit 21 of this course, with necessary
modifications to take account of the constructional details. Only the main
considerations required in design are discussed in these sessions.

Please note that actual design should be only carried out with full reference to
BS449: Part 2.

23.1 Design of tension members

The main recommendations for design of tension members are given in

section D of chapter 4 of the BS, in clauses 41 and 42.
The BS Table 19 gives the allowable stresses pt in axial tension.

When a structural member is subjected to a tensile force T, its cross section

would be under a design tensile stress f t given by
T
ft  -(23.1), where
An

An is the net area of cross section of the member.

The member would be adequate with regard to the stresses if
f t ≤ pt..
Note that we refer the net area of cross section An for the design tensile
stress. This is because, for example, we have to take account of reductions in
the area of cross section due to bolt holes, if any, at connection points.

The BS requires computation of the net area of section of a tension member

to take account of two factors:
 Holes for bolts or rivets used for connection
 Eccentricity of connection

Let us consider each of these.

23.1.1 The net area of cross section

Bolt holes
The ends of a member may be connected to the main structure by bolts,
rivets or welds. The least area of cross-section of a member is at the point of
connection if either bolts or rivets are used. The area deducted from the cross
sectional area of the member would be the area of the bolt holes at a section;
the area per bolt hole is slightly larger.

13
CEX3231 Unit 2: Session 23

Table 19 — Allowable stress pt in axial tension

Pt
Form Grade Thickness

mm N/mm2
Sections, bars, 43 # 40 170
plates, wide over 40 but # 100 155
flats and hot 50 # 63 215
rolled hollow over 63 but # 100 200
sections 55 # 25 265

a) Eccentric connections. When eccentricity of loading occurs in connections

of angles and tees in tension, the net areas to be used in computing the mean
tensile stress shall be as given by the following rules:
1) Single angles connected through one leg, channel sections connected through
the web and T-sections connected only through the flange. To the net sectional
area of the connected leg, add the sectional area of the unconnected leg
multiplied by:
3a1
----------------------
3a1 + a2

where a1 = the sectional area of the connected leg.

a2 = the sectional area of the unconnected leg.
Where lug angles are used, the net sectional area of the whole of the angle member
shall be taken.
2) A pair of angles, channels or T-sections, connected together along their
length, when attached to the same side of a gusset for the equivalent by only
one leg of each component:
i) in contact or separated, by a distance not exceeding the aggregate thickness
of the connected parts, with solid packing pieces.
ii) connected by bolts or welding as specified in Subclauses 51 e) or 54 g) so that
the maximum ratio of slenderness of each member between connections is not greater
than 80.
To the net sectional area of the connected part, add the sectional area of
the unconnected part multiplied by:
5a1
----------------------
5a1 + a2

where a1 = the net sectional area of the

connected part.
a2 = the sectional area of the
unconnected part.
Where the components are widely spaced, this rule does not apply, and the
member shall be specially designed.

14
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 23

The bolt hole is slightly larger, usually 2 mm more, than the actual diameter of
the bolts as seen in the examples given in this session.

23.1.2 Eccentricity of connection

In the analysis of pin-jointed trusses we assumed that all members of the

truss lie in one plane, and that the frictionless pin joints are located at the
centroidal axis of the members. This is not generally true, especially when
sections such as angles, tees or channels are used.

When angles and tee-section members are connected eccentrically to the line
of action of the loads, the BS clause 42 takes the eccentricity of connection
into account by modifying the effective net area of cross section.

Let us first note the following calculations of area of a leg as given in the BS:

• [the area of the leg of an angle]

= [the thickness] x [[the length from the outer corner] – [half the thickness]]

• [the area of the leg of a tee] = [thickness] x [[depth] - [thickness of the table]]

The eccentricity of connection may be ignored, if the net area of cross section
is calculated according to Clause 42. The example given below shows such a
calculation.

23.1.3 Connection of two sections

In tension members composed of two flats, angles, channels or tees in

contact back to back, or back to back but separated by a distance (t) not
exceeding the aggregate thickness of the connected parts ( i.e. t ≤ t1+t2), the
steel sections should be connected along their length by one of the following
two methods:

(i) as specified in Clause 51 e, tacking rivets or tacking rivets with

solid distance pieces in the case where the parts are separated,
should be provided to connect at a pitch in line (i.e. spacing
between adjacent tacking rivets in line), not exceeding 1000 mm.
(ii) as per Clause 54 g, intermittent welds not subject to calculated
stress, shall be provided without or with distance pieces
respectively, to connect the two parts together along both pairs of
edges; the pitch of the effective lengths of welds, centre-to-centre,
should not exceed 1000 mm in line whether they are opposite or
staggered in respect of the two edges.
However, in tension members, intermittent welds shall not be used where
they would result in the formation of rust pockets.

Example 23.1 A single - angle member connected through one leg, carries a
force of 130 kN. Design the section assuming that the angle is
connected at each end using 10 mm diameter bolts in line with
gussets.

The properties of various sections are given in the Appendix.

Try an equal angle section 70x70x8 of grade 43.

15
 CEX3231 Unit 2: Session 23

UNCONNECTED
LEG
END CONNECTION TO
GUSSET PLATE WITH
10mm DIAMETER BOLTS.
CONNECTED
LEG
7.8mm (THICKNESS OF LEG)

12mm
(DIAMETER OF BOLT HOLE)

Fig. 23.1

A = 1070 mm2
1070
Since it is an equal angle, the sectional area of each leg =  535 mm2
2
Reference clause 42 a 1.

a2 = sectional area of unconnected leg = 535 mm2

a1 = net sectional area of the connected leg allowing for one bolt hole at a
section = 535 – (10+2)x8
= 439 mm2.
3a1
Hence, net area as defined in clause 42 = a1  a2
3a1  a 2

= 819 mm2
130000
Tensile stress f t =
819
= 158.7 N/mm2

From table 19, allowable stress pt = 170 N/mm2 > f t

Therefore the section chosen is adequate.

SAQ 1 A single angle 90 x 90 x 8 is connected to gussets at each end, with

12 mm bolts in line. Determine the maximum tensile force it can carry.

16
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 23

23.2 Design of compression members

The main recommendations for the design of compression members are

given in section C of chapter 4 of BS 449.

Compressive stresses

When a structural member is subjected to an axially applied compressive

force C, its cross section would be under a compressive stress f c given by
C
fc  - (23.2), where
A
A is the area of cross section of the member.
The stress would be acceptable if f c ≤ p c .

The permissible stress in compression depends on the slenderness ratio of

the member as we know from discussions in Unit 1 of this course regarding
the tendency of a compression member to buckle under load. The permissible
stresses pc are given in terms of the slenderness ratio in BS Tables 17 for the
various grades of steel.
le
The slenderness ratio is defined as where
r
l e is the effective length and
r is the appropriate radius of gyration of the section.

Radii of gyration for various steel sections are given in the tabulated
properties of the sections and the appropriate one would have to be used.

Fig. 23.2 Effective lengths for various end conditions

17
CEX3231 Unit 2: Session 23

23.2.1 Effective length of a compression member

From our earlier discussions we also know that the effective length of a
compression member depends on its end connections (fig.3.2). In clause 31,
the BS recommends the effective length to be taken as follows, taking
L = length of the strut from centre to centre of intersections with supporting members:

1. Effectively held in position and restrained in direction at both ends l e = 0.7 L

2. Effectively held in position at both ends and restrained in direction at one end
l e = 0.85L

3. Effectively held in position at both ends but not restrained in direction l e = L

4. Effectively held in position and restrained in direction at one end, and at the other
partially restrained in direction but not held in position l e = 1.5L

5. Effectively held in position and restrained in direction at one end, but not held in
position or restrained in direction at the other end. l e = 2.0L
Note:
1. We will not discuss the effective lengths of other members such as
stanchions in this course. Reference may be made to the BS 449
regarding these.
2. We will also not consider cased struts in this course.
Cased struts are struts of single I section or of two channels back to back in contact
or spaced apart, battened or laced and the strut unpainted and solidly encased in
concrete all as described in clause 30 b of the BS.

23.2.2 Maximum slenderness ratio

The slenderness ratio, (i.e. ratio of effective length or length centre-to-centre

of connections, to the appropriate radius of gyration), is limited by the BS as
given below.

For struts, clause 33 states that:

• the slenderness ratio of a strut carrying dead loads with or without live
loads, should not exceed 180;

• the slenderness ratio of a strut carrying loads arising from wind forces,
should not exceed 250, provided that the deformation of such member
does not cause an increase of stress beyond the permissible stress in any
part of the structure;

In roof trusses, clause 44 a) states that:

• the slenderness ratio of a member normally acting as a tie in a roof truss,
but subject to reversal of stress due to the action of wind, should not
exceed 350.

18
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 23

23.2.3 Angles as struts

The computation of the slenderness ratio of angle members is affected by

eccentricity in the connection. Clause 30 c defines an effective slenderness
ratio for various angle struts to compensate for the eccentricity of the
connection and allow the tabulated values to be used.
Clause 30 c (i) considers the case of a single angle strut connected to
gussets, or to another section, either by riveting or bolting, with not less
than two rivets or bolts in line along the angle at each end, or by their
equivalent in welding. It states that the eccentricity of the connection with
respect to the centroid of a single angle strut may be ignored and the strut
designed as an axially loaded member. The calculated average stress
f c should be ≤ p c , where the allowable stress p c is based on the largest
of the slenderness values given below:
Lvv L
a). 0.85 but  0.7 vv  15
rvv rvv
L L
b) 1.0 aa but  0.7 aa  30
raa raa
L L
c) 0.85 bb but  0.7 bb  30
rbb rbb
Lvv L
Note: a) for example, may be taken as 0.85 but  0.7 vv  15 and so on.
rvv rvv
.
The axes are defined in the BS Table 18.
The length of L shall be taken as the distance between the intersections of
the centroidal axes or the intersections of the setting out lines of the rivets
or bolts. Any intermediate lateral restraints shall be taken into account in
determining L about the relevant axis.
r is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis.

BS Table 18 in addition specifies the slenderness ratios to be taken for

single angle struts with single bolted or riveted connections, and
double angle discontinuous struts back to back connected to both sides of a
gusset or one side of the gusset, and is copied below.

We must note that clause 30 c is not to be applied to continuous angle struts

such as those forming the rafters of trusses, the flanges of trussed girders or
the legs of towers, which should be designed in accordance with clause 26
and table 17.

23.2.4 Connection of compression members composed of two

components back to back

Consider the connection of compression members composed of two angles,

or two channels or two tees, back to back in contact or separated by a small
distance.
For composite action, clause 37 states that the two components should be
connected together along their length by riveting, bolting or welding so that
the maximum ratio of slenderness l/r of each member between connections is
not greater than the lesser of the following two values:

19
CEX3231 Unit 2: Session 23

40 or 0.6 x [the most unfavourable ratio of the strut as a whole].

c) Angles as struts. i) For single-angle struts connected to gussets or to a

section either by riveting or bolting by not less than two rivets or bolts in line
along the angle at each end, or by their equivalent in welding, the eccentricity of
the connection with respect to the centroid of the strut may be ignored and the
strut designed as an axially-loaded member provided that the calculated
average stress does not exceed the allowable stresses given in Table 17, in
which l/r is taken as the greatest of:
1) 0.85Lvv/rvv but $ 0.7Lvv/rvv + 15
2) 1.0Laa/raa but $ 0.7Laa/raa + 30
3) 0.85Lbb/rbb but $ 0.7Lbb/rbb + 30

20
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 23

The length of L shall be taken as the distance between the intersections of

centroidal axes or the intersections of the setting out lines of the rivets or bolts
and r is the radius of gyration about the relevant axis. Axes are defined in Table
18.
Intermediate lateral restraints shall be allowed for in determining the length L
for buckling about the relevant axis.
Single angle struts with single-bolted or riveted connections shall be treated
similarly, but the ratio of slenderness l/r shall not exceed 180. The calculated
stress for such single angle struts shall not exceed 80 per cent of the values given
in Table 17 and l/r shall be taken as the greatest of:
1) 1.0Lvv/rvv but $ 0.7Lvv/rvv + 15
2) 1.0Laa/raa but $ 0.7Laa/raa + 30
3) 1.0Lbb/rbb but $ 0.7Lbb/rbb + 30

ii) For double angle discontinuous struts, back-to-back connected to both sides of
a gusset or section by not less than two bolts or rivets in line along the angles at
each end, or by the equivalent in welding, the load may be regarded as applied
axially. The angles shall be connected together in their length so as to satisfy the
requirements of Clause 37. The calculated average stress shall not exceed the
values obtained from Table 17 for ratio of slenderness l/r taken as the greater of:

1)
2) 1.0Lyy/ryy + 10
iii) Double angle discontinuous struts back to back, connected to one side of a
gusset or section by one or more bolts or rivets in each angle, or by the equivalent
in welding, may be regarded as axially-loaded. The angles shall be connected
together in their length so as to satisfy the requirements of Clause 37. The
calculated average stress shall not exceed the values obtained from Table 17 for a
ratio of slenderness l/r taken as the greater of:

1)

2)

iv) The provisions in this clause are not intended to apply to continuous angle
struts such as those forming the rafters of trusses, the flanges of trussed girders,
or the legs of towers, which shall be designed in accordance with Clause 26 and
Table 17.

21
CEX3231 Unit 2: Session 23

The ends of the strut should always be connected together with two or more
rivets or bolts or their equivalent in welding and there should be at least two
additional connections spaced equidistant in the length of the strut.
In the case of members separated back-to- back, the rivets or bolts through
these connections should pass through solid washers or packings22.

The spacing of rivets, bolts or intermittent welds should not exceed the
maximum spacing for compression members given in clauses 51e (i) and
54c.

Example 23.2 Design a suitable section for a single angle

discontinuous strut with double riveted connections, having a
length of 2.4 m between intersections, to take up a
compression of 34 kN.

The length of the member between intersections = L = 2400 mm.

Try a 70x70x 8 equal angle of grade 43 steel.

34000
Actual stress = f c =
1070
= 31.8 N/mm2
To determine the permissible stress, consider the effective slenderness ratio:
From clause 30c (i),
Lvv  2400 
a) 0.85 = 0.85  = 148.9
rvv  13.7 

Lvv  2400 
which is > ( 0.7  15 )= 0.7   15 i.e. 137.6
rvv  13.7 
Laa 2400
for b) 1.0 = = 113.2
raa 21.2

Laa
but  0.7  30 = 109.2
raa

Lbb
for c) 0.85 = 96.2
rbb
Lbb
but  0.7  30 = 109.2
rbb

Hence, the effective slenderness ratio = 149 which is acceptable being

less than 180
From table 17a, p c = 42 N/mm2
Since f c = 31.8 < 42 the section selected is adequate.

SAQ 1 Discuss the buckling of a single angle strut in relation to the major and
minor axes, and the axes about which the radii of gyration is maximum
or minimum.

22
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 23

Example 23.3 Determine the section size of a double angle discontinuous

strut, connected back-to-back to both sides of an 8 mm thick
gusset, with not less than two rivets in line, if the member has
length of 3 m between intersections and has to carry a load of
100 kN.

Try the two angles 65x50x6 of grade 43 steel connected as

indicated.
rxx = rxx of singe angle = 14.6 mm
 
27.4  10    659  20.4  82 
2
4 
   
ryy = =31.8 mm
659
y

Ref. clause 30 c (ii), effective slenderness ratio would be the greater of:
Lxx 0.85  3000
0.85 = =175
rxx 14.6

Lxx
but not less than 0.7  30 = 144+30 = 174
rxx

L yy 1.00  3000
or 1.00 +10 = + 10 = 104
ryy 31.8
Hence effective slenderness ratio = 175 < 180 so acceptable. But,
now consider the two angles connected as shown below:
rxx = rxx of singe angle = 20.4 mm
 8  
 
2
 
14.1  10  659  13.0  
4
  2  
ryy =  = 22.43 mm
659
Ref. clause 30 c (ii), effective slenderness ratio would be the greater of:
Lxx 0.85  3000
0.85 = =125
rxx 20.4
L
but not less than 0.7 xx  30 = 102.9+30 = 132.9
rxx
L yy 1.00  3000
or 1.00 +10 = + 10 = 143.8
ryy 22.43

Effective slenderness ratio for this arrangement is144.

Hence this arrangement is more effective than the first as would be obvious.

Taking the value from the second case, ref. table 17a,
for slenderness ratio = 144, p c = 45 N/mm2

23
CEX3231 Unit 2: Session 23

100000
Since f c = =75.8 > 45 this is not satisfactory.
2  659
Let us now try two angles 100x65x8 of grade 43 steel connected as indicated.

rxx = rxx of singe angle = 31.7 mm

 
42.3  10   1270 15.6  82 
2
4 
   
ryy = =26.78 mm
1270
Lxx
0.85 = 80.4
rxx
Lxx
but not less than 0.7  30 = 66.3+30 = 96.3
rxx
L yy
or 1.00 +10 = 122
ryy

Hence effective slenderness ratio = 122

ref. table 17a, p c = 60 N/mm2
100000
Since f c = =39.4 < 60, the section is satisfactory.
2  1270

SAQ 2 Determine the lightest section that would be adequate for the above
problem.

SAQ 3 Determine the shallowest section that would be adequate for the
above problem.

23.4 Summary

We have considered the main aspects in selection of steel members in pure

tension or compression. We also noted some of the requirements for
connecting double sections to act compositely.

Objectives

You should be able to understand the sample calculations given and carry out
similar calculations, and be able to explain the reasons underlying each step.

References

1. BS 449:Part 2: 1969 incorporating amendments up to Nov.1995.

2. Steel Designers’ Manual - 5th ed
3. Inst. Of Structural Engineers & The Institution of Civil Engineers -
Manual for the design of steelwork building structures, 1989.
4. MacGinley T J & Ang T C – Structural Steelwork Design to Limit State
theory, 2nd ed., 1993

24
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 23

Table 17a — Allowable stress pc on gross section for axial compression

l/r pc (N/mm2) for grade 43 steel

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 170 169 169 168 168 167 167 166 166 165
10 165 164 164 163 163 162 162 161 160 160
20 159 159 158 158 157 157 156 156 155 155
30 154 154 153 153 153 152 152 151 151 150

40 150 149 149 148 148 147 146 146 145 144
50 144 143 142 141 140 139 139 138 137 136
60 135 134 133 131 130 129 128 127 126 124
70 123 122 120 119 118 116 115 114 112 111

80 109 108 107 105 104 102 101 100 98 97

90 95 94 93 91 90 89 87 86 85 84
100 82 81 80 79 78 77 75 74 73 72
110 71 70 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62

120 62 61 60 59 58 57 57 56 55 54
130 54 53 52 51 51 50 49 49 48 47
140 47 46 46 45 45 44 43 43 42 42
150 41 41 40 40 39 39 38 38 38 37

160 37 36 36 35 35 35 34 34 33 33
170 33 32 32 32 31 31 31 30 30 30
180 29 29 29 28 28 28 28 27 27 27
190 26 26 26 26 25 25 25 25 24 24

200 24 24 24 23 23 23 23 22 22 22
210 22 22 21 21 21 21 21 20 20 20
220 20 20 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 18
230 18 18 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17

240 17 17 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16
250 16 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15 15
300 11 11 11 11 11 11 10 10 10 10
350 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

25
 CEX3231 Unit 2: Session 23

Table 17b — Allowable stress pc on gross section for axial

compression

l/r po (N/mm2) for grade 50 steel

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

0 215 214 214 213 213 212 212 211 211 210
10 210 209 209 208 208 207 207 206 206 203
20 205 204 204 203 203 202 202 201 201 200
30 200 199 199 198 197 197 196 196 195 194
40 193 193 192 191 190 189 188 187 186 185
50 184 183 181 180 179 177 176 174 173 171

60 169 168 166 164 162 160 158 156 154 152
70 150 148 146 144 142 140 138 135 133 131
80 129 127 125 123 121 119 117 115 113 111
90 109 107 106 104 102 100 99 97 95 94
100 92 91 89 88 86 85 84 82 81 80

110 78 77 76 75 74 72 71 70 69 68
120 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 60 60 59
130 58 57 56 55 55 54 53 52 52 51
140 50 50 49 48 48 47 47 46 45 45
150 44 44 43 43 42 42 41 41 40 40

160 39 39 38 38 37 37 36 36 36 35
170 35 34 34 34 33 33 33 32 32 31
180 31 31 30 30 30 30 29 29 29 28
190 28 28 27 27 27 27 26 26 26 26
200 25 25 25 25 24 24 24 24 23 23

210 23 23 23 22 22 22 22 22 21 21
220 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 20 20 19
230 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18 18 18
240 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 17 17 16
250 16

300 11

350 8
Intermediate values may be obtained by linear interpolation.
NOTE For material over 63 mm thick refer to subclause 30 a).

26
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 24

Session 24: DESIGN OF MEMBERS SUBJECT TO BENDING

24.0 Introduction

We now consider basic design aspects of members in flexure. We consider the

design of members to satisfy the permissible bending and shear stresses specified
by the BS 449.

24.1 Effective span of beams

The effective span of a beam is defined in clause 24, as the length between the
centres of the supports, in general. The exception to this is given in the clause.
fbc
24.2 Allowable bending stresses fb
y
We know from beam theory that flexural stress
My
fb  , where
I fbt

f b = stress due to bending in a plane at a distance of y from the neutral axis.

M = the bending moment

I = the second moment of area about the neutral axis, for the cross section.

f bt = tensile bending stress in extreme fibre

f bc = compressive bending stress in extreme fibre

24.1.1 Allowable stresses for Rolled I-beams, Universal beams and columns
and rolled channels.

The BS Clause 19 specifies permissible bending stresses as follows:

1. For parts in tension, the recommended values for the permissible tensile
bending stress, i.e. pbt are given in Table 2.
2. For parts in compression, the permissible compressive bending stress pbc is
influenced by the slenderness of the section and this is taken into consideration
as follows:

A. In general, for bending about the major axis,

the permissible compressive bending stress pbc is obtained from the lesser of
the values given in tables 2 and table 3a, 3b or 3c as appropriate.

B. In the case of beams bending about the major axis with the applied loads
acting mainly within the middle fifth of the unrestrained length, or,
in columns with moments arising from eccentricities specified in clause 34,
the permissible compressive bending stress pbc is obtained from the lesser of
the values given in tables 2 and relevant table 4a, 4b or 4c.
We will not be discussing this case in these sessions.

27
 CVX3441 block 2: Session 24

C.
D.
E.
F. l = 0.75 L l = 0.5 L
G.
H.
I.
J.BS Fig 2a Cantilever built-in at support,
K.restrained against torsion at the end (see 2 in BS Fig.2b Cantilever built-in at support, restrained
Table 13 ) laterally and torsionally at end (see 3 in table 13)

BS Fig 2c Cantilever L1 continuous

at support, unrestrained against
torsion at the support and
unrestrained at the end
(see 4 in Table 13)

BS Fig 2d Cantilever L3
continuous at support, partially
restrained against torsion at the
support and unrestrained at the end
(see 5 in Table 13)

L = the projecting length of

the cantilever beam

l = the effective length to be

used in clause 19a

Values given in the figures

l=L are for loads applied
normally, and NOT on the top
BS fig.2e Cantilever span continuous at support, fully
restrained against torsion at the support and flange
unrestrained at free end (see 6 in Table 13)

Fig. 4.22 Lateral

buckling of top flange
of beam rigidly fixed 28
to end supports
(Schematic)
CVX3441 Block 2: Session 24

29
 CVX3441 block 2: Session 24

C. In the case of beams bending about the minor axis,

the permissible compressive bending stress pbc is obtained from table2.

The values given in tables 3 and 4 are dependent on the following:

l = effective length of the compression flange, as specified in BS clause 26, see
4.3.1 below.
ry = radius of gyration about the minor axis
D = overall depth of beam
area of horizontal portion of flange
T = mean thickness of flange = ;
width of horizontal portion of flange
T is included in the tabulated properties of rolled sections.

• For angles and tees in bending the permissible stresses are recommended in
Clause 19 c.
The permissible bending stresses in the leg for angles and tees when loaded with
the flange or table in compression, should not exceed the value of pbt in table 2.
The permissible compressive bending stress in the leg for angles and tees loaded
with the leg in compression, has to be calculated from clause 20 in which the
values of K2 = -1.0 and T = thickness of leg.

• For tubes and rectangular hollow sections, the permissible stresses are
recommended in Clause 19 d. In tubes and rectangular hollow sections in which
the ratio of depth to breadth is not greater than 4, the permissible bending
stresses pbt and pbc are as given in table 2.

24.3 Maximum slenderness ratio of compression flanges

Clause 25 states that the ratio of effective length l of the compression flange to the
appropriate radius of gyration shall not exceed 300.

Compressive stresses in beams are limited because, in deep slender beams they
could cause lateral (i.e. side ways) buckling of the compression flange, somewhat
similar to buckling of struts, as indicated in fig. 4.2; the lateral buckling causes torsion
and bending perpendicular to the plane of the depth of the beam.

24.3.1 Effective length of the compression flange of beams and girders

The BS Clause 26 recommends values for the effective length of the compression
flange.

In Clause 26 a, for simply supported beams and girders with no lateral restraint to the
compression flange, but where each end of the beam is restrained against torsion,
the effective lengths to be used in clauses 19, 20 and 21 are given as follows:
1. with ends of compression flanges unrestrained against lateral bending (i.e. free
to rotate in plan at the bearings), l = span

2. with ends of compression flanges partially restrained against lateral bending

(i.e. cleated flange connections), l = 0.85 x span

3. with ends of compression flanges fully restrained against lateral bending not
free to rotate in plan at the bearings), l = 0.7 x span (contd. )
30
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 24

Restraint against torsion may be provided by

web or flange cleats,
or
bearing stiffeners acting in conjunction with the bearing of the beam
or
lateral end frames or other external supports to the ends of compression
flanges as explained in the note,
or
their being built into walls.

It is also stated that

 Where the load is applied to the top flange of the beam and both the
load and flange are free to move laterally, the above values of effective length
should be increased by 20 %.
 Where the ends of the beams are not restrained against torsion other
than by fixity or dead bearing of the bottom flange, the effective length shall
be increased by the depth of the beam D for each end not so restrained.

Clause 26b states that for beams which are provided with members having
sufficient strength and stiffness to give lateral restraint to the compression
flange at intervals along the span, in addition to the end torsional restraint
required in a above, the effective length of the compression flange should be
taken as follows:
the maximum distance centre to centre, of the restraint members or 1.2 times
this length in the case of loads applied to the top flange of the beam, if the
load and the flange are free to move laterally.

Clause 26 d and e deal with the strength requirements of the lateral restraints
to the compression flange.

24.4 Shear stresses

The maximum value fq of the shear stress are given in Table10.

Example 24.1 A Universal Beam (UB) 356x171x45 is subjected to a bending

moment of 50 kNm. The length of the beam is 3 m; assume that no lateral
restraint is provided for the compression flange and that the ends are not
restrained against torsion. Check whether the section of grade 43 steel, is
adequate.

From the tabulated properties in the appendix,

zxx = 686x103 mm3
D = 352 mm
T = 9.7 mm
ry = 37.7 mm
M 50  10 6
Ma ximum tensile and compressive stresses fb t = fbc = =
z xx 686000
= 72.9 N/mm2

From table 2 pbt = 180 N/mm2 > fb t which is satisfactory.

31
 CVX3441 block 2: Session 24

Considering the compressive stress

fbc = 72.9 N/mm2
From table 2 pbc = 180 N/mm2, but considering table 3a:
l = effective length of the compression flange
as specified in clause 26
= span + 2D
= 3000+(2x352)
= 3704 mm
l D
Then =98.3 and =36.3 so that from table 3a,
ry T
pbc = 123.4 N/mm2 > f bc viz. 72.9 N/mm2

Hence the UB section is adequate with regard to for flexural stresses.

SAQ 1 Select the smallest or lightest section suitable for the beam in example 4.1, if
the ends of the beam are restrained against torsion.

SAQ 2 Select the smallest or lightest section suitable for the beam in example 4.1, if
lateral restraints are provided for the compression flange at 1 m centres, and
both ends of the beam are restrained against torsion.

24.5 Summary

We discussed the main aspects of design of beams with regard to flexural stresses.
Let us note that there are other factors including the bearing stresses, web buckling
that should be considered before the sections are confirmed as adequate.

Objectives

You should be able to analyse a beam and determine the design moments and
shears, and design the beam with regard to bending stresses.

References

1 BS 449: Part 2: 1969 incorporating amendments up to 1995.

2 Morgan, W - The Elements of Structure

32
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 24

Table 2 — Allowable stress

Form Grade Thickness of material pbcor pbt

Sections, bars, plates, wide flats and hot 43 # 40 180
rolled hollow sections. > 40 but # 100 165
Compound beams composed of rolled
50 # 63 230
sections plated, with thickness of plate. > 63 but # 100 215
Double channel sections forming a
symmetrical I-section which acts as an 55 # 25 280
integral unit.
Plate girders with single or multiple webs 43 # 40 170
> 40 but # 100 155
50 # 63 215
> 63 but # 100 200
55 # 25 265
Slab bases All steels 185

33
 CVX3441 block 2: Session 24

Table 3a — Allowable stress pbc in bending (N/mm2) for case A of Clause 19 a)

2) for grade 43 steel

D/T
l/ry
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

40 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180
45 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180
50 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180 180
55 180 180 180 178 176 175 174 174 173 173
60 180 180 176 172 170 169 168 167 167 166
65 180 180 172 167 164 163 162 161 160 160
70 180 177 167 162 159 157 156 155 154 154
75 180 174 163 157 154 151 150 149 148 147
80 180 171 159 153 148 146 144 143 142 141
85 180 168 156 148 143 140 138 137 136 135
90 180 165 152 144 139 135 133 131 130 129
95 180 162 148 140 134 130 127 125 124 123
100 180 160 145 136 129 125 122 119 118 117
105 180 157 142 132 125 120 116 114 112 111
110 180 155 139 128 120 115 111 108 106 105
115 178 152 136 124 116 110 106 103 101 99
120 177 150 133 120 112 106 101 98 96 95
130 174 146 127 113 104 97 94 91 89 88
140 171 142 121 107 97 92 88 85 83 81
150 168 138 116 100 92 87 82 79 77 75
160 166 134 111 96 88 82 77 74 72 70
170 163 130 106 92 84 77 73 69 67 65
180 161 126 102 89 80 73 69 65 63 60
190 158 123 97 85 76 70 65 61 59 56
200 156 119 95 82 73 66 62 58 55 53
210 154 116 92 79 70 63 58 55 52 50
220 151 113 90 77 67 61 56 52 49 47
230 149 110 87 74 65 58 53 49 47 44
240 147 107 85 72 62 56 51 47 44 42
250 145 104 83 69 60 53 48 45 42 40
260 143 101 80 67 58 51 46 43 40 38
270 141 98 78 65 56 49 45 41 38 36
280 139 96 76 63 54 48 43 39 37 35
290 137 94 75 61 52 46 41 38 35 33
300 135 93 73 60 51 44 40 36 34 32

34
 CVX3441 Block 2: Session 24

D/T
l/ry
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

40 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280
45 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280 280
50 280 280 280 280 278 276 275 275 274 274
55 280 280 276 270 267 265 264 263 262 262
60 280 280 268 261 257 254 252 251 251 250
65 280 275 260 251 246 243 241 240 239 238
70 280 269 252 242 236 233 230 229 227 227
75 280 263 244 233 227 222 219 217 216 215
80 280 258 237 225 217 212 209 206 205 204
85 280 252 230 217 208 202 198 196 194 192
90 280 247 224 209 199 193 188 185 183 181
95 280 242 217 201 190 183 178 175 172 170
100 280 238 211 194 182 174 168 164 161 159
105 277 233 205 186 174 165 159 154 151 148
110 275 229 199 179 166 156 149 144 140 137
115 272 224 194 172 158 147 140 134 130 127
120 269 220 188 166 150 139 131 125 121 119
130 264 212 178 153 135 123 117 113 110 107
140 258 205 168 141 122 113 107 103 99 97
150 253 197 158 130 114 105 99 94 90 88
160 249 190 149 121 107 98 91 86 83 80
170 244 183 140 114 100 91 84 80 76 73
180 239 177 132 108 95 85 79 74 70 68
190 235 170 124 103 89 80 74 69 65 63
200 231 164 119 98 85 76 69 64 61 58
210 227 158 114 94 80 71 65 61 57 54
220 223 152 110 90 77 68 62 57 54 51
230 219 147 106 86 73 65 58 54 51 48
240 215 141 102 83 70 62 56 51 48 45
250 211 136 99 79 67 59 53 49 45 43
260 207 130 96 76 64 56 51 46 43 41
270 204 125 92 74 62 54 48 44 41 39
280 200 121 90 71 60 52 46 42 39 37
290 197 118 87 69 58 50 45 41 38 35
300 193 115 84 67 56 48 43 39 36 34

35
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 25

SESSION 25 – STEEL STRUCTURAL FRAME DESIGN

25.1 – Design Philosophy

The design philosophies are in use

a). Elastic – Here the material is deemed to behave in a linear elastic or Hookean fashion
such that the stresses are kept below the yield by a suitable factor of safety.

b). Plastic – Here the material is deemed to behave according to an idealized stress-
strain curve , where the elastic behavior is ignored and the member assumed to
possess a large rotational capacity at its yield moment. A suitable load factor ,must be
applied to the loads on the structure.

25.2 – Methods of Design for Frames

25.2.1 – Elastic Methods –

Cl. 9b BS 449 lays down three methods that may be used for frame (or member)
design.

1. Simple Design Method

This assumes the beams to be simply supported, that is beam column connection
allows full rotation. The loading applied to the column is vertical shear applied usually
100 mm from the column face. For the stanchion design, the effective length of the
column is established by considering the rotational restraint offered to the column by
the beam and its connection. It will first sight appear that this method is irrational, but it
is usually produces a safe solution, remembering that other design criteria are also
involved, e.g. deflection that all horizontal forces must be taken by suitable bracing.

This method also implies the use of web cleats for the connection in addition to flange
cleats, although this often is not satisfied. Alternative forms of connection will enforce
some transfer of moment from the beam to the stanchion.

Simple design may be thought of as a lower bound method of design. A typical usage of
simple design is in triangulated roof trusses.

2. Rigid Design Method -

This assumes full fixity between the beam and column, i.e. there is no relative rotation
between the beam and the column. This method allows more accurate approach to be
used to establish effective lengths of beams and columns using a similar method that
adopted in reinforced concrete in that effective lengths are calculated from coefficient
which depend on the relative stiffness of the beams and stanchions framing in at a joint,

36
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 25

and also enables e use to be made of plastic design methods, which can lead to greater
economy.

The most effective rigid connection is when the beam is welded directly to the column,
which may however require web stiffeners. This generally means to use the use of site
welding which is not worldwide practice. A less rigid beam-column connection consists
of an end plate welded directly to end of the beam. This end plate is then bolted to the
column as shown in Figure 1.

Rigid design may be thought of as an upper bound method of design.

Figure 25.1 – Column – Beam Joint

3. Semi-rigid Design Method

Here allowance is made for the relative rotation between the beam and column.
This means that the moment –rotation characteristic of the joint detail being used
must be known.If a beam span L with a flexural rigidity of EI carrying a uniformly
distributed load w, is considered, under support moments Ms

Then rotation (θs) due to end moment Ms

θs = 1  wL3 
  M s L
2 EI  12 
The central deflection is then given by

5 wL4 M s L2
c  
384 EI 8EI

The main disadvantage with this method is the need to know this joint
performances and problems will also arises in assessing failure and serviceability
criteria. It is essentially an iterative method.

37
CVX3441: Unit 2: Session 26

SESSION 26: WIND LOADS

26.0 Introduction.

Most of us have experienced being pushed back when walking against a strong
wind; see the Beaufort scale in page 49. Similarly, when wind blows on to a
building, it exerts various pressures on it as it gets slowed by the windward face
of the building, then gets deflected by the building and accelerates around the
end walls and over the roof. These effects are illustrated in Fig.26.1.

Wind is rarely a steady-state phenomenon. The flow pattern of air around a

building is not smooth. The wind pattern would be complex within a group of
closely spaced buildings.
In structures that are relatively flexible, as in cable supported roof structures,
there could be, even at a relatively steady state velocity, a dynamic response to
the wind, referred to as flutter.
Wind caused the failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge in Washington State in
1940, by causing an initial twisting to develop in the structure, which then began
to oscillate in a twisting motion of increasing amplitude until the 840 m long
structure collapsed.

Hence, it is important to determine the effect of winds that could act on a

building, the pressures and forces caused and possible dynamic effects. In this
session, we discuss how wind is taken into account in analysis and design
calculations.

The first step in the assessment of wind loads is to decide on the Basic Wind
Speed. Based on this, we can compute the various pressures on a building using
the relevant coefficients given in BSCP3: Chapter V: Part 2. The code should not
be used for unusual structures that may need wind tunnel tests.

The basic wind speeds recommended for Sri Lanka are based on data available
at the Department of Meteorology, the Ministry of Local Government, Housing &
Construction committee ‘Report on the design, construction and regulations for
buildings in the cyclone prone areas of Sri Lanka’4, following the cyclone which
devastated the east coast in 1978, and the design manual ‘Design of buildings
for High Winds, Sri Lanka’3 of the Ministry of Local Government, Housing &
Construction.
The wind speeds recommended for design are given in fig. 26.2

26.1 The generations of pressures and suctions

Let us consider basic wind effects on a building. When wind blows more or less
square-on to a building, it is slowed down against the front face with a
consequent build-up of pressure against that face; at the same time the wind is
deflected and accelerated around the end walls and over the roof with a
consequent reduction of a pressure, and suction is exerted on these areas. The
wake behind the building is a low pressure region which exerts a suction on the
rear face. The greater the speeding up of the wind, the greater will be the
suction. Thus the channelling of the wind between two buildings can produce
severe suction loading on the sides facing the gap between them. Access
openings too may be subjected to high wind speeds which may damage the
glazing and cladding.
Fig 26. 1 shows flow diagrams and pressures likely to be caused by wind.

38
 CVX 3531: Unit 2: Session 26

Fig 26.1a Plan view of wind flow around building1

Fig 26.1 b Elevation view of wind flow1

Fig 26.1 c Possible pressure distribution on building1

Fig 26.1 d Pressures from wind blowing along ridge1

39
CVX3441: Unit 2: Session 26

Fig. 26.3a Damage to roof of auditorium4

Fig 26.2 Wind zones map3 Fig. 26.3b Collapse of block walls of low-
cost houses4

Fig 26.3c Pressures on roofs2 Fig 26.3d Loss of roofs in school buildings4

40
 CVX 3531: Unit 2: Session 26

26.1.1 Effect of roof pitch

On the windward slope of a roof, the pressure is dependent on the pitch.

 When the roof angle is less than about 300, the windward slope can be
subjected to severe suction.
 Roofs steeper than about 350 generally present sufficient obstruction to the
wind for a positive pressure to be developed on their windward slopes;
however, even in such roofs, there is a zone near the ridge where suction is
developed and roof coverings may be dislodged if they are not securely
fastened.
 Roofs of all pitches are affected by suction along their windward edges and
leeward slopes when the wind blows along the direction of the ridge.
 Leeward slopes are always subject to suction.

Under strong winds the suction over a roof, particularly a low-pitched one, often
causes the most severe wind effect experienced by any part of a building and
the uplift on the roof may exceed its dead weight. This would require the roof to
be positively anchored to an adequate foundation to prevent it being lifted and
torn from the building.

26.1.2 Variation of pressure over a surface

The distribution of pressure, or suction, over a wall or roof surface is not at all
uniform. Pressure tends to be greatest near the centre of a windward wall and
reduces towards the edges; therefore, the most severe suction is generated at
the corners and along the edges of walls and roofs. Hence, careful attention
must be paid to the fixings at these locations as indicated in fig. 5.4.
Any projecting feature such as a chimney stack or a bell tower will generate
eddies in the air flow which increase suction locally in their wake. The roof
cladding around projections therefore needs special attention.

Fig. 26.4

26.1.3 Roof overhangs and canopy roofs

The effect of wind on roof overhangs and canopy roofs is important in the
assessment of uplift on roofs. The flow diagram in fig 5.1b shows how a
windward wall deflects the airflow downwards and upwards. The upward element
causes an upward pressure on the underside of the roof overhang.
This upward pressure on the underside pushes up and therefore increases any
suction effects acting on the upper face of the roof.
The effect on canopy roofs is dealt with separately and the relevant tables
should be referred to.

41
CVX3441: Unit 2: Session 26

26.2 The Design wind speed Vs

Many local influences modify the general wind flow within the area of a
windstorm. There is thermal bubbling and mixing of the air masses, and a
mechanical stirring caused by the friction of the air over the ground. The scale of
the turbulence varies over wide limits. Usually the pattern is complex with small
eddies superimposed on larger ones, with the result that wind speeds vary
greatly from place to place and from one instant of time to another.
The result of any measurement of wind speed will depend on the duration over
which the sample is taken.
 a long averaging time allows the inclusion of a large eddy,
 a brief averaging time may cover only a small superimposed eddy, but
this may have a higher speed.
The recorded gusts are averaged over a period which depends on the response
time of the anemometer. The basic wind speed referred to in BSCP3 and
adopted here, is based on the ‘3-second gusts’ recorded by the anemometers
used by the Meteorological department. The Basic Wind speed as defined in
BSCP3 is the maximum gust speed measured at 10 m above the ground in open
level country, and statistically likely to be exceeded on the average once in 50
years.
Note: The BS 6399: Part2 for Wind Loads is based on the ‘mean hourly wind speed’. The ‘mean
hourly wind speed’ may be obtained by the Met. Office using the anemograph, which gives the
continuous record of the wind speeds.

The first step in the assessment of wind load is to determine the maximum wind
speed appropriate to the structure. This depends on the Basic Wind Speed V,
which depends on the maximum gust speed for the locality. This may be
assumed as given in the map in fig. 26.2.

Fig. 26.5 Record of wind velocity during cyclone in Trincomalee in 1964 - Met. Dept.4

26.2.1 The Basic Wind Speed V

Three wind loading zones as indicated in fig. 26.2, are considered for Sri Lanka.
Different Basic Wind speeds V, are specified for each. The area worst affected
by cyclone winds is zone 1, while zone 3 is the least affected. The wind zone in
which the structure being designed is located, has to be found from this map.

42
 CVX 3531: Unit 2: Session 26

We next consider whether the structure is “Normal” or “Post-disaster”. Buildings

or Structures required to remain in operational condition following a cyclone or a
heavy storm are called ‘Post–disaster’ buildings or structures.
The followings buildings are typical of those normally considered as ‘post-
disaster’ buildings.
 Power Station
 Meteorological stations
 Police stations
 Telecommunication buildings
 Air traffic control buildings
 Fire Stations
 Hospitals
 Telephone exchanges
 Community Refuge Shelters meant for sheltering refugees from a disaster
caused by a cyclone or major storm.

Post-disaster buildings have to be designed and built as such. They would

generally be government owned. All other government buildings and generally all
private buildings would be considered as ‘Normal’ structures in this context.

If the wind zone and type of building are known, then the Basic Wind speed may
be found from table 26.1

Table 26.1 – Basic Wind Speeds V for Sri Lanka.

Zone Basic wind speed V in m/s

Post-disaster Normal
structures structures
1 53.5 49.0
2 47.0 42.5
3 38.0 33.5

26.2.2 The Design Wind Speed Vs

In general, the Design Wind Speed Vs is obtained by applying three factors S1,
S2 and S3 to the Basic Wind Speed V as follows:
Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3 [x S4] where

S1 allows for local topographic influences;

S2 allows for surface roughness of the environment, the gust duration
appropriate to the size of the building or element under consideration,
and the height of the structure.
S3 takes account of the design life of the building;
S4 allows for uniform directional risk but will not be considered here

26.2.3 Factor for topography S1

The basic wind speed takes account of the general level of the site above sea
level, but does not allow for local topographic features; these may be hills,
valleys, cliffs, escarpments or ridges, which can significantly alter the wind speed
in their vicinity.

43
CVX3441: Unit 2: Session 26

 The wind speed will be accelerated near the summits of hills, or the
crests of cliffs, escarpments or ridges,
 The flow may be decelerated In valleys or near the foot of cliffs.
Therefore, the variation of wind speed with height is modified from that
appropriate to level terrain, by the topographic factor S1.

In terrain that is fairly level (that is, where the average slope of the ground does
not exceed 0.05 within a 1 km radius of the site) the topographic factor S1 should
be taken as 1.0.
Within the vicinity of local topographic features the topographic factor S1 is a
function of the upwind slope and the position of the site relative to the summit or
crest, and varies in the range 0.85 to 1.36.

26.2.4 Factor S2

This factor takes account of the surface roughness of the environment, gust
duration and height of the structure, and is obtained from the BS Table 2. Let us
consider the relevant site variables:

a) Surface roughness:
In conditions of strong wind, the wind speed usually increases with height
above ground. The rate of increase depends on ground roughness, and also
on whether short gusts or mean wind speeds are being considered.
The BSCP3: Chapter V: Part 2 considers four categories of ground
roughness, described below and indicated in fig.26.6 a, b, c & d:

Terrain Category 1: Long stretches of open, level or nearly level country

with practically no shelter. For example, flat coastal areas, airfields, and
grassland or farmland without hedges or walls around the fields.

Fig.26.6a Typical Terrain category 12 Fig. 26.6b Typical Terrain category 22

Terrain Category 2: Flat or undulating country with obstructions such as

hedges or walls around fields, scattered windbreaks of trees and
occasional buildings. For example, farmlands with hedges etc.

Terrain Category 3: Surfaces covered by numerous obstructions.

Examples are, well wooded parkland and forest areas, towns and their
suburbs, and the outskirts of large cities. The general levels of roof-tops
and obstructions is assumed to be about 10m, but the category includes
built-up areas different from those that qualify for category 4.

44
 CVX 3531: Unit 2: Session 26

Terrain Category 4: Surfaces covered by large and numerous

obstructions with a general roof height of about 25m, or more. This
category refers to only the centres of large towns and cities where the
buildings are not only high, but are also reasonably closely spaced.

Fig. 26.6c Typical Terrain category 32 Fig. 26.6d Typical Terrain category 42

Although a classification of ground roughness has been made, it should be

recognised that the change from one category to another is necessarily a
gradual process. It may be assumed that a distance of a kilometre or more is
necessary to establish a different roughness category, but within the actual
roughness layer. For a site where the ground roughness varies in different
directions, the most severe grading should be used, or, exceptionally,
appropriate grading may be used for different wind directions.
For example, the sea-front of a coastal town would generally rank as ground
roughness category 1.

(b) Wind speed averaging time

The variation of wind speed with height is, also dependent on the size of gust
that is considered, ie on the wind speed averaging time. Thus the table gives
values of the factors for averaging times of 3 seconds, 5 seconds and 15
seconds as class A, B and C respectively.
The 3-second average gust should be used in the design of all units of glazing,
cladding and roofing, directly exposed to the wind; this applies whatever the size
or proportion of the whole building.

For structural design, a 5-second gust should be used for buildings whose
largest horizontal or vertical dimension does not exceed 50 m;
the 15-second gust should be used for buildings whose largest horizontal or
vertical dimension is greater than 50 m.

(c) Height of structure

The factor S2 may be taken as appropriate to the total height of the structure
above the level of the surrounding ground; when a structure is composed of
distinct parts of different heights, the wind speed may be calculated on each
part, using a factor S2 which corresponds to the height of the top of that part
with further reference to relevant codes.

26.2.5 Factor for building life S3

There is always an element of risk that the wind speed we adopt for design may
be exceeded in a cyclone or storm of exceptional violence.

45
CVX3441: Unit 2: Session 26

The greater the intended life-span of the structure, the greater is the risk.
Statistical methods have to be used to estimate the trend of the extremes. For
this reason it is not possible to state categorically that a certain maximum value
will never be exceeded: probability levels have to be used.

The wind speeds corresponding to the map may be assumed as likely to be

exceeded on average once in 50 years. This implies that in any one year there is
a 1 in 50 (0.02) probability that the basic speed will be exceeded. However, in
any period longer than one year there is an increase probability of its being
exceeded. It can be shown that in any one period of 50 years there is a 0.63
probability that it will be exceeded.

Normally, wind load should be calculated using S3 = 1.0, but an appropriate

value may be used in the case of
 Temporary structures.
 Structure for which a life of less than 50 years is appropriate.
 Structures with an abnormally long intended life.
 Structures where additional safety is required.
For these special cases both the intended lifetime and the probability level may
be varied according to circumstance.
S3 should not be taken as less than 0.77 in any case.

26.3 The assessment of wind load on ordinary buildings

Let us now consider the calculations of wind pressure on a building. For most
normal buildings there are two main aspects to be considered in the calculation
of wind loads: (a) the loads on the structural frame taken as whole; (b) the loads
on individual units such as walls and roof, and their elements of cladding.
Sometimes (a) may be computed directly and sometimes it must be derived from
a summation of the individual loads. In all cases the loads are based on the
dynamic pressure of the wind.

26.3.1 The dynamic pressure of the wind q

The kinetic energy of wind is transformed to a dynamic pressure when it

impinges on an obstacle and we refer to the characteristic wind pressure q. We
calculate it from the formula:
q = k V s2 where

k = 0.613 in Sl units (N/m2 and m/s)

0.0625 in metric technical units (kgf/m2 and m/s)
0.00256 in imperial units (lbf/ft2 and mile/h)

26.3.2 Pressures acting on a surface – the use of pressure coefficients

The BSCP3: Chapter V: Part 2 provides various coefficients that may be used to
calculate the wind pressure acting on structures or elements. Force coefficients,
external pressure coefficients and internal pressure coefficients are given. Let us
see how the pressure is calculated.

The pressure on any surface exposed to the wind varies from point to point over
the surface, depending on the direction of the wind and the pattern of the flow.

46
 CVX 3531: Unit 2: Session 26

The pressure p at any point can be expressed in terms of q by the use of

pressure coefficient Cp. Thus:
p = Cp . q
The pressure at a point, whether positive or negative, acts in a direction normal
to the surface.
A negative sign prefixing the coefficient Cp indicates that p is negative; that is,
suction rather than a positive pressure.

In the calculation of wind load on any structure or element it is essential to take

account of the pressure difference between opposite faces. For a clad structure,
it is necessary to know the internal pressure as well as external; it is convenient
to use distinguishing pressure coefficients:
Cpe = external pressure coefficient
Cpi = internal pressure coefficient

Values of these coefficients have been determined by experiment for a number

of building shapes and wind directions.

The Code provides pressure coefficients for each building shape, for each
individual surface (or part of a surface), for wind directions that produce critical
loading. This enables calculation of the maximum individual load on each
surface, and by vectorial summation of individual loads, the total load on the
building.
We must remember that, although the wind is shown blowing against one face
and the pressure coefficients given for that wind direction, the wind may, in
practice, blow against any face of a building. Therefore each face should, in turn,
be considered as the windward one and the external pressure calculated from
the equation p = Cpe q. This will indicate the maximum external loading, positive
or negative, on each face.

26.3.3 Effect of internal pressures

The total wind force on a wall or roof depends on the difference of pressure
between the outer and the inner faces. Open doors, windows or ventilators on
the windward side of a building will increase air pressure inside the building; this
would clearly increase the loading of those parts of the roof and wall which are
subjected to external suction.

pe pi pe pi pe pi pe pi

p= pe – pi p = pe + pi p= – pe – pi p= – pe + pi

Conversely, openings in positions which are experiencing external suction, will

reduce the pressure inside the building thus increasing total positive load on a
windward wall.

Most buildings have some degree of permeability on each face, through

windows, ventilation louvers, leakage gaps around doors and windows, and to
some extent through the cladding itself; if there are chimneys, these can provide
a low-resistance path for air flow. Permeability in this context is measured by the
total area of such openings in a face. The problem is to determine the resulting

47
CVX3441: Unit 2: Session 26

internal balance of all the contributing leakage points and, for design purposes,
to assess the worst probable combination of circumstances that may arise.
With all windows normally closed, the permeability of the house or office block is
likely to be in the range of 0.01 per cent to 0.05 per cent of the face area,
depending on the degree of draught-proofing.

For a rectangular building in which two opposite faces are equally permeable
and other faces are impermeable, the value of Cpi should be taken
as +0.2 when the wind direction is normal to a permeable face, or
as -0.3 if the wind direction is normal to an impermeable face.
If all four faces are uniformly permeable, Cpi should be taken as – 0.3.
Where the permeability differs from face to face, as when one contains a
dominant opening such as an open doorway or window, (and even a window
broken by wind force of flying debris during a storm) the value of Cpi will change
depending on the size and position of the opening in relation to the other
permeability.

26.3.4 High local pressure

The tables also give an indication of the high local pressures that may occur
under certain conditions of wind. This should be taken into account in
determining the local loads on elements of cladding and their supporting
members. They are not to be taken into account in calculating the total structural
loads, except that they may influence the pressure inside a building if a major
door or window opening occurs in the area affected.

26.3.5 Total wind on a structure

The total wind loads on a structure may be obtained by the vectorial summation
of the loads acting simultaneously on the various wall and roof surfaces; these
values may therefore not be the relevant maxima.
Total wind forces have been measured directly for some structures, and the BS
provides force coefficients for such cases. In such cases
F  Ae qC f where
F is the force in the direction of the wind (usually for a specified direction)
Ae is the effective frontal area of the structure
Cf is the force coefficient in the direction of the wind.

26.4 Summary

We discussed the cause of wind pressure on a structure and the manner in

which it is taken into account in design using BSCP3: Chapter V: Part 2.

Objectives

At the end of this session you should be aware of the following:

 The wind zones demarcated for Sri Lanka and the reasons
 the possibility that wind causes positive and negative pressures to act on a
surface
 the possible effects of wind on roofs and buildings

and be to able to use the BSCP tables to calculate the wind pressures on a roof
or wall of a structure.

48
 CVX 3531: Unit 2: Session 26

References
1. BRE Digest 119 - The assessment of wind loads, Building Research
Establshment, Department of the Environment, UK, 1984
2. Newberry C W, and Eaton K J - Wind loading handbook, Building
Research establishment Report, 1974
3. Ministry of Local government, Housing & Construction - Design of
Buildings for High Winds in Sri Lanka, 1980
4. Ministry of Local Government, Housing & Construction Committee
‘Report on the design and construction and regulations for buildings in
the cyclone prone areas of Sri Lanka’, 1979
5. BSCP3: Chapter V: Part 2: 1972 – Wind Loads, BSI

49
CVX3441: Unit 2: Session 26

50
CVX 3531: Unit 2: Session 26

51
 CVX3441:Block 2: Session 27

Session 27 – Connections in steelwork

27.0 Connections

The behaviour of structural elements and consequently a structure are

dependent on the type and efficiency of the connections; we discussed this in
Unit 1 and illustrated it by considering the behaviour of a rod and a beam with
various types of end supports.

The adequacy of connections is as important as the adequacy of the structural

elements. The connection designs for steelwork considered in this course will
also be based on recommendations of the BS 449: Part 2: 1969 referred to as
the BS in these sessions.

Structural considerations in design of connections for Pin jointed trusses:

In this session, we will be discussing the design of bolted or welded connections
for trusses which have been analysed as pin jointed trusses.
The BS clause 48 c of the BS states the requirements for triangulated frames
designed on the assumption of pin jointed connections as follows:
• the centroidal axes of the members should, where practicable, meet at a
point.
• the centre of resistance of a connection should, wherever practicable, lie
on the line of action of the load, so that there is no moment on the
connection due to eccentricity. Where eccentricity of members or
connections exists, the members and connections should provide
adequate resistance to the induced bending moments.
We will have to satisfy these requirements when we design pin-joints of trusses.

General considerations in design of connections:

When designing joints, we have to consider other factors in addition to the
structural adequacy of the connectors alone. These include the following:
 Ease of fabrication, erection and maintenance, which implies that the
following have to be ensured:
o minimum clearances necessary for the tightening of bolts, or
o space and accessibility for welding,
o space and accessibility for subsequent inspection,
o space and accessibility for surface treatment and maintenance.
 Conformity of the fabricated structure to the structure designed.
 Handling and transport conditions: in steel framed structures, sub-frames
and members are usually pre-engineered and then transported to site; the
structure may be too large to be transported when fully assembled. It is
preferable that as many as possible of the connections are made in the
controlled conditions of the fabrication yard; the rest of the connections have
then to be made on site.
Hence, the designer has to decide and indicate the components parts that are to
be fabricated prior to transportation to site, and joints to be completed at site.
In fact, clause 48 of the BS states that as much of the work of fabrication as is
reasonably practicable should be completed in the fabrication shop.

Steel members may be connected by the use of rivets, bolts or welds or a

combination of welding and bolting or riveting. Riveting is now rarely used in
construction work. The type of connections chosen should be the most suitable
and reliable for the prevailing site conditions and standards of fabrication.
Generally, only one type of fastening should be provided to transfer a member

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 CvX3531: Block 2: Session 27

force; however, let us note that BS clause 48b states that only in connections
using rivets and close tolerance bolts, may both be considered as acting together
to share the load.

Bolts used in connections may be

 ordinary bolts in clearance holes (fig. 27.1 a), or
 high strength friction-grip bolts.(fig. 27.1 b)
High strength friction-grip bolts are bolts of high tensile steel, used in conjunction
with high strength nuts and hardened steel washers; they are tightened to a pre-
determined shank tension and the clamping action thus afforded transfers loads
in the connected members by friction between the parts in contact as indicated in
fig. 27.1b

We will consider only the ordinary bolts in this course.

Fig. 27.1 a Ordinary hexagon head bolt, nut and

washer

Shanks in tension

Friction at
interface

Action in friction grip bolts

Fig. 27.1 b High strength friction grip bolts

Welding, (as you know), joins metal parts by fusing them and filling in with
molten metal from the electrode. If welding is carried out under close
supervision, as is more likely to happen in the fabrication shop, the welded joints
would be neat, strong and more efficient than is possible with bolting.

However, site welding is often resorted to in this country though quality as well
as the safety requirements may not always be complied with.
It is the responsibility of the supervising engineer together with the supervisory
staff, to ensure that adequate standards are maintained.

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 CVX3441:Block 2: Session 27

Fig. 27.2 a Shop and filed joints used in fabrication

Fig. 27.2 b Shop and field joints used

in fabrication
We often find it convenient to have
welded connections made in the
fabrication shop, and use bolts for the
site connections.
Welded parts of a truss may
subsequently be assembled together
using bolted joints as shown in fig. 27.2.

Welded connections use fillet or butt welds depending on the configuration of the
members.

Let us now proceed to study the requirements for bolted and welded connections
starting with bolted connections.

27.1 Ordinary bolts

The most commonly used fastener is the ‘black’ hexagon headed bolt shown in
fig. 6.1a; note the terminology used in the figure to refer to the different parts.
The BS 449 specifies that the dimensions of the bolts and other characteristics
should conform to those given in BS 4190 as specified by BS 449.

Ordinary bolts are used in clearance holes. The diameter of the clearance hole is
assumed to be 2 mm larger than the nominal diameter of the bolt (see clause 17
of the BS).

We use mild steel bolts of grade 4.6 with a yield stress of 235 N/mm 2. Bolts of
grade higher than 4.6 (but not high strength friction bolts), may also be used and
BS clause 50b gives a basis for determining the allowable stress for them.
Consider the (cantilever) bracket connection shown in fig. 6.4c; do you agree
that the most amount of tension occurs in the top most bolt?

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 CvX3531: Block 2: Session 27

Fig 27.3 Bolts in single and double shear .

Fig. 27.4b Bolts in Direct Fig. 27.4 c Bolts in direct shear

shear and torsion and tension
Fig. 27.4 a Failure of bolts in tension

Fig. 27.4 Failure of bolts under combined stresses

crushing shearing

a) Bearing on plate and bolt b) end shear failure

c) tension failure of plate

Fig.27.5 Failure modes possible in bolted joints

Single shear
Double shear

Fig. 27.5 d) Shearing of bolt shank

55
 CVX3441:Block 2: Session 27

Joints may be designed using bolts in direct shear, or direct tension, or direct
shear and torsion, or direct shear and tension as indicated in fig. 6.3 and 6.4.
Our study in this course is restricted to connections involving bolts in shear.

27.1.1 Direct shear joints.

Connections that rely on direct shear, place bolts in either single shear or double
shear, as shown in fig. 6.5d. However, a bolt in shear also bears on (i.e. presses
against), the contact area of the connected elements and is therefore subject to
bearing pressures as seen in fig. 27.5a.

A member comprising a single element, when connected to another element or

gusset, causes the bolt to be in single shear. (fig. 27.5d)
A double angle member in compression or tension, bolted to both sides of the
gusset plate, would cause the bolt to be in double shear. You would agree that,
as shown in the fig.6.5d, the bolt in double shear is subject to shear in two
different planes.

Before we can discuss the possible types of failure of bolted joints and the
calculation procedure for numbers of bolts, let us note the terminology used4
as indicated in fig. 27.3.

Edge distance: is the distance from the centre of a hole to the adjacent edge at
right angles to the direction of stress.

End distance: is the distance from the centre of a hole to the adjacent edge in
the direction in which the fastener bears.

Effective area of bolts:

Let As be the area resisting shear. With reference to fig. 27.1a:
• Where threads occur in the shear plane,
As = the tensile stress area At of the bolt, which may be taken as the area
at the bottom of the threads.
• If the shear plane occurs outside the threaded area,
As = the shank area A, based on the nominal diameter of the bolt.

27.1.1.1 Failure modes of a bolted joint

A shear joint could fail due to different reasons. The failure may be caused by
any one of the following:
▪ shear failure of the bolt shank: this depends on the shear force acting on
the cross sectional area of each bolt, and is therefore affected by the size
and number of bolts provided, (fig.6.3);
▪ bearing failure of the bolt or the member: this depends on the force acting
on each bolt and the effective contact area and therefore is also affected
by the size and number of bolts provided (fig.6.5a);
▪ separation of the end of the member due to shear failure: this would be
due to insufficient end distance i.e. distance from the end of the member
to the bolt (fig. 6.3, 6.5b);
▪ failure in tension members: this could take place if the net sectional area
of the member is insufficient to take up the required tension (fig. 6.5c).

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 CvX3531: Block 2: Session 27

Hence, when designing bolted connections, we consider the strength under the
following loading actions:
 shear strength of the bolt, viz. psAs where ps is the allowable shear stress in
the bolt.
 the bearing strength of the bolt
 the bearing strength of the connected element

This is illustrated in the joint designs given in the design example.

27.1.2 Size of bolts

In deciding on the size of bolts to be used, we have to note that BS clause 37

specifies that, in the case of compression members composed of two
components back-to-back, the minimum bolt size is 16 mm diameter for
members up to and including 10 mm thickness.

Note: Generally, we do not use a connection with a single bolt as there would be
no safety factor; the connection would fail if the bolt were to fail due to some
internal flaw. This implies that the joints would not actually be pin-joints and
would be more rigid.

27.1.3 Spacing of Bolts

The BS 449 clause 52 gives the following parameters for positioning of bolts,
based on clause 51 pertaining to rivets.

Minimum pitch (BS clause 51 b):

A minimum clearance should be available between adjacent bolts; this is
specified in terms of the pitch i.e. distance between bolts as follows:

Minimum distance between centres of the bolts shall

 [2.5 x nominal diameter of bolt].

Maximum pitch (BS clause 51 c):

There are a number of conditions given about the maximum distance between
adjacent bolts. The main conditions are as follows: (please refer the BS for the
complete specifications).
(i) The distance between centres of any two adjacent bolts that connect
together elements of compression or tension members, shall
 32t or 300 mm, where t is the thickness of the thinner outside plate.

(ii) The distance between centres of two adjacent bolts in a line lying in the
direction of stress, shall
 16 t or 200 mm in tension members, and
 12 t or 200 mm in the case of compression members.

(iii) The distance between any two consecutive bolts in a line adjacent or
parallel to an edge of an outside plate
 [100 mm + 4 t] or 200 mm in compression or tension members.

(iv) When bolts are staggered at equal intervals and the gauge does not
exceed 75 mm, the distances between centres of bolts as specified in (ii)
and (iii) above may be increased by 50 %.

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 CVX3441:Block 2: Session 27

Edge distance (BS clause 51 d):

(i) The minimum distance from the centre of any hole to the edge of a plate
shall be in accordance with table 21.

(ii) Where two or more parts are connected together a line of rivets or bolts
shall be provided at a distance of not more than [40 mm + 4 t] from the
nearest edge, where t is the thickness in millimetres of the thinner outside
plate. In the case of work not exposed to the weather, this may be
increased to 12 t.

Clause 51 (e) states that for tension members composed of two flats, angles,
channels or tees in contact back-to-back or separated back-to-back by a
distance not exceeding the aggregate thickness of the connected parts, tacking
bolts, with solid distance pieces where the parts are separated, shall be provided
at a pitch in line not exceeding 1000 mm.

Clause 52 e also gives the requirements for tacking bolts not subject to
calculated stress, in struts and compression members; however, BS clause 37
gives the requirements for connecting together compression members
composed of two components back to back.

Example 27.1

A double angle member 100x65x8 of steel grade 43, subject to a tensile load of
180 kN has to be spliced as shown in the figure below, using grade 4.6 bolts.
Check if the joint is satisfactory.

30 50 30 splice plate
1111 95x10

4 bolts in 4 bolts in cover plate 140x8

single shear single shear
2 no. 100x65x8 EA
Bolts: 20 mm dia. Ordinary bolts
Holes: 22 mm dia.

In single shear:
Strength of 20 mm dia. bolts in single shear =   202  80 = 25.1 kN
4
The end distance of 30 mm to the rolled edge < {2{effective diameter]} = 40 mm
Hence, from Table 20 b and clause 50,
Bearing stress in connected parts = 30  250 = 187.5 N/mm2
40
Bearing strength of 8 mm cover plates, angles = 20x8x187.5 = 30 kN
Bearing strength of 10 mm splice plates = 20x10x187.5 = 37.5 kN

In double shear:
Strength of bolt in double shear = 2{25.1} = 50.2 kN
Strength in bearing of 10 mm splice plate = 20x10x187.5= 37.5 < 50.2 kN
Strength of 8 mm legs of the two angles = 2{20x8x187.5} = 60 kN
Hence, for end bolts in double shear, allowable load = 37.5 kN

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 CvX3531: Block 2: Session 27

For each member, there are 4 bolts in single shear and two bolts in double shear
one of which is an end bolt.

Hence the capacity of the joint = 4x{25.1} + 50.2 + 37.5 = 188.1 kN viz. > 180 kN
Strength of the angle members in tension = 2x170x{1270 – 2x8x22} = 312 kN
> 180 kN
Strength of the splice and capping plates = 170x{10x(95-22) +8x(140-44)}
= 254.7 kN
> 180 kN
Hence, the joint is adequate.

27.2 High strength friction grip bolts

BS 449 defines these as ‘bolts of high tensile steel, used in conjunction with high
strength nuts and hardened steel washers which are tightened to a pre-
determined shank tension in order that the clamping action thus afforded will
transfer loads in the connected members by friction between the parts in contact
and not by shear or bearing in the bolts’.
The action in such bolts is as indicated in fig. 27.1b.
The required high shank tension has to be ensured so that they do not act as
ordinary bolts. This may be achieved by one of the following methods:
 using load-indicating washers and bolts;
 by torque control using a power operated or hand-torque wrench to apply a
specified torque to the nut;
 by part-turning, i.e. where the nut is tightened up and then forced through an
additional half to three-quarters of a turn.

Friction-grip bolts are used when strong rigid joints are required, as in joints of
rigid frames. They are used with washers of hardened steel to prevent damage
to the connected parts. The surfaces in contact need to be free of mill scale, rust,
paint, grease etc. since these would prevent solid contact between the surfaces
and therefore affect the friction between the contact faces.
Friction grip bolts are generally used in clearance holes.

27.3 Welds and welding

Welding is now used for all types of connections, to join parts and members and
to fabricate complete members such as plate girders. Welding provides strong
connections that enable designs which are efficient as well as elegant.
Fig. 27.6 shows different types of welds.

Welding should always be carried out under close supervision. Cracks could
occur in the welds and/or adjacent parts of the members being joined. Fig. 27.8
shows some of the defects that could occur. The problems are that:
• Faulty welding could reduce strength due to:
 Over-reinforcement and undercutting
 Incomplete penetration
 Lack of fusion with side-wall
 Slag inclusions and porosity.
• When the weld metal cools and solidifies it contracts and sets up residual
stresses in members; this however, is included in the safety factor allowed
for in design.

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 CVX3441:Block 2: Session 27

• Welding causes distortion, and special precautions are required to ensure

that fabricated members are square and free from twisting. Distortion may
be minimized by good detailing and following correct welding procedure.
Presetting, pre-bending and pre-heating are methods used to offset
distortion.

Hence, all welded fabrication have to be checked, tested and approved before
being accepted. Testing includes,
 Visual inspection for uniformity of weld
 Surface tests for cracks using dyes or magnetic particles
 X-ray and ultrasonic tests to check for internal defects in butt welds.
Only visual and surface tests are possible with fillet welds.
Butt welds could be checked internally, and critical butt welds in tension should
be checked thus.

Fillet welds could under certain circumstances, fail by fatigue or brittle fracture
particularly if the member is subject to fluctuating loads. They are also not
recommended when there could be severe corrosion or when the weight of
structure has to be minimised.

As mentioned earlier, the ideal solution would be to carry out welding in the
workshop and use bolts for site connections as indicated in fig. 27.2.

tension or
compression

8.3 Fillet welds

2a  t
a) single V Butt weld b) Fillet weld
Fig. 27.7 Fillet weld as strong
as the plate

c) Types of Butt welds

a) Cracking

d) Other types of welds

b) Defects & Faulty welding
Fig. 27.6 Fillet and Butt welds
Fig. 27.8 Cracks and
Defects in welding

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 CvX3531: Block 2: Session 27

27.3.1 Fillet welds

The allowable stress in fillet welds is based on a thickness equal to the throat
thickness. (fig. 6.6 b). The figure shows a 90 fillet weld but other angles are
also used.

The size of a fillet weld is specified by the leg length, while

the strength of the weld is based on the throat thickness.
For grade 43 steel the allowable stress is given in clause 53 a (ii) as
125 N/mm2.

Fillet welds may range in size from 3 mm to 25 mm. However, the sizes
generally used are 6, 8 and 12 mm.

27.3.1.1 Design of fillet welded joints

In fillet welds the load is transferred between the connected parts by shear stress
in the welds.
Shear stress in a fillet weld = effectivelength of the weld  effectivethroat thickness
For 90 fillet welds, the throat thickness = [leg length] * (cos 45)
= 0.707 [leg length]

For example, if we consider a fillet weld of 8 mm size, throat thickness= 8 cos 45
Since the allowable stress is 125 N/mm2
the strength of 8 mm fillet weld = 125 * 8 cos 45
= 707 N/mm i.e. 0.71 kN/mm

Fillet weld design requirements

The BS clause 54 gives requirements regarding fillet welds. These are as

follows:
 Clause 54 e concerns End returns: Fillet welds terminating at the ends
or sides of parts or members, should be returned continuously around
corners for a distance of not less than twice the size of the weld. – The
end returns relieve stress concentration at corners. (Fig. 6.9 a)

 The effective length of a fillet weld should be taken as the length over
which the fillet is full size. In the absence of better information
 length s for each end that 
effectivelength of a fillet weld  overalllength -  
 does not continuearound a corner  
A fillet length with an effective length less than 4 s or less than 40 mm
should not be used to carry load.5

 Clause 54 f states that, if Side fillets alone are used in end connections,
the length of each side fillet should be not less than the distance between
the edges, and the side fillet may be either at the edge of the member or
in slots or holes ( fig. 6.9c).

 Intermittent fillet welds: Clause 54 c states that, the distance along an

edge of a part between effective lengths of consecutive intermittent fillet
welds, whether the welds are in line or staggered on alternate sides of
the edge is limited to the following, by Clause 54 c (see fig 6.9d):

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 CVX3441:Block 2: Session 27

• in compression, the distance between effective lengths of consecutive

intermittent fillet welds  {16 * [thickness of the thinner part]}
• in tension, the distance between effective lengths of consecutive
intermittent fillet welds  {24 * [thickness of the thinner part]}
but in any case,
• the distance between effective lengths of consecutive intermittent fillet
welds  300 mm
Intermittent fillet welds shall not be used where they would result in the
formation of rust pockets and they should not be used under fatigue
conditions.

 Clause 54 d states that, in Lap joints, the minimum amount of lap shall
be 4 times the thickness of the thinner part connected (fig 6.9b); single
fillet welds shall be used only where the lapped parts are sufficiently
restrained to prevent opening of the joint.

 Clause 54 g states that, in tension members composed of two flats,

angles, channels or tees in contact back-to-back, or separated back-to-
back, intermittent welds not subject to calculated stress, shall be provided
to connect the two parts together along both pairs of edges; solid
distance pieces should also be provided where the connected part are
not in contact. The pitch of these effective lengths of welds, centre-to-
centre, shall not exceed 1000 mm in line, whether they are opposite or
staggered in respect of the two pairs of edges.

a) Return ends b) Lap length c) End fillets

L> 16 t and L > 300 for parts in compression

L> 24 t and L > 300 for parts in tension

d) Intermittent fillet welds

Fig. 27.9 Design details for fillet welds

Example 27.2

Design the weld connection for a single angle 65 x 50 x 6 carrying a load of

60 kN as shown in the figure ex27.2.

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 CvX3531: Block 2: Session 27

Try a 6 mm fillet weld.

For 90 fillet welds the throat thickness = 6 cos 45
Since the allowable stress is 125 N/mm2
the strength of 6 mm fillet weld = 125 * 6 cos 45
= 530 N/mm
= 0.53 kN/mm
Length of weld required = 60/0.53
= 113 mm

We now have to get the layout of welds, for which there are two methods.

Layout 1:
Try the layout shown in fig. ex6.2b.
Let the effective length needed along edge Q be Lq.
Taking moments about side P:

Lq * 0.53 * 65 = 60 * 44.6
Lq = 78 mm
Provide length of 78 + (6 * 2) = 90 mm along Q.
Hence effective length on side P = 113 – 78
= 35 mm

Weld length required along side P = 35 + 6 * 2

= 47 mm
say, 50 mm but not less than 65 mm

If the weld lengths are too long, a larger gusset plate may become necessary.

Now try an alternative, layout 2 shown in fig. ex6.2 c:

Taking moments about edge Q,

{(LP x 65) + [44.6 x (20.4 + 44.6/2)] + [20.4 x 20.4/2] } x 0.53 = 60 x 20.4

Then LP = 196.9 / 65= 3 mm

i.e. 3 + (6 x 2) = 15 mm along edge P.
Effective length required along edge Q = 113 – (65+3)
= 45 mm
Hence weld length to be supplied along edge Q = 45 + 12 = 57 mm.
P
65 44.6
20.4 60 kN
a) Q
50 but not less than 65
P
60 kN
b) 90 Q

15
P
65 60 kN
c) Q
57
Fig. ex 27.10

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 CVX3441:Block 2: Session 27

27.3.2 Flow chart to design fillet weld connection

Start

Layout a suitable form of connection using a gusset plate if necessary

Select a suitable type and size of weld using one or more of the
following: Intermittent weld, Lap joint, End return, Side fillet

Determine weld length and balance the weld length on each side

Check for limitations regarding end returns, side fillets, effective length If not
and recheck for adequacy

If yes, welds adequate

Detail connection for fabrication

stop

27.4 Butt welds

Clause 53 of the BS states that butt welds may be treated as parent metal with a
thickness equal to the throat thickness, if the weld can be made from both sides
or a sealing run can be placed on the side away from where the weld is laid
down.

The throat thickness of a full penetration butt weld is taken as the thickness of
the parent metal. A reduced throat thickness is taken for certain butt welds, but
the stresses should not exceed those allowed for the parent metal.

Butt welds are limited to those made between two members lying approximately
in the same plane. Butt welded joints are not used as often as fillet welds
because of the closer fit-up tolerances required, though they are superior to fillet
welds in terms of strength.

Fig. 27.11 Design details for butt welds

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 CvX3531: Block 2: Session 27

27.5 Summary

We considered the use of bolts and welds in connections and discussed the
design of simple connections acting in shear. We noted that joints may not be
actual pinjoints due to requirements for a safety margin in the case of bolts, and
the inherent nature of welding

Objectives

After completing this session, you should be able to design simple bolted and
welded connections.

References

1. MacGinley T J & Ang T C – Structural Steelwork Design to Limit State

theory, 2nd ed., 1993

2. Constrado - Steel designers’ Manual

3. BS 449:Part 2: 1969 – Specification for ‘’The Use of Structural Steel in

Building’’ incorporating amendments up to Nov.1995.

4. OUSL CED 1201 Block 2: Theory and Design of Structures I

5. BS 5950 –1: 2000 – Structural use of steelwork in building, Part 1: Code

of practice for design – Rolled and welded sections

6. Inst. Of Structural Engineers & The Institution of Civil Engineers - Manual

for the design of steelwork building structures, 1989.

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 CVX3441:Block 2: Session 27

Appendix - BS 449: Part2: 1969 Tables & Clause

from BS 449 Table 10: Allowable maximum shear stress pq

Allowable maximum shear stress pq for sections, bars, plates, wide flats and hot
rolled sections of grade 43 steel:
For thickness ≤ 40 mm: 125 N/mm2
For 40 < thickness ≤ 100 mm: 115 N/mm2

BS 449 Table 20: Allowable stresses in Rivets and Bolts (N/mm2)

Description of fasteners Axial tension Shear Bearing

Power-driven rivets 100 100 300

Hand-driven rivets 80 80 250
Close tolerance and turned bolts 120 100 300
Bolts in clearance holes 120 80 250

BS 449 Table 20A : Allowable Bearing stresses on connected parts

(N/mm2)

Description of fasteners Material of connected part

Grade 43 Grade 50 Grade 55
Power-driven rivets
300 420 480
Close tolerance and turned bolts
Hand-driven rivets
250 350 400
Bolts in clearance holes

BS 449 Table 21: Edge distance of Holes

Diameter of hole Distance to Distance to rolled,
sheared or hand machine flame
flame cut edge cut, sawn or
planed edge
mm mm mm

39 68 62
36 62 56
33 56 50
30 50 44

26 42 36
24 38 32
22 34 30
20 30 28

18 28 26
16 26 24
14 24 22
12 or less 22 20

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 CvX3531: Block 2: Session 27

a) Rivets. Rivets shall conform to the requirements of BS 46208) for dimensions.

b) Minimum pitch. The distance between centres of rivets shall be not less than
2½ times the nominal diameter of the rivet.
c) Maximum pitch. i) The distance between centres of any two adjacent rivets
(including tacking rivets) connecting together elements of compression or tension
members shall not exceed 32t or 300 mm where t is the thickness of the thinner outside
plate.
ii) The distance between centres of two adjacent rivets, in a line lying in the
direction of stress, shall not exceed 16t or 200 mm in tension members, and 12t or
200 mm in compression members. In the case of compression members in which
forces are transferred through butting faces this distance shall not exceed 4½ times
the diameter of the rivets for a distance from the abutting faces equal to 1½ times
the width of the member.

iii) The distance between centres of any two consecutive rivets in a line adjacent
and parallel to an edge of an outside plate shall not
exceed 100 mm + 4t, or 200 mm in compression or tension members.
iv) When rivets are staggered at equal intervals and the gauge does not exceed 75 mm
the distances specified in ii) and iii) above, between centres of rivets, may be increased by
50 per cent.
d) Edge distance. i) The minimum distance from the centre of any hole to the edge
of a plate shall be in accordance with Table 21.
ii) Where two or more parts are connected together a line of rivets or bolts shall
be provided at a distance of not more than 40 mm + 4t from the nearest edge, where
t is the thickness in millimetres of the thinner outside plate. In the case of work not
exposed to weather, this may be increased to 12t.

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 28

SESSION 28 – STATISTICAL BASIS OF LIMIT STATE DESIGN

Aim – The aim of the lesson is to give the students knowledge of the characteristic dead,
imposed and wind loads to be considered in design.

Objectives – It is expect that after this lesson the students would have an adequate
knowledge to select characteristic imposed loads and work out the wind
loads and dead loads acting on a structure.

28.1 Characteristic loads on a structure

The loads on a structure are classified as follows:

a). Dead Loads – the weight of the structure. (Gk)
b). Imposed Loads – loads due furniture, occupants, machinery, vehicles etc.
(Gk)
c). Wind Loads – loads due to the wind forces (W k)

Basically all the loads which are likely to be applied on the structure during its working life
should be considered statistically and characteristic load should be determined. In the
case of loading, the characteristic load should be defined as the load above which not
more than 5% of the loads fall. (See Figure 28.1)

Frequency

5 % of results

1.64 σ Loads

Figure 28.1

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 28

It can be shown that,

Characteristic load = Mean load + 1.64 x Standard Deviation

The loads to be used in the design may be obtained from the following.

BS 648 – Schedule of weight of building materials

CP 3 Ch.V. Part 1 – Dead loads and Imposed Loads

CP 3 Ch.V. Part 2 – Wind Loads

Manual of Design of Buildings for high winds in Sri Lanka

28.1.1 Dead Loads: In calculating the weight of the structure the specific weight of
reinforced concrete may be taken as 23.6 kN/m3

Example 1 – Determine the weight of reinforced concrete member of dimensions

bxhxl m

Solution: The weight = b x h x l x 23.6 kN

Weights of various materials are given in Table 8.1, 8.2, 8.3 and 8.4. This data can be
used for determining the weight of the structure, or in other words the dead load. This
dead load also includes permanent fixtures, partitions, finishers and so on.

28.1.2 Imposed Loads: The imposed load on various parts of the buildings and
structures are given in CP3 ch.V part 1 depending on the use of the particular member.

As can be seen the code specifies a uniformly distributed load and an alternatively
concentrated load. The characteristic load should be that which gives the worse effect.

28.2 Terms used in Load Evaluation

Before going to any further into the details of imposed loads let us see what are meant by
some simple terms used in load evaluation.

28.2.1 Span of the beam – the span of a beam or a slab is the length of the
slab/beam between the centerlines of the supports.

The slab shown in Figure 28.2 is supported on beams 1 and 2. The span of this
slab is the length l between the centre lines of the two beams as shown in figure
8.2. In the case where the beam is simply supported over wide supports span may
be taken as the clear distance between the supports plus the effective depth of the
beam.

Figure 28.3 shows a beam supported on two columns. The span of the beam is as
shown in the figure and is equal to l.

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 28

Slab

Beam 1 Beam 2

Span l

Center Line of
the beam

Figure 28.2

Beam

Columns

Figure 28.3

28.2.2 Uniformly Distributed Load (UDL) – In figure 28.4 a beam with a uniformly
distributed load is shown schematically. The load along the beam is equal throughout the
beam. Consider a beam on which are placed 4 layers of bricks. If you are taken any point
on the beam the weight due to the bricks would be equal. So the weight of the bricks is
acting as a uniformly distributed load on the beam. This is generally shown schematically
as in Figure 28.4. Similarly if a beam in building is likely to have load distributed equally
along the beam then such a load is called uniformly distributed load. The unit of such a
load will be kN/m or N/m.

q kN/m

Span, l

Figure 28.4 - UDL

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 28

28.2.3 Concentrated Load – Consider a beam shown in Figure 28.5. Suppose that one
end of very heavy steel roof truss is placed at the point A on the beam. It is type of load
which is distributed over small length of the beam is called a concentrated load or point
load. The unit of such a load may be kN or N.

P kN

Span, l

Figure 28.5 – Point Load acting on a beam

28.3 Details of Imposed Loads

Consider an upper floor slab of a house. If it is bed room then the most likely furniture are
a bed, a table, a chair and a wardrobe. The weights of these are transmitted on to the slab
through their legs and they are imposed on the structure when it performs its functions.
Really speaking there will be several concentrated loads acting on the slab. However for
simplicity a uniformly distributed load allows for all the loads due to the tables, chairs, bed
etc. So CP3 chapter V gives UDL for different parts of various buildings depending on the
use. The units of these distributed loads on slabs will be in N/m2 or kN/m2 of the floor
area.

But, for some parts of the buildings, in addition to the imposed UDL a concentrated
imposed load is also specified by the code. For example, for a billiard room the code
specifies a distributed load of 2.0 kN/m2 or concentrated load of 2.7 kN acting on a
square of 300 mm side. The UDL allows for the total load which may occur on the floor
including the weight of furniture, carpets, person using the room etc. but it does not allow
directly for the adverse effect of concentration of the load due to the billiard tables which
will be applied to the floor through the table legs.

Example 2 – Consider the case of billiard room. Assume that the floor of billiard room
is simply supported and has a span of 4m. Because the concentrated load is 300 mm
wide, consider a strip of floor 300 mm wide. (See figure 28.6)

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 28

Concentrated
Consider this strip Load = 2.7 kN
300 mm wide for
calculation 300 mm

l=4m

Figure 28.6 – Plan of Billiard Room Floor

The elevation of this strip can be represented schematically as shown in Figure 28.7 for
the UDL and for the Figure 28.8 for the concentrated load.

UDL q = 2.0 kN/m

l = 4.0 m

Figure 28.7

Total Concentrated load Q = 2.7 kN

300 mm

l = 4.0 m
Figure 28.8

The bending moment due to the UDL will be

M = (2 x 0.3 ) x 42 / 8 = 1.2 kNm

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 28

The BM due to concentrated load acting on the centre of the span will be

M = ((Q/2) x (l/2)) –((Q/2) x (0.3/4)

= ((2.7/2) x (4.0/2)) – ((2.7/2) x (0.3/4))
= 2.6 kNm

So, it can be seen that in this case the worst effect is produced by the concentrated load.

Note – it should be noted that in this example we have taken only the imposed load in
calculating the bending moment. (Dead load and partial safety factors are not considered).

Example 3: For the case of billiard room find the dead load on the slab and on the supporting
beams assuming a simply supported slab.
Assume slab thickness to be 125 mm and the cross section of the beam to be 225 x 300 mm.
Also assume that specific weight of reinforced concrete to be 23 Kn/m2
SLAB

Supporting Beams
l = 4.0 m

Figure 28.9

300 mm
125 mm

225 mm
Figure 28.10

Figure 28.9 shows the schematic diagram and Figure 28.10 shows the actual dimensions of
the beam and the slab.

The weight of 1 m2 of the slab, g = 0.125 x 1 x 1 x 23 = 2.875 kN/m2

Then dead load of the slab, g = 2.875 kN/m2

The dead load of the beam on each beam (per meter length)

g = (2.875 x 4 /2) + 0.225 x 0.3 x 1 x 23

73
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 28

= 5.75 + 1.55
= 7.3 kN

Example 4 : For a garage CP3 recommends a UDL of 2.5 kN/m2 or a concentrated load of
9.0 kN on any square of 300 mm side. S simply supported beam of span 3m supports a
section of the floor 1.5 m wide on each side of the beam.

Determine
a). The maximum Bending Moment.
b). The maximum Shear Force
in the beam from the UDL and the concentrated load.

1.5 m 1.5 m

PORTION OF THE SLAB SUPPORTED BY THE BEAM

Figure 28.11

Solution: Figure 8.11 shows the arrangement of the beam and the portion of the slab
supported by the beam.

i). First take the case of UDL, UDL of the slab q = 2.5 x( 1.5 + 1.5) = 7.5 kN/m

q = 7.5 kN/m

a). The maximum Bending Moment will

be the center of the beam.
( see Figure 8.12)
l = 3.0 m
Maximum BM = q x l2/8 = 7.5 x 32/8 = 8.44 kNm

b). The maximum Shear Force will be

at end of the beam
Maximum SF = ql/2 = 7.5 x 3.0 / 2 = 11.25 kN
BM Diagram

74
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 28

SF Diagram

Figure 28.12

Total Conc. load ii). Now the case of Concentrated load.

Q = 9.0 kN
a). The maximum Bending Moment will be at
the center a of the beam when the
Concentrated load is applied at the centre
l = 3.0 m of the beam. See Figure 28.13

Maximum BM = Q/2 x l/2 – Q/2 x 0.3/4

= 9 x 3 /4 – 9 x 0.3 /8 = 6.41 kNm

b). The maximum Shear force for this loading

case will be at the end of the beam .
Maximum SF = Q/2 = 4.5 kN
BM Diagram

SF Diagram

Figure 28.13

However maximum Shear Force in beam would be when the concentrated load is at the
support and value is 9.00 kN.

Figure 28.14

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

SESSION 29 Design Example of Steel Roof Truss

Design a steel roof truss for a building for the given data.

Structural Summary Sheet.

Type of truss: Howe

Span: 20 m

Pitch: 22o

Spacing of trusses: 3.75m

Height of the building: 4m

Truss supports conditions: left end: Simply supported

right end: Roller Supported

22º

2.5m
[email protected]= 20m

ELEVATION OF TRUSS

purlins

3.75m

trusses

KEY PLAN

Fig. 29.1

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

Reference Data
General Loading Dead Load:
Conditions - Weight of roof covering = 250 N/m2 (slope area)

- Weight of ceiling = 300 N/m2 (plan area)

- Approx. weight of purlins = 150 N/m

- Approx. weight of truss W = 155N/m2 (plan area)

Imposed load: allow = 500 N/m2 (plan area)

Wind Loading Basic wind speed V = 35 m/s
Conditions for assume S1 = 1, S3 = 1
BSCP 3: Chapt.V: Part 2 assume location is in “open country with no obstacles”
Table 8 assume internal pressure coeff. Cpi = 0
Assume only case α = 0˚ is relevant
and that for case α = 90˚ the building is sheltered.
Material Data Grade 43 Steel
Relevant Codes and B.S 449 Part 2 1969
Regulations: BSCP 3: Chapt.V: Part 2 for wind loading

Note:

The approximate weight of truss can be obtained from handbooks such

as Reynold’s Handbook for Reinforced concrete design.
In this design a smaller value for truss weight than that given by the
Reynold’s Handbook has been assumed since in the local context, the
value given by the handbook is conservative.
In any case, the weight has to be checked with the true weights after
designing the relevant members and if necessary, the calculations
amended.

Calculations of Force Coefficients

sign convention: Tension +
Compression -
Note: the force coefficients are assumed to be tension coefficients, acting as
indicated by the arrows, shown for the left hand side members only in fig.2.

77
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

1. Force coefficient (f1) due to vertical loads.

1
U4
1 U3 1 U5
F14
1 U2 68º 1 U6
F10 º 72.48º U1
F15 68º
1 U1 1 U7
F6 F11 F13 39.52º 60.94º
F9 39.52º 68º 1/2
F7 51.06º 44º
F1 F5 68º 68º
50.48º
F2 F3 F4 F8 F12 38.94º 22º 22º
1/2 L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8
2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
P Q
Fig 2
Resolving vertically for the whole body, P+Q=8
By symmetry, P=Q=4

Joint Forces Unknown I Unknown 2 Result

Direction Component Direction Component
½ -1/2 -(1/2)*cos 22o
L0 P 4 4 cos 22o
F1 F1 sin 22o 0
F2 0 -F2 Sin 22o
0 0 F1= -
9.34
F2=
8.66
F2 0 -F2
L1 F3 F3 0
F4 0 F4
0 0 F3 = 0
F4 =
8.66
1 -1 cos 22° 0
U1 F1 0 -F1 cos 22°
F3 -F3 cos 22° 0
F5 -F5 sin 44° F5 cos 22°
F6 0 F6 cos 22°
0 0 F5= -
1.33
F6= -
8.01
F4 0 -F4
L2 F5 F5 sin 22° -F5 cos 22°
F7 F7 0
F8 0 F8
0 0 F7
=0.50
F8
=7.43
1 -1 cos 22° 0

78
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

U2 F6 0 -F6 cos 22°

F7 -F7 cos 22° 0
F9 -F9 sin 60.94° F9 sin 51.06°
F10 0 F10 cos 22°
0 0 F9 = -
1.59
F10 =
- 6.67

F8 0 -F8
L3 F9 F9 sin38.94° -F9 cos 38.94°
F11 F11 0
F12 0 F12
0 0 F11=
1.00
F12=
6.19
1 -1 cos 22° 0
F10 0 -F10 cos 22°
U3 F11 -F11 cos 22° 0
F13 -F13 sin72.48° F13 sin39.52°
F14 0 F14 cos 22°
0 0 F13= -
1.94
F14= -
5.34
F12 0
F13 F13 sin50.48°
L4 F15 F15
F13` F13` sin50.48°
F12` 0
where by 0 F15=
symmetry 3.00
F13` = F13
F12` = F12

Note: * denotes multiplication

2. Now consider the Force coefficient (f2) due to inclined loads from left side:
(Note: The loading is not symmetrical)
1/2
U4
1
U3 F14 F16
1 U5
U2 F10 F20
1 F15 U6
U1 F6 F11 F13 F17 U1 F24
1/2 F19 F21 U7
F9 F23
F1 F7
F5 F25 F29
R F27 9 22º
F2 F3 F4 F8 F12 F18 F22 F26 F28
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8
Q
P 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5
fig. 3

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

Resolving R= 4 sin 22° = 1.5

L0 Q* 20 = 1* (2.5/ cos 22° )+ (5/ cos 22°) +(7.5/ cos22°) +1/2* 10/ cos22°
Q = 1.08
P + Q = 4 cos 22°
P = 2.63

CEX3231 Design Example - page 4 of 10

Joint Forces Unknown 1 Unknown 2 Result

Direction Component Direction Component
½ -(1/2)* cos 22° -1/2
L0 P 2.63 2.63 cos 22o
R 0 1.50 sin 22°
F1 F1 sin 22o 0
F2 0 -F2 sin 22°
0 0 F1 = -
5.78
F2 =
6.67
F2 0 -F2
L1 F3 F3 0
F4 0 F4
0 0 F3 = 0
F4 =
6.67
1 -1 1 sin 22°
U1 F1 0 -F1 cos 22°
F3 -F3 cos 22° 0
F5 -F5 sin 44° F5 cos 22°
F6 0 F6 cos 22°
0 0 F5 = -
1.44
F6 = -
4.74
F4 0 -F4
L2 F5 F5 sin 22° -F5 cos 22°
F7 F7 0
F8 0 F8
0 0 F7 =
0.54
F8 =
5.33
1 -1 1 sin 22°
F6 0 -F6 cos 22°
U2 F7 -F7 cos 22° 0
F9 -F9 sin 60.94° F9 sin51.06°
F10 0 F10 cos 22°
0 0 F9 = -
1.72
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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

F10 = -
3.70
F8 0 -F8
L3 F9 F9 sin 38.94° -F9 cos 38.94°
F11 F11 0
F12 0 F12
0 0 F11 =
1.08
F12 =
4.00
1 -1 1 sin 22°
F10 0 -F10 cos 22°
U3 F11 -F11 cos 22° 0
F13 -F13 sin 72.48° F13 sin 39.52°
F14 0 F14 cos 22°
0 0 F13 = -
2.10
F14 = -
2.66

Q 1.08 0
F29 F29 sin22° F29 cos 22°
L8 F28 0 F28
0 0 F29 = -
2.88
F28 =
2.67
F28 0 -F28
L7 F27 F27 0
F26 0 F26
0 0 F27 =
0
F26
=
2.67
F29 0 -F29 cos 22°
U7 F27 -F27 cos 22° 0
F25 -F25 sin 44° F25 cos 22°
F24 0 F24 cos 22°
0 0 F25 =
0
F24 =
-2.88
F26 0 -F26
L6 F25 F25 sin 22° -F25 cos 22°
F23 F23 0
F22 0 F22
0 0 F23=
0
F22=
2.67
F24 0 -F24 cos 22°
U6 F23 -F23 cos 22° 0
81
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

F21 -F21 sin 60.94° F21 sin 51.06°

F20 0 F20 cos 22°
0 0 F21 =
0
F20 =
-2.88
F22 0 -F22
L5 F21 F21 sin38.94° -F21 cos 38.94°
F19 F19 0
F18 0 F18
0 0 F19 =
0
F18
=
2.67
F20 0 -F20 cos 22°
U5 F19 -F19 cos 22° 0
F17 -F17 sin 72.48° F17 sin 39.52°
F16 0 F16 cos 22°
0 0 F17 =
0
F16 =
-2.88
F18 0
L4 F17 F17 cos 39.52°
F15 F15
F13 F13 cos 39.52°
F12 0
F15
0 =1.62
CEX3231 Design Example - page 6 of 10

82
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

3. To obtain the Force coefficients (f3) due to inclined unit loads from right side, use the
following procedure:

1/
fig. 4 1 U4
2 fig. 5 1U4
1 U 1U3 U5 U3
1 / U5
1/2
1 U1 2
x
U6
U7
+ U1
U
2 y 2
U6
U7
L8 R
R L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L RL0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8
7
Q Q
P FORCE COFFECIENTS: f
2

fig. 7 viz.
MIRROR IMAGE of fig.
1/2
1
= fig.
6 6:
1/2
1
1 U4 U4
1 1
1 1U3 / U5 U3
/ U5 1
1 U1 U U6 U U6 1/2
1/2 2 (x+y) 2 U7 U1 2 2(x+y U7
R )
L0 L1 L2 L3 L4 L5 L6 L7 L8 R L1
L0 L2 L L4 L5 L6 L7 L8
P Q Q 3 P
FORCE COFFECIENTS: f
3

Member Force Force Forces in members for given loading Force

Coeff. Coeff. system Coeff.
f1 f2 f3
Figure4 Figure 5 Figure 6
x y (x +y)
L0L1 8.66 6.67 6.67 -1.50 5.17 1.17
L7L8 8.66 2.67 2.67 -1.50 1.17 5.17
L1L2 8.66 6.67 6.67 -1.50 5.17 1.17
L6L7 8.66 2.67 2.67 -1.50 1.17 5.17
L2L3 7.43 5.33 5.33 -1.50 3.83 1.17
L5L6 7.43 2.67 2.67 -1.50 1.17 3.83
L3L4 6.19 4.00 4.00 -1.50 2.50 1.17
L4L5 6.19 2.67 2.67 -1.50 1.17 2.50
L0U1 -9.34 -5.78 -5.78 0 -5.78 -2.88
U7L8 -9.34 -2.88 -2.88 0 -2.88 -5.78
U1U2 -8.01 -4.74 -4.74 0 -4.74 -2.88
U6U7 -8.01 -2.88 -2.88 0 -2.88 -4.74

83
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

U2U3 -6.67 -3.70 -3.70 0 -3.70 -2.88

U5U6 -6.67 -2.88 -2.88 0 -2.88 -3.70
U3U4 -5.34 -2.66 -2.66 0 -2.66 -2.88
U4U5 -5.34 -2.88 -2.88 0 -2.88 -2.66
L1U1 0 0 0 0 0 0
L7U7 0 0 0 0 0 0
L2U2 0.50 0.54 0.54 0 0.54 0
L6U6 0.50 0 0 0 0 0.54
L3U3 1.00 1.08 1.08 0 1.08 0
L5U5 1.00 0 0 0 0 1.08
L4U4 3.00 1.62 1.62 0 1.62 1.62
U1L2 -1.33 -1.44 -1.44 0 -1.44 0
U7L6 -1.33 0 0 0 0 -1.44
U2L3 -1.59 -1.72 -1.72 0 -1.72 0
U6L5 -1.59 0 0 0 0 -1.72
U3L4 -1.94 -2.10 -2.10 0 -2.10 0
U5L4 -1.94 0 0 0 0 -2.10

Load Factors. ( i.e. the loads corresponding to the unit loads in

this context,):

Loaded areas to be considered at a panel point:

Slope area = (2.5 /cos 22) * 3.75 = 10.11 m2
Plan area = 2.5 * 3.75 = 9.375m2

Note:
The max. allowable spacing for asbestos corrugated roof covering
is 1.37m,
Hence, assume that purlins are provided on upper chord at
panel points and at mid points.

84
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

Ref. Calculations out put

Vertical load factors:

Dead load:
Roof covering wt. = 250 *10.111 = 2527.8 N
Ceiling wt. = 300 * 9.375 = 2812.5 N
Purlin wt. = 2 * 3.75 *150 = 1125.0 N
Roof truss wt. = 155 * 9.375 = 1453.1 N dead load
Σ = 7918.4 N = 7.9 kN

Imposed load = 500 * 9.375 = 4687.5N imposed load

= 4.7 kN
Hence Load factor = 12605.9N total load factor
12.6 kN
Wind load factors

Vs = V S1 S2 S3 where
Vs = Design wind speed with
Assumed S1 = multiplying factor relating to topology =1,
BSCP3:Chapt.V: S2 = multiplying factor relating to height above ground
Part 2 - table 3 and ground roughness (assuming open country with no
obstacles) = 0.86,
Assumed S3 = multiplying factor related to life of structure = 1.
V = 35m/s Basic wind speed (given).

Hence, Vs = 35 * 1 * 0.86 * 1 = 30.1 m/s

Dynamic pressure q = 0.613 Vs2 N/m2

= 0.613 * 30.12
= 555.4 N/m2
Pressure p on an element of the structure,
p = (Cpe – Cpi ) q

For wind case α = 0º

BSCP3:Chapt.V: on wind ward slope
Part 2 - table 8 Cpe = -0.32 Cpi = 0
h 1 p = -0.32 * 555.4 = -177.7 N/m2
 and
w 2 Hence, load factor = -177.7 * 10.11 = -1796.7N Windward load
taking Cpi = 0 as factor = -1.8 kN
given
on lee ward slope
Cpe = -0.4 Cpi = 0
p = -0.4 * 555.4 = -222.2 N/m2 Leeward load
hence, load factor = -222.2 * 10.11 = -2246.6N factor= -2.25kN

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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

Force Design
Load Factors Possible Loading Combination
Member Coefficient Force kN
Dead &
Dead & Wind Lee Wind flows Wind flows

Compression
Imposed

Tension
Imposed ward ward from Left from Right
Loads
Load Slope Slope direction direction
only
f1
f2 f3 Wd FW FL f1Wd kN f1Wd+f2FW+f3FL f1Wd+f2FL+f3FW
L0L1 8.66 6.67 1.17 109.1 94.5 92.0 109.1
L7L8 8.66 2.67 5.17 109.1 92.7 93.8 109.1
L1L2 8.66 6.67 1.17 109.1 94.5 92.0 109.1
L6L7 8.66 2.67 5.17 109.1 92.7 93.8 109.1
L2L3 7.43 5.33 1.17 93.6 81.4 79.5 93.6
L5L6 7.43 2.67 3.83 93.6 80.2 80.7 93.6
L3L4 6.19 4.00 1.17 78.0 68.2 66.9 78.0
L4L5 6.19 2.67 2.50 78.0 67.6 67.5 78.0
- - -
L0U1 -117.7 -100.8 -99.5 117.7
9.34 5.78 2.88
- - -
U7L8 -117.7 -99.5 -100.8 117.7
9.34 2.88 5.78
- - -
U1U2 -100.9 -85.9 -85.1 100.9
8.01 4.74 2.88
- - -
U6U7 -100.9 -85.1 -85.9 100.9
8.01 2.88 4.74
- - -
U2U3 -84.0 -70.9 -70.5 84.0
6.67 3.70 2.88
- - -
U5U6 12.6 -1.80 -2.25 -84.0 -70.5 -70.9 84.0
6.67 2.88 3.70
- - -
U3U4 -67.3 -56.0 -56.1 67.3
5.34 2.66 2.88
- - -
U4U5 -67.3 -56.1 -56.0 67.3
5.34 2.88 2.66
L1U1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
L7U7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
L2U2 0.50 0.54 0 6.3 5.3 5.1 6.3
L6U6 0.50 0 0.54 6.3 5.1 5.3 6.3
L3U3 1.00 1.08 0 12.6 10.7 10.2 12.6
L5U5 1.00 0 1.08 12.6 10.2 10.7 12.6
L4U4 3.00 1.62 1.62 37.8 31.2 31.2 37.8
- -
U1L2 0 -16.8 -14.2 -13.6 16.8
1.33 1.44
- -
U7L6 0 -16.8 -13.6 -14.2 16.8
1.33 1.44
- -
U2L3 0 -20.0 -16.9 -16.1 20.0
1.59 1.72
- -
U6L5 0 -20.0 -16.1 -16.9 20.0
1.59 1.72
- -
U3L4 0 -24.4 -20.6 -19.7 24.4
1.94 2.10
- -
U5L4 0 -24.4 -19.7 -20.6 24.4
1.94 2.10
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 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

Note: Unless otherwise mentioned, all references will be to clauses and tables in BS 449.
The section properties used may differ slightly from those in the Tables given in Appendix.

Reference Calculation Result

Clause 37 We will allow 16 mm  bolts and 12 mm thick gusset
plates to be used for fabricating the truss, as per clause.
The number of bolts at any connection would not be less
than 2.

Note: When selecting the member sections, the following

dimensions have to be taken into account:
Clause 17 bolt hole diameter = 16mm + 2mm = 18mm
Table 21 edge distance to rolled machine flame cut = 26mm

Design of Tension Members:

( i )Members L1U1, L2U2, L3U3, L4U4, L5U5, L6U6, L7U7:

maximum tension = 37.8 kN in L4U4.
Try single angle 50 x 50 x 6 connected through one leg
to the gusset plate.
Sectional area 559 mm2
Clause 42a a1 = net sectional area of connected leg
559
=  18  6 = 171.5
2
a2 = sectional area of unconnected leg.
559
= = 279.5
2

3a1
Clause 42a 1. effective sectional area = a1  a2
due to 3a1  a 2
eccentricity of = 352.6
connection = 352 mm2
allowable stress pt in axial tension = 170 N/mm2
352x170
Max. allowable tensile force = kN
1000
= 59.8 kN
Table 19 viz. greater than the maximum tension of 37.8 kN in the
members
Hence a 50x50x6 single angle section is adequate. Use 50x50x6
single angles
for L1U1, L2U2
L3U3, L4U4,
L5U5, L6U6,
L7U7

(ii) Bottom chord members L0L1, L1L2, L2L3,

87
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

L3L4, L4L5, L5L6, L6L7 & L7L8.

Maximum tension = 109.1 kN.
Try 50 x 50 x 6 double angle members connected to
both sides of gusset plates; there is no eccentricity of
connection in such cases.

a1 = 171.5 mm2
From previous a2 = 279.5 mm2
calculation for There is no eccentricity of connection so that
single angle Effective sectional area of member = 2(a1 + a2)
= 902 mm2
allowable stress in axial tension pt = 170 N/mm2
Clause 42b Allowable tension in members = 153.3 kN Use 2 no.
viz. greater than the maximum tension 50x50x6 angles
hence the 50 x 50 x 6 double angle section is adequate. for bottom
Table 19 chord members
L0L1, L1L2,
L2L3, L3L4,
L4L5, L5L6,
Design of Compression Members. L6L7 & L7L8

(i) Web members U1 L2 & U7 L6

Maximum force = 16. 8 kN
length = 2.696 m
Try a 50 x 50 x 8 single angle
There would be a minimum of 2 bolts at each end.
The slenderness ratio will be calculated as specified in
clause 30 c
Now 0.85Lvv/rvv = 0.85x2696/9.6 = 239
Clause 37 By definition, the slenderness ratio for this angle would
be equal to or greater than 239.
Since, 239 >180 viz. maximum slenderness ratio of a
Clause 30c strut and so the section is inadequate.

Try 70x70x6 single angle

Clause 33 Laa = Lbb = Lvv = 2696
for the single angle, rvv = 13.7 mm, raa = rbb = 21.3 mm

Slenderness ratio would be the greater of:

0.85Lvv/rvv = 167 but  0.7 Lvv/rvv + 15 = 153
1.0 Laa/raa = 126 but  0.7Lbb/raa + 30 = 119

88
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

0.85 Lbb/rbb = 108 but  0.7Lbb/rbb + 30 = 119

Clause 30c and
Table 18 slenderness ratio = 167 < 180 viz. acceptable.
allowable compressive stress pc = 34 N/mm2
Gross angle area = 813 mm2 Use single
allowable force = 34 x 813 N = 27.64 kN > 16.8 angle 70x70x6
Clause 33 i.e. 70 x 70x 6 single angle section is adequate. for U1L2, U7L6.
Table 17a
(ii) Web members U3 L4 & U5L4
Design force = 24.4 kN
Length = 3.928 m
Try 70 x 70 x 6 double angle.
These would be connected to both sides of the 12 mm
thick gusset by not less than two bolts at each end.
The angles would also have intermediate connections as
specified in clause 37 in order to act as a composite
member.
For 70x70x6 single angle, rxx =21.3= ryy and cy =19.3 mm
For the double angle,
rxx = 21.3 mm
ryycomb =
 yy
 y 
 r 2  c  12 2  =33.1 mm
2 
The load may be regarded as applied axially since the
angles are connected to both sides of the gusset.
Taking Lxx= 3928 = Lyy
The slenderness ratio would be the greater of :
Clause 30 c (ii) 0.85 Lxx/rxx = 157 but  0.7Lxx/rxx + 30 = 159
1.0 Lyy/ryy + 10 = 129
slenderness ratio = 159
allowable compressive stress = pc = 37 N/mm2
gross area of cross section = 2 x 813 mm2
allowable force = 60.2 kN viz. > 24.4 kN
i.e. the section is adequate.
Table 17a The double angle would be adequate for U2L3& U6L5
because of the following reason:
Considering members U2L3, U6L5, the design force of
20 kN is less than the design force 24.4 in the above case. Use 70x70x6
Also, since the actual member length is less, the double angle for
slenderness ratio would also be less, so that the allowable U3L4, U5L4
force would be greater than 60.2 kN. U2L3, U6L5

(iii) Upper chord (or Rafter) members L0 U1, U1U2,

U2U3, U3U4, U4U5, U5U6, U6U7, & U7L8.
Design force = (Maximum value of design force in above
members) = 117.7 kN
Try 80 x 80 x 8 double angle

89
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

cx = 22.6 mm
rxx = 24.3 mm = ryy of single angle
for double angle,
ryy =
 yy

 r 2  c  12 2 
y 2 

= 37.5 mm
Ixx = 2 x72.2 x 104 = 144.4 x 104 mm4

Each member is continuous up to the construction joints.

For bending/buckling in the plane of the truss,
take Lxx = panel length = 2696 mm.
Clause 30c(iv),
For out-of-plane-of truss behaviour, since the purlins are
and clause 26b fixed to the upper chord at intermediate as well as the
node points and therefore
Lyy = purlin spacing = 1.25cos 22 = 1.35 m
the slenderness ratio is the greater of
0.85 Lxx/rxx = 94 but  0.7Lxx/rxx + 30 = 108
1.0 Lyy/ryy + 10 = 46
clause 30c(ii)
For slenderness ratio = 108, pc = 73 N/mm2
f c  117.7  10 3  1
   0.66
Table 17a pc  2  1230  73
Since the purlins are fixed at intermediate as well as the
node points the members are subject to bending as well
as axial compression and we have to check for combined
bending: From the layout given in fig.1
the purlins are fixed @ 1.25 m measured horizontally.
Reaction from purlins:
 
fig.1
wt.of roof covering = 250 x 1.25 x 3.75
cos 22
= 1264 N
from given
purlin self weight = 150 x 3.75 = 563 N
data
imposed load = 500 x 1.25 x 3.75
= 2344 N
Total = 4171 N
The maximum bending is due to purlins at mid span
For maximum bending moment allow 4.171 x (2.54)
corresponding to a simply supported span under central
point load =2.61 kNm
 Note: the rafter is continuous at one or both joints so that this
value allowed for the bending moment is conservative.

2.61  10 6
Compressive bending stress fbc = x 22.6
144.4  10 4
= 40.9 N/mm2
Allowable compressive bending stress
Clause 19c pbc = 180 N/mm2
Use double

90
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

Table 2 fc f 40.9 angle 80x80x8

 bcx  0.66 + = 0.89 viz. < 1 and therefore for upper chord
pc pbcx 180
members L0 U1,
satisfactory
Clause 14a U1U2, U2U3,
double angle 80 x 80 x 8 may be used for upper chord U3U4, U4U5,
members. U5U6, U6U7, &
U7L8.

Design of joints

Angles are generally available in 6m lengths so the truss

could be fabricated in 4 parts as indicated by the dotted
lines shown in the fig.

Based on clause 37, we allowed 16 mm diameter black

bolts and 12 mm gusset plates and will proceed on this
basis.
Clause 37

Single Shear Case:

C1ause 50 a,b For bolts in clearance holes,
Table 20 strength in shear = /4 x 162 x 80 = 16085 N
= 16.1 kN
end distance for 18 mm dia.hole = 28 mm viz.
Table 21 < (2xdiameter) = 32 mm
Bearing strength, reducing the allowable bearing stress as
Clause 50 c per clause 50c
28
Table 20A allowable bearing stress on connected part =  250
32
= 218.75 N/mm2

91
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

viz. < allowable bearing on bolt

Strength in bearing of 6 mm leg = 16 x 6 x 218.75 For the cases
= 21 kN viz. > 16.1 kN being
considered,
Strength in bearing of 8 mm leg = 16 x 8 x 218.75 allowable
= 28 kN viz. > 16.1 kN strength for
16mm bolt
Strength in bearing of 12mm gusset = 16x 12 x 218.75 allowable in
= 42 kN viz.>16.1kN single shear
= 16.1 kN
Double Shear Case:
Clause 50 strength in shear of bolt = /4 x 162 x 2 x 80
Table 20 = 32.2 kN
Clause 50 c Taking the bearing stress on the connected part= 218.75
as above,
Strength in bearing of two 6mm legs = 2(16 x 6x 218.75)
= 42 kN >32.2 For the cases
Strength in bearing of two 8mm legs = 2(16 x 8x 218.75) considered,
=56 kN >32.2 allowable
Strength in bearing of 12 mm gusset = 16 x 12 x 218.75 strength for
= 42 kN >32.2 16mm bolt in
double shear
= 32.2 kN
We could summarise the
above as follows:
allowable load per
bolt:
For double angle 80x80x8: 32.2 kN
For double angle 70x70x6 32.2 kN
For double angle 50x50x6 32.2 kN
For 12 mm gusset with bolts under double shear 32.2 kN

For single angle 70x70x6 16.1 kN

For single angle 50x50x6 16.1 kN
For 12 mm gusset with bolts in single shear 16.1 kN
Note: at least 2 bolts to be provided at each joint.

92
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

Gusset to Upper chord (or rafter ) members:

double angles 80x80x8 EA

For L0 U1 U2 & L8 U7 U6: the no. of bolts required

117.7
at L0, L8 = = 3.7 i.e. use 4 bolts
32.2
(117.7  100.9) Members
at U1, U7 : = 0.5. use 2 bolts minimum L0 U1 U2 &
32.2
L8 U7 U6
100.9
at U2, U6 : = 3.1 i.e. use 4 bolts use 4 bolts at
32.2 L0, L8, U2, U6,
2 bolts at U1, U7
For U2 U3 U4 & U6 U5 U4: the no. of bolts required
84.0
at U2, U6 : = 2.6 i.e. use 3 bolts
32.2 Members
(84.00  67.3) U2 U3 U4 &
at U3, U5 : = 0.5 use 2 bolts min.
32.2 U6 U5 U4:
67.3 use 3 bolts at
at U4 : = 2.1 i.e. use 3 bolts U2, U6, U4 and
32.2
2 bolts at U3, U5
Gusset - Lower Chord Members:
double angles 50x50x6EA

For L0 L1 L2 & L8 L7 L6: the no. of bolts required

109.1
at L0, L8 : = 3.4 i.e. use 4 bolts
32.2
(109.1  109.1) Members
at L1, L7 : = 0 use 2 bolts min.
32.2 L0 L1 L2 &
109.1 L8 L7 L6:
at L2, L6 : = 3.4 i.e. use 4 bolts
32.2 use 4 bolts at
L0, L8, L2, L6
For L2 L3 L4 & L6 L5 L4: the no. of bolts required 2 bolts at L1, L7
93.6
at L2, L6 : = 2.9 i.e. use 3 bolts
32.2
(93.6  78.0)
at L3, L5 : = 0.5 i.e. use 2 bolts min. Members
32.2 L2 L3 L4 &
78 L6 L5 L4:
at L4 : = 2.4 i.e. use 3 bolts
32.2 use 3 bolts at
Gusset - Vertical web members: L2, L6, L4 and
single angles 50x50x6EA 2 bolts at L3, L5
No. of bolts required at
0
L1, U1, L7, U7 : =0 use 2 bolts min.
16.1
6.3
L2, U2, L6, U6 : = 0.4 use 2 bolts min.
16.1
For vertical
members: use

93
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

12.6 2 bolts at L1,

L3, U3, L5, U5 : = 0.8 use 2 bolts min.
16.1 U1, L7, U7, L2,
U2, L6, U6, L3,
37.8 U3, L5, U5 and
L4 and U4: = 2.3 i.e. use 3 bolts 3 bolts at L4, U4
16.1

Gusset - Inclined web members

For single angle 70x70x6 EA, the no. of bolts required at

16.8
U1, L2, U7, L6 : = 1.04 i.e. use 2 bolts min.
16.1
For double angles 70x70x6 EA, no. of bolts required at
20.0
U2, L3, U6, L5 : = 0.6 i.e. use 2 bolts min.
32.2
For all inclined
24.4
U3, L4, U5, L4 : = 0.8 i.e. use 2 bolts min members,
32.2 provide 2 bolts
at each end.

Heel Joint
Shoe
angle

Base plate

Slots for
sliding

Only a base plate is required at the fixed end.

At the sliding end, a base plate and sole plate are
provided with slotted holes. It is the usual practice to
connect the truss to shoe-angles which would connect to
the plates.
Page 18 of Design example
The anchor bolts to connect the plate to the column/wall,

94
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

are located outside the shoe angle. i.e. these plates must
be wider than the shoe angle.
Let us now consider the forces and design the respective
sections and connections.

From (page 9) (Unit) Load factor for dead load = 7.9 kN

calculations of 8
load factors: Support vertical reaction due to dead load =    7.9
2
= 31.6 kN
Similarly, since load factor for live load = 4.7 kN
Support vertical reaction due to imposed load
8
=    4.7 =18.8 kN
2
Considering wind load ,
(unit) load factor for windward slope = –1.8 kN
(unit) load factor for leeward slope = –2.25 kN

Calculated Vertical support reaction at roller end due only to wind

force = -[(1.08 x 1.8) + (2.63 x 2.25)] viz. -7.86 kN
coefficients or, for wind blowing from other direction,
due to unit = -[(2.63 x 1.8) + (1.08 x 2.25)] viz. –7.16 kN
inclined loads Maximum uplift due to wind is less than the reaction due
to dead load, which is satisfactory.
Horizontal reaction at support due to wind
= 1.5(2.25-1.8) = 0.7 kN
Hence,
maximum vertical reaction at support = 31.6+18.8
= 50.4 kN
maximum horizontal support reaction = 0.7 kN

Consider the support connections to 1:2:4 concrete

columns:
Steel Designers Allowable bearing pressure on concrete = 5.3 N/mm2
Manual 4th ed. Assume length of shoe angle to be 300 mm
width of bearing required to take up the end reaction
50.4
=
5.3  300
= 32 mm. - but this is too small.
Try 300 x 300 base plate.
Try two 70 x 70 x 10 shoe angles.
This would occupy a width of ((2x70) + 12) = 152 mm.
with a (300–152)/2 i.e. 74 mm projection on each side.
Page 19 of Design exampleShoe angles: 70x70x10 EA
Check for bending:

95
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

50.4  10 3
Upward pressure on Shoe angle =
2(70  300)
= 1.2 N/mm2
60 2
bending moment at section aa = 1.2 x 300 x
2
= 648000 Nmm
1
For the leg I = x 300 x 103 = 25000 mm4
12
648000
BS 449 max bending stress in section = x5
25000
Table 2 = 129.6 < 180 N/mm2
Use 2 no.
300  60
Table 10 shear stress = 1.2  = 7.2 < 125 N/mm2 70x70x10 EA
300  10 shoe angles
Base Plate and Sole Plate

try plates 300 x 300 x 12 mm

Checking for bending:
50.4  10 3
Upward pressure on plate =
300  300
= 0.56 N/mm2
Plate over hang each side = 74 mm
74 2
Bending moment at the edge of angle = (0.56 x300)
2
= 459984 Nmm
1
for base plate I = x 300 x 123 = 43200 mm4
12
459984
maximum bending stress max = 6
43200
= 63.9 N/mm2
Table 2 < 180 N/mm2
0.56  300  74
maximum shear stress = = 3.5 N/mm2 use 300x300x12
300  12
Table 10 < 125 N/mm2 base plates and
sole plate.
Page 20 of Design exampleConnection
of shoe angles to Gusset plate
i.e. 2 no. 70x70x10 EA and 12 mm thick gusset plate.

from page 8,9 Max. Vertical reaction = 50.4 kN as before

allowable load for 16 mm dia. bolts in double shear
= 32.2 kN

96
 CVX3441 Block 2 Session 29

50.4
required. no. of bolts =
32.2
= 1.6
2 bolts would be adequate.
However, taking the width of the bearing etc. into Use 3 bolts for
account, (see fig. 16a) provide 3 bolts to connect shoe shoe-angles to
angles to the gusset plate and truss more firmly. gusset plate
connection

At sliding end - Connection of shoe angle to sole plate

Use 16 mm diameter counter sunk bolts.
These would be in single shear.

Calc. page 16 shear strength of bolt = 16.1 kN

Clause 50c, Bearing strength on 10 mm leg of shoe angle, reducing
Tables 21 & the allowable bearing stress as per clause 50c
20A  28 
= 16 x 10 x   250 
 32 
= 35 kN
C1ause 51f. Bearing strength with countersunk head on 12 mm plate
Clause 50 c with 8 mm depth of countersinking and with the end
Table 20 distance on the 12 mm thick plate greater than 2x16 mm
 1   32  16  
= 16  (12  8)    8    250
 2   2  
= 40 kN
allowable strength on bolt = 16.1 kN
Horizontal reaction force due to wind = 0.7kN Provide 2 no.
Calc. page 9
0.7 16 mm dia.
Required no. of counter sunk bolts = = 0.04 countersunk
16.1
bolts on each
However, provide minimum 2 no. counter sunk bolts on
side.
each side.

97
 CVX3441Block 2 Session 30

SESSION 30DESIGN EXAMPLE –PORTAL FRAMES

The analysis results of portal frame given in Figure 30.1 is given below.

20 kN/m

B C

A D

Dimensions , Ab and CD = 4 m and BC = 6 m

Fixed End Moments

MAB = 15kNm (Inward), MBA = 30 kNm (Outward), MBC = - 30kNm (Hogging),
MCB = - 30 kNm (Hogging), MCD = 30 kNm (Outward), MDC = 15kNm (inward)

Mid Span Moments – Member AB = 90 kNm

Axial Forces, Member AB and DC - 60k N (compressive)

Steel Design

This design is carried out according to the BS449 – Steel Work Design

Beam BC

Selected Section –Select 203 x 133 x 25 UB

Zxx = 231.1 cm3

M = 90 kNm

90  106
Fbt = fbc =  389 N/mm2> 180 N/mm2
231.1  10 3

98
 CVX3441Block 2 Session 30

Selected Section 203 x 203 x 22 UB

Zxx = 949 cm3

M = 90 kNm

90  106
Applied Stresses, fbt = fbc=  95N/mm2
949  103

Permissible Stresses,

1. Tension due to bending, Pbt(From Table 2 – BS449, thickness < 40 mm) = 180 N/mm2

Since pbt>fbt , beam is safe in tension due to bending

2. Compression due to bending

Referring Table 3.a of BS449

l = 6000 mm ,rxx = 179 mm, l/r = 33.51, D/T = 41.3

Pbc = 180 N/mm2

Since Pbt>fbt, beam is safe in compression due to bending

Column Design

Axial Force – 60 kN and maximum Bending Moment – 30 kNm

Select Universal Column – 203 x 203 x 60 UC

Axial Compression Design

60  103
Ag = 75.8 cm2, then applied compressive stress fc =  7.91N/mm2
75.8  10 2

Effective Length, l is 0.7 x 4000 = 2800 mm, Radius of Gyration – rxx = 8.96 cm

Hence Slenderness, l/r = 31.25

From Table 17.b ,pbc – 200 N/mm2

Since Pc >Fc , column is safe in compression due to axial load.

Flexural Design

99
 CVX3441Block 2 Session 30

Zxx = 581.1 cm3

M = 30 kNm

30  106
Fbt = fbc =  51.6 N/mm2
581 10 3

Permissible Stresses,

1.Tension due to bending, Pbt (From Table 2 – BS449, thickness < 40 mm) = 180 N/mm2

Since Pbt>Fbt , beam is safe in tension due to bending

2. Compression due to bending

Referring Table 3.a of BS449

l = 4000 mm ,rxx = 162 mm, l/r = 24.62, D/T = 12.6

Pbc = 180 N/mm2

Since Pbc>Fbc , beam is safe in compression due to bending

Compression with Bending

fc fbc 7.91 52
    0.288  1 , Hence safe
pc pbc 200 180

100
DIMENSIONAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL
SECTIONS

101
Dimensions Properties – Equal Angles

M = Mass per m , A= Depth of Section, B= Width of Section,

T = Flange Thickness, A = Area of Section, Z = Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) =
I/ymax x-x & y-y

C of G Moment Of Inertia Radius Of Gyration Z

axa T M A
Cx, Cy X-X, Y-Y U-U V-V X-X, Y-Y U-U V-V
2
mm mm kg cm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm3
25 x 25 3 1.11 1.42 0.72 0.80 1.26 0.33 0.75 0.94 0.48 0.45
4 1.45 1.85 0.76 1.01 1.60 0.43 0.74 0.93 0.48 0.58
5 1.77 2.26 0.80 1.20 1.87 0.52 0.73 0.91 0.48 0.71
30 x 30 3 1.36 1.74 0.84 1.40 2.23 0.58 0.90 1.13 `0.58 0.65
4 1.78 2.27 0.88 1.80 2.85 0.75 0.89 1.12 0.58 0.85
5 2.18 2.78 0.92 2.16 3.41 0.92 0.88 1.11 0.57 1.04
40 x 40 4 2.42 3.08 1.12 4.47 7.09 1.85 1.21 1.52 0.78 1.55
5 2.97 3.79 1.16 5.43 8.60 2.26 1.20 1.51 0.77 1.91
6 3.52 4.48 1.20 6.31 9.98 2.65 1.19 1.49 0.77 2.26
45 x 45 4 2.74 3.49 1.23 6.43 10.2 2.67 1.36 1.71 0.87 1.97
5 3.38 4.30 1.28 7.84 12.4 3.25 1.35 1.70 0.87 2.43
6 4.00 5.09 1.32 9.16 14.5 3.82 1.34 1.69 0.87 2.88
50 x 50 5 3.77 4.80 1.40 11.0 17.4 4.54 1.51 1.90 0.97 3.05
6 4.47 5.69 1.45 12.8 20.4 5.33 1.50 1.89 0.97 3.61
7 5.82 7.41 1.52 16.3 25.7 6.87 1.48 1.86 0.96 4.68
60 x 60 5 4.57 5.82 1.64 19.4 30.7 8.02 1.82 2.30 1.17 4.45

102
 6 5.42 6.91 1.69 22.8 36.2 9.43 1.82 2.29 1.17 5.29
8 7.09 9.03 1.77 29.2 46.2 12.1 1.80 2.26 1.16 6..89
108.69 11.1 1.85 34.9 55.1 14.8 1.78 2.23 1.16 8.41
70 x 70 6 6.38 8.13 1.93 36.9 58.5 15.2 2.13 2.68 1.37 7.27
8 8.36 10.6 2.01 47.5 75.3 19.7 2.11 2.66 1.36 9.52
1010.3 13.1 2.09 57.2 90.5 23.9 2.09 2.63 1.35 11.7
80 x 80 6 7.34 9.35 2.17 55.8 88.5 23.1 2.44 3.08 1.57 9.57
8 9.63 12.3 2.26 72.2 115 29.8 2.43 3.06 1.56 12.6
1011.9 15.1 2.34 87.5 139 36.3 2.41 3.03 1.55 15.4
90 x 90 6 8.3 10.6 2.41 80.3 127 33.3 2.76 3.47 1.78 12.2
8 10.9 13.9 2.50 104 166 43.1 2.74 3.45 1.76 16.1
1013.4 17.1 2.58 127 201 52.6 2.72 3.42 1.76 19.8
1215.9 20.3 2.66 148 234 61.7 2.70 3.40 1.75 23.3
100x100 8 12.2 15.5 2.74 145 230 59.8 3.06 3.85 1.96 19.9
1217.8 22.7 2.90 207 328 85.7 3.02 3.80 1.94 29.1
1521.9 27.9 3.02 249 393 104 2.98 3.75 1.93 35.6
120x120 8 14.7 18.7 3.23 255 405 105 3.69 4.65 2.37 29.1
1018.2 23.2 3.31 313 497 129 3.67 4.63 2.36 36.0
1221.6 27.5 3.40 368 584 151 3.65 4.60 2.35 42.7
1526.6 33.9 3.51 445 705 185 3.62 4.56 2.33 52.4
150x150 1023.0 29.3 4.03 624 991 258 4.62 5.82 2.97 56.9
1227.3 34.8 4.12 737 1170 303 4.60 5.80 2.95 67.7
1533.8 43.0 4.25 898 1430 370 4.57 5.76 2.93 83.5
1840.1 51.0 4.37 1050 1670 435 4.54 5.71 2.92 98.7
200x200 1648.5 61.8 5.52 2340 3720 959 6.16 7.76 3.94 162
1854.2 69.1 5.60 2600 4130 1070 6.13 7.73 3.93 181
2059.9 76.3 5.68 2850 4530 1170 6.11 7.70 3.92 199
2471.1 90.6 5.84 3330 5280 1380 6.06 7.64 3.90 235
C of G Moment Of Inertia Radius Of Gyration Z
AxB T M A
Cx, Cy X-X, Y-Y U-U V-V X-X, Y-Y U-U V-V
2
mm mm kg cm cm cm4 cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm3

103
 Dimensions Properties – Unequal Angles

Dimensions and Properties

Dist Dist
Section Mass Section Area
to to
Designation per Second Moment of Area Radius of Gyration (Elastic) of
Cen.of Cen.of
axbxt metre Modulus Section
Grav Grav
Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Sect'n Sect'n
M A
Cx Cy Ix Iy Ixy Iu Iv rx ry ru rv Zx Zy
4 4 4
kg/m cm cm cm cm cm cm4 cm4 cm cm cm cm cm3 cm3 cm2
200x150x15 39.6 6.21 3.73 2022 979 -824 2476 526 6.33 4.4 7 3.23 147 86.9 50.5
200x150x12 32 6.08 3.61 1652 803 -675 2025 430 6.36 4.44 7.04 3.25 119 70.5 40.8
200x100x15 33.7 7.16 2.22 1758 299 -406 1864 194 6.4 2.64 6.58 2.12 137 38.4 43
200x100x12 27.3 7.03 2.1 1440 247 -336 1528 159 6.43 2.67 6.63 2.14 111 31.3 34.8
200x100x10 23 6.93 2.01 1219 210 -285 1294 135 6.46 2.68 6.65 2.15 93.2 26.3 29.2
150x100x12 22.5 4.9 2.42 651 233 -225 749 134 4.76 2.85 5.11 2.16 64.4 30.7 28.7
150x100x10 19 4.81 2.34 553 198 -192 637 114 4.78 2.87 5.13 2.17 54.2 25.9 24.2
150x90x15 26.6 5.21 2.23 761 205 -225 841 126 4.74 2.46 4.98 1.93 77.7 30.4 33.9
150x90x12 21.6 5.08 2.12 627 171 -188 694 104 4.77 2.49 5.02 1.94 63.3 24.8 27.5
150x90x10 18.2 5 2.04 533 146 -160 591 88.3 4.8 2.51 5.05 1.95 53.3 21 23.2
150x75x15 24.8 5.53 1.81 713 120 -161 754 78.8 4.75 1.94 4.88 1.58 75.3 21 31.6
150x75x12 20.2 5.41 1.69 589 99.9 -136 624 64.9 4.79 1.97 4.93 1.59 61.4 17.2 25.7
150x75x10 17 5.32 1.61 501 85.8 -117 532 55.3 4.81 1.99 4.96 1.6 51.8 14.6 21.6
150x75x9 15.4 5.26 1.57 455 77.9 -106 483 50.2 4.82 1.99 4.96 1.6 46.7 13.1 19.6
135x65x10 15 4.88 1.42 356 54.7 -77.6 375 35.9 4.31 1.69 4.43 1.37 41.3 10.8 19.1
135x65x8 12.2 4.78 1.34 291 45.2 -64.1 307 29.4 4.34 1.71 4.45 1.38 33.4 8.75 15.5

104
125x75x12 17.8 4.31 1.84 354 95.5 -105 391 58.5 3.95 2.05 4.15 1.61 43.2 16.9 22.7
125x75x10 15 4.23 1.76 302 82.1 -90.1 334 49.9 3.97 2.07 4.18 1.61 36.5 14.3 19.1
125x75x8 12.2 4.14 1.68 247 67.6 -74.2 274 40.9 4 2.09 4.21 1.63 29.6 11.6 15.5
120x80x12 17.8 4 2.03 323 114 -111 370 66.7 3.77 2.24 4.04 1.71 40.4 19.1 22.7
120x80x10 15 3.92 1.95 276 98.1 -95 317 56.8 3.8 2.26 4.07 1.72 34.1 16.2 19.1
120x80x8 12.2 3.83 1.87 226 80.8 -78.2 260 46.6 3.82 2.28 4.1 1.74 27.6 13.2 15.5
100x75x12 15.4 3.27 2.03 189 90.2 -75.3 230 49.5 3.1 2.14 3.42 1.59 28 16.5 19.7
100x75x10 13 3.19 1.95 162 77.6 -65.1 197 42.2 3.12 2.16 3.45 1.59 23.8 14 16.6
100x75x8 10.6 3.1 1.87 133 64.1 -53.8 162 34.6 3.14 2.18 3.47 1.6 19.3 11.4 13.5
100x65x10 12.3 3.36 1.63 154 51 -50.8 175 30.2 3.14 1.81 3.35 1.39 23.2 10.5 15.6
100x65x8 9.94 3.27 1.55 127 42.2 -42.2 144 24.8 3.16 1.83 3.37 1.4 18.9 8.54 12.7
100x65x7 8.77 3.23 1.51 113 37.6 -37.5 128 22 3.17 1.83 3.39 1.4 16.6 7.53 11.2
100x50x8 8.97 3.6 1.13 116 19.7 -26.7 123 12.8 3.19 1.31 3.28 1.06 18.2 5.08 11.4
100x50x6 6.84 3.51 1.05 89.9 15.4 -20.9 95.4 9.92 3.21 1.33 3.31 1.07 13.8 3.89 8.71
80x60x7 7.36 2.51 1.52 59 28.4 -23.8 72 15.4 2.51 1.74 2.77 1.28 10.7 6.34 9.38
80x40x8 7.07 2.94 0.963 57.6 9.61 -13 60.9 6.34 2.53 1.03 2.6 0.838 11.4 3.16 9.01
80x40x6 5.41 2.85 0.884 44.9 7.59 -10.3 47.6 4.93 2.55 1.05 2.63 0.845 8.73 2.44 6.89
75x50x8 7.39 2.52 1.29 52 18.4 -17.7 59.6 10.8 2.35 1.4 2.52 1.07 10.4 4.95 9.41
75x50x6 5.65 2.44 1.21 40.5 14.4 -14 46.6 8.36 2.37 1.42 2.55 1.08 8.01 3.81 7.19
70x50x6 5.41 2.23 1.25 33.4 14.2 -12.6 39.7 7.92 2.2 1.43 2.4 1.07 7.01 3.78 6.89
65x50x5 4.35 1.99 1.25 23.2 11.9 -9.72 28.8 6.32 2.05 1.47 2.28 1.07 5.14 3.19 5.54
60x40x6 4.46 2 1.01 20.1 7.12 -6.88 23.1 4.16 1.88 1.12 2.02 0.855 5.03 2.38 5.68
60x40x5 3.76 1.96 0.972 17.2 6.11 -5.91 19.7 3.54 1.89 1.13 2.03 0.86 4.25 2.02 4.79
60x30x5 3.37 2.15 0.681 15.6 2.6 -3.54 16.5 1.7 1.9 0.779 1.96 0.629 4.04 1.12 4.29
50x30x5 2.96 1.73 0.741 9.36 2.51 -2.75 10.3 1.54 1.57 0.816 1.65 0.639 2.86 1.11 3.78
45x30x4 2.25 1.48 0.739 5.75 2.04 -1.98 6.61 1.19 1.42 0.845 1.52 0.644 1.9 0.903 2.86
40x25x4 1.93 1.36 0.623 3.89 1.16 -1.21 4.35 0.701 1.26 0.688 1.33 0.534 1.47 0.619 2.46
40x20x4 1.77 1.47 0.481 3.59 0.596 -0.806 3.8 0.393 1.26 0.514 1.3 0.417 1.42 0.393 2.26
30x20x4 1.46 1.03 0.541 1.59 0.553 -0.53 1.81 0.33 0.925 0.546 0.988 0.421 0.807 0.379 1.86
30x20x3 1.12 0.99 0.502 1.25 0.437 -0.424 1.43 0.256 0.935 0.553 1 0.424 0.621 0.292 1.43
30x20x3 1.12 0.99 0.502 1.25 0.437 -0.424 1.43 0.256 0.935 0.553 1 0.424 0.621 0.292 1.43

105
 Dimensional Properties - Channels

Dimensions & Properties

Thickness Second Radius Section
of Plastic
Mass Depth Area Moment of (Elastic)
Modulus
per between of Area Gyration Modulus
Designation m Web Flange fillets Section Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis
x-x y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y
M s t d A Ix Iy rx ry Zx Zy Sx Sy
2 4
kg/m mm mm mm cm cm cm4 cm cm cm3 cm3 cm3 cm3
432x102x65 65.5 12.2 16.8 362.5 83.4 21373 627 16 2.74 990 80 1205 152
381x102x55 55.01 10.4 16.3 312.6 70.1 14869 579 14.6 2.87 781 75.7 931 144
305x102x46 46.21 10.2 14.8 239.3 58.9 8208 499 11.8 2.91 539 66.5 638 128
305x89x42 41.81 10.2 13.7 245.4 53.3 7078 326 11.5 2.48 464 48.6 559 92.6
254x89x36 35.66 9.1 13.6 194.7 45.4 4445 302 9.89 2.58 350 46.7 414 89.6
254x76x28 28.18 8.1 10.9 203.9 35.9 3355 162 9.67 2.12 264 28.1 316 53.8
229x89x33 32.68 8.6 13.3 169.9 41.6 3383 285 9.01 2.61 296 44.8 348 86.3
229x76x26 26.08 7.6 11.2 177.8 33.2 2615 159 8.87 2.19 229 28.4 271 54.5
203x89x30 29.77 8.1 12.9 145.2 37.9 2492 265 8.11 2.64 245 42.4 287 81.7
203x76x24 23.85 7.1 11.2 152.4 30.4 1955 152 8.02 2.24 192 27.7 226 53.5
178x89x27 26.79 7.6 12.3 121 34.1 1753 241 7.17 2.66 197 39.3 230 75.4
178x76x21 20.84 6.6 10.3 128.8 26.6 1338 134 7.1 2.25 151 24.8 176 48.1
152x89x24 23.87 7.1 11.6 96.9 30.4 1168 216 6.2 2.66 153 35.8 178 68.6
152x76x18 17.91 6.4 9 105.9 22.8 852 114 6.11 2.23 112 21 130 41.2
127x64x15 14.92 6.4 9.2 84 19 482 67.2 5.04 1.88 76 15.2 89.4 29.3
102x51x10 10.4 6.1 7.6 65.8 13.3 207 29.1 3.95 1.48 40.8 8.14 48.7 15.7
76x38x7 6.71 5.1 6.8 45.8 8.56 74.3 10.7 2.95 1.12 19.5 4.09 23.5 7.78

106
Dimensional Properties – T Sections

Dimensions
M = Mass per m , A= Width of Section, B= Depth of Section, T1 = Web
thickness, T = Flange Thickness, Area = Area of Section, S = Slope Inside
Flange
Serial Size M A B T1 T R1 Area
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm cm2
305x 457 127 305.5 459.2 17.3 27.9 19.1 161.2
112 304.1 455.2 15.9 23.9 19.1 142.5
101 303.4 451.5 15.2 20.2 19.1 128.0
292 x 419 113 293.8 425.4 16.1 26.8 17.8 144.2
97 292.4 420.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 123.4
88 291.6 417.4 14.0 18.8 17.8 111.9
267 x 381 99 268.0 384.8 15.6 25.4 16.5 125.
87 266.7 381.0 14.3 21.6 16.5 110.1
74 265.3 376.9 12.9 17.5 16.5 93.9
254 x 343 85 255.8 346.5 14.5 23.7 15.2 108.2
76 254.5 343.8 13.2 21.0 15.2 96.8
70 253.7 341.8 12.4 19.0 15.2 89.2
63 253.0 339.0 11.7 16.2 15.2 79.7
305 x 305 119 311.5 316.5 18.6 31.4 16.5 151.8
90 307.0 308.7 14.1 23.6 16.5 113.8
75 304.8 304.8 11.9 19.7 16.5 94.9

107
229 x 305 70 230.1 308.5 13.1 22.1 12.7 89.1
63 229.0 305.9 11.9 19.6 12.7 79.7
57 228.2 303.7 11.2 17.3 12.7 72.2
51 227.6 301.1 10.6 14.8 12.7 64.5
178 x 305 46 178.4 301.2 10.6 15.0 12.7 57.9
41 177.8 299.1 10.1 12.8 12.7 52.2
330 x 267 106 333.6 272.5 16.7 27.8 16.5 134.8
95 331.7 269.7 14.9 25.0 16.5 120.6
84 330.2 266.7 13.4 22.0 16.5 106.3
210 x 267 61 211.9 272.3 12.8 21.3 12.7 77.8
55 210.7 269.7 11.6 18.8 12.7 69.2
51 210.1 268.4 10.9 17.4 12.7 64.6
46 209.3 266.6 10.2 15.6 12.7 58.8
41 208.7 264.2 9.6 13.2 12.7 52.1
165 x 267 37 165.6 264.4 9.3 13.5 12.7 46.5
33 165.1 262.4 8.8 11.5 12.7 41.8
191 x 229 49 192.8 233.7 11.4 19.6 10.2 62.6
45 192.0 231.8 10.6 17.7 10.2 56.9
41 191.3 230.1 9.9 16.0 10.2 52.2
37 190.5 228.6 9.1 14.5 10.2 47.4
34 189.9 226.8 8.5 12.7 10.2 42.7
152 x 229 41 153.5 232.5 10.7 18.9 10.2 52.2
37 152.7 230.6 9.9 17.0 10.2 47.4
34 151.9 228.6 9.1 15.0 10.2 42.7
30 152.9 227.3 8.0 13.3 10.2 38.0
27 152.4 224.9 7.6 10.9 10.2 33.2
178 x 203 37 179.7 206.4 9.7 16.0 10.2 47.4
34 178.8 204.7 8.8 14.3 10.2 42.7
30 177.8 203.2 7.8 12.8 10.2 38.0
27 177.6 201.3 7.6 10.9 10.2 34.2
152 x 203 37 153.7 208.2 10.1 18.1 10.2 47.4
34 152.9 206.1 9.3 16.0 10.2 42.7
30 152.2 204.0 8.6 13.9 10.2 37.9
140 x 203 23 142.4 201.2 6.9 11.2 10.2 29.4
20 141.8 198.6 6.3 8.6 10.2 24.7
152 x 191 34 154.3 194.3 9.7 16.3 10.2 42.7
30 153.4 192.4 8.7 14.4 10.2 38.0
26 152.4 190.5 7.8 12.4 10.2 33.2

108
171 x 178 34 173.2 182.0 9.1 15.7 10.2 42.7
29 172.1 179.3 8.0 13.0 10.2 36.0
26 171.5 177.8 7.3 11.5 10.2 32.2
23 171.0 176.0 6.9 9.7 10.2 28.4
127 x 178 20 126.0 176.4 6.5 10.7 10.2 24.7
17 125.4 174.2 5.9 8.5 10.2 20.9
165 x 152 27 166.8 155.4 7.7 13.7 8.9 34.2
23 165.7 153.5 6.7 11.8 8.9 29.4
20 165.1 151.9 6.1 10.2 8.9 25.7
127 x 152 24 125.2 155.2 8.9 14.0 8.9 30.4
21 124.3 153.3 8.0 12.1 8.9 26.6
19 123.5 151.9 7.2 10.7 8.9 23.7
102 x 152 17 102.4 156.3 6.6 10.8 7.6 20.9
14 101.9 154.4 6.1 8.9 7.6 18.1
13 101.6 152.4 5.8 6.8 7.6 15.7
146 x 127 22 147.3 129.8 7.3 12.7 7.6 27.5
19 146.4 128.0 6.4 10.9 7.6 23.7
16 146.1 125.7 6.1 8.6 7.6 20.0
102 x 127 14 102.1 130.2 6.4 10.0 7.6 18.1
13 101.9 128.5 6.1 8.4 7.6 16.1
11 101.6 127.0 5.8 6.8 7.6 14.2
133 x 102 15 133.8 103.4 6.3 9.6 7.6 19.0
13 133.4 101.6 5.8 7.8 7.6 16.1
Serial Size M A B T1 T R1 Area
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm cm2

109
Properties

I= Moment Of Inertia, R= Radius Of Gyration, E.M= Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus)

= I/ymax,

Cx I R Z
Serial Size Mass/M
Axis xxs Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y
mm mm cm cm 4 cm 4 cm cm Cx-cm Ex-cm cm 3
305x 457 127 12.03 32664 6256 14.2 6.23 2716 963.7 409.6
- 112 12.16 29001 5212 14.3 6.05 2386 869.3 342.8
- 101 12.56 26399 4316 14.4 5.81 2101 810.2 284.5
292 x 419 113 10.84 24636 5331 13.1 6.08 2272 777.2 362.9
- 97 11.11 21354 4192 13.2 5.83 1922 690.4 286.8
- 88 11.39 19560 3555 13.2 5.64 1718 644.3 243.8
267 x 381 99 9.91 17512 3850 11.8 5.54 1766 613.0 287.3
- 87 10.01 15477 3188 11.9 5.38 1547 550.9 239.1
- 74 10.20 13308 2501 11.9 5.16 1304 484.1 188.6
254 x 343 85 8.69 12025 3113 10.5 5.36 1384 463.2 243.4
- 76 8.61 10726 2695 10.5 5.28 1246 416.5 211.8
- 70 8.66 9926 2395 10.5 5.18 1146 389.1 188.7
- 63 8.88 8984 1996 10.6 5.00 1011 369.2 157.7
305 x 305 119 7.12 12283 7487 9.00 7.02 1726 500.7 480.7
- 90 6.66 8939 5385 8.86 6.81 1341 369.2 344.3
- 75 6.45 7355 4236 8.8 6.68 1140 306.1 277.9
229 x 305 70 7.62 7739 2126 9.32 4.88 1016 333.1 184.8
- 63 7.56 6904 1838 9.31 4.80 913.7 299.7 160.5
- 57 7.62 6288 1592 9.34 4.70 825.6 276.4 139.5
- 51 7.82 5702 1329 9.40 4.54 729.6 255.7 116.8
178 x 305 46 8.68 5351 713.5 9.61 3.51 616.3 249.6 80.0
- 41 8.90 4848 601.3 9.64 3.39 544.7 230.8 67.6
330 x 267 106 5.56 7381 8032 7.40 7.72 1329 340.5 481.6
- 95 5.36 6484 7046 7.33 7.64 1209 300.0 424.8
- 84 5.23 5678 6029 7.31 7.53 1085 264.9 365.2
210 x 26 61 6.68 5178 1604 8.16 4.54 775.1 252.0 151.4
- 55 6.61 4588 1377 8.14 4.46 694.5 225.3 130.7
- 51 6.58 4277 1256 8.14 4.41 649.9 211.2 119.6
- 46 6.58 3900 1106 8.14 4.34 593.0 194.2 105.7
- 41 6.75 3511 912.8 8.21 4.18 520.3 178.5 87.5
165 x 267 37 7.35 3258 513.6 8.37 3.32 443.0 170.7 62.0

110
- 33 7.55 2949 431.5 8.40 3.21 390.6 157.8 52.3
191 x 229 49 5.56 2976 1108 6.90 4.21 535.4 167.1 114.9
- 45 5.50 2698 980.1 6.89 4.15 490.5 152.7 102.1
- 41 5.49 2479 873.1 6.89 4.09 451.5 141.5 91.3
- 37 5.43 2244 773.6 6.88 4.04 413.4 128.7 81.2
- 34 5.48 2034 664.2 6.90 3.95 371.5 118.2 70.0
152 x 229 41 6.03 2606 546.7 7.07 3.24 431.8 151.3 71.2
37 5.99 2362 481.3 7.06 3.18 394.3 138.4 63.0
34 5.99 2126 414.4 7.06 3.12 354.7 126.0 54.6
30 5.82 1870 397.2 7.02 3.23 321.4 110.6 52.0
27 6.03 1667 322.4 7.08 3.11 276.3 101.3 42.3
178 x 203 37 4.81 1756 724.0 6.08 3.91 365.2 110.9 80.6
34 4.74 1572 694.3 6.07 3.85 331.7 99.9 71.0
30 4.62 1382 554.2 6.03 3.82 299.2 88.0 62.3
27 4.82 1280 460.9 6.12 3.67 265.6 83.6 51.9
152 x 203 37 5.14 1823 523.3 6.20 3.32 354.3 116.3 68.1
34 5.11 1638 454.2 6.20 3.26 320.8 105.6 59.4
30 5.12 1462 384.0 6.21 3.18 285.5 95.7 50.5
140 x 203 23 5.06 1129 250.1 6.19 2.92 223.1 75.0 35.1
20 5.29 966.4 186.5 6.26 2.75 182.8 66.3 26.3
152 x 191 34 4.75 1427 473.4 5.78 3.33 300.8 97.2 61.4
30 4.67 1261 407.0 5.76 3.27 269.8 86.6 53.1
26 4.61 1097 342.7 5.75 3.21 238.1 76.0 45.0
171 x 178 34 4.01 1157 639.2 5.21 3.87 288.3 81.6 73.8
29 3.96 977.9 513.0 5.21 3.77 247.2 70.0 59.6
26 3.93 876.6 442.7 5.21 3.71 222.9 63.3 51.6
23 4.03 790.3 365.1 5.27 3.58 196.0 58.2 42.7
127 x 178 20 4.42 718.5 166.5 5.40 2.60 162.6 54.4 26.4
17 4.54 617.2 128.5 5.44 2.48 136.0 47.9 20.5
165 x 152 27 3.20 635.8 494.1 4.31 3.80 198.9 51.5 59.3
23 3.09 540.3 412.4 4.29 3.74 174.7 44.1 49.8
20 3.07 475.4 345.5 4.30 3.67 154.7 39.2 41.9
127 x 152 24 3.92 653.1 219.0 4.64 2.68 166.7 56.3 35.0
21 3.86 567.2 183.3 4.62 2.63 147.1 49.4 29.5
19 3.81 503.8 157.9 4.61 2.58 132.2 44.3 25.6
102 x 152 17 4.15 486.5 94.68 4.83 2.13 117.3 42.4 18.5
14 4.23 426.5 76.41 4.85 2.05 100.8 38.0 15.0
13 4.48 375.4 58.05 4.89 1.92 83.8 34.9 11.4

111
146x127 22 2.67 348.8 316.6 3.56 3.39 130.5 33.8 43.0
19 2.58 296.4 263.8 3.54 3.34 114.8 29.0 36.1
16 2.69 262.7 202.8 3.63 3.19 97.7 26.6 27.8
102 x 127 14 3.26 278.7 87.12 3.93 2.19 85.6 28.6 17.1
13 3.36 252.5 71.89 3.96 2.11 75.2 26.6 14.1
11 3.49 227.1 58.0 4.00 2.02 65.1 24.7 11.4
133 x 102 15 2.10 152.4 176.8 2.83 3.05 72.5 18.5 26.4
13 2.13 133.5 139.8 2.88 2.94 62.7 16.6 21.0

112
Dimensional Properties – Universal Beams

Dimensions

M = Mass per m , D= Depth of Section, B= Width of Section, T1 = Web

thickness, T = Flange Thickness, R1 = Root radius, R2= Toe Radius, A = Area
Serial Size M D B T1 T D1 A
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm cm2
914 x 419 388 920.5 420.5 21.5 36.6 791.5 493.9
- 343 911.4 418.5 19.4 32.0 791.5 436.9
914x 305 289 926.6 307.8 19.6 32.0 819.2 368.5
253 918.5 305.5 17.3 27.9 819.2 322.5
224 910.3 304.1 15.9 23.9 819.2 284.9
201 903.0 303.4 15.2 20.2 819.2 256.1
838 x 292 226 850.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 756.4 288.4
194 840.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 756.4 246.9
176 834.9 291.6 14.0 18.8 756.4 223.8
762x267 197 769.6 268.0 15.6 25.4 681.2 250.5
173 762.0 266.7 14.3 21.6 681.2 220.2
147 753.9 265.3 12.9 17.5 681.2 187.8
686 x254 170 692.9 255.8 14,5 23.7 610.6 216.3
152 687.6 254.5 13.2 21.0 610.6 193.6
140 683.5 253.7 12.4 19.0 610.6 178.4
125 677.9 253.0 11.7 16.2 610.6 159.4
610x305 238 633.0 311.5 18.6 31.4 531.6 303.5
179 617.5 307.0 14.1 23.6 531.6 227.7
149 609.6 304.8 11.9 19.7 531.6 189.9
610x229 140 617.0 230.1 13.1 22.1 543.1 178.2
125 611.9 229.0 11.9 19.6 543.1 159.4
113 607.3 228.2 11.2 17.3 543.1 144.3
101 602.2 227.6 10.6 14.8 543.1 129.0
610x178 91 602.5 178.4 10.6 15.0 547.1 115.9

113
 82 598.2 177.8 10.1 12.8 547.1 104.4
533x330 212 545.1 333.6 16.7 27.8 450.1 269.6
189 539.5 331.7 14.9 25.0 450.1 241.2
167 533.4 330.2 13.4 22.0 450.1 212.7
533x210 122 544.6 211.9 12.8 21.3 472.7 155.6
109 539.5 210.7 11.6 18.8 472.7 138.4
101 536.7 210.1 10.9 17.4 472.7 129.1
92 533.1 209.3 10.2 15.6 472.7 117.6
82 528.3 208.7 9.6 13.2 472.7 104.3
533x165 73 528.8 165.6 9.3 13,5 476.5 93.0
66 524.8 165.1 8.8 11.5 476.5 83.6
457x191 98 467.4 192.8 11.4 19.6 404.4 125.2
89 463.6 192.0 10.6 17.7 404.4 113.8
82 460.2 191.3 9.9 16.0 404.4 104.4
74 457.2 190.5 9.1 14.5 404.4 94.9
67 453.6 189.9 8.5 12.7 404.4 85.4
457x152 82 465.1 153.5 10.7 18.9 404.4 104.4
74 461.3 152.7 9.9 17.0 404.4 94.9
67 457.2 151.9 9.1 15.0 404.4 85.3
60 454.7 152.9 8.0 13.3 407.7 75.9
52 449.8 152.4 7.6 10.9 407.7 66.5
406 x 178 74 412.8 179.7 9.7 16.0 357.4 94.9
67 409.4 178.8 8.8 14.3 357.4 85.4
60 406.4 177.8 7.8 12.8 357.4 76.1
54 402.6 177.6 7.6 10.9 357.4 68.3
406x152 74 416.3 153.7 10.1 18.1 357.4 94.8
67 412.2 152.9 9.3 16.0 357.4 85.3
60 407.9 152.2 8.6 13.9 357.4 75.8
406x140 46 402.3 142.4 6.9 11.2 357.4 58.9
39 397.3 141.8 6.3 8.6 357.4 49.3
381x152 67 388.6 154.3 9.7 16.3 333.2 85.4
60 384.8 153.4 8.7 14.4 333.2 75.9
52 381.0 152.4 7.8 12.4 333.2 66.4
356x171 67 364.0 173.2 9.1 15.7 309.1 85.3
57 358.6 172.1 8.0 13.0 309.1 72.1
51 355.6 171.5 7.3 11.5 309.1 64.5
45 352.0 171.0 6.9 9.7 309.1 56.9
356x127 39 352.8 126.0 6.5 10.7 309.1 49.3

114
 33 348.5 125.4 5.9 8.5 309.1 41.7
305x165 54 310.9 166.8 7.7 13.7 262.6 68.3
46 307.1 165.7 6.7 11.8 262.6 58.8
40 303.8 165.1 6.1 10.2 262.6 51.4
305x127 48 310.4 125.2 8.9 14.0 262.6 60.8
42 306.6 124.3 8.0 12.1 262.6 53.1
37 303.8 123.5 7.2 10.7 262.6 47.4
305x102 33 312.7 102.4 6.6 10.8 275.3 41.8
28 308.9 101.9 6.1 8.9 275.3 36.3
25 304.8 101.6 5.8 6.8 275.3 31.4
254x146 43 259.6 147.3 7.3 12.7 216.2 55.0
37 256.0 146.4 6.4 10.9 216.2 47.4
31 251.5 146.1 6.1 8.6 216.2 39.9
254x102 28 260.4 102.1 6.4 10.0 224.5 36.2
25 257.0 101.9 6.1 8.4 224.5 32.1
22 254.0 101.6 5.8 6.8 224.5 28.4
203x133 30 206.8 133.8 6.3 9.6 169.9 38.0
25 203.2 133.4 5.8 7.8 169.9 32.3
Serial Size M D B T1 T D1 A
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm cm2

Properties

I= Moment Of Inertia,R= Radius Of Gyration, Z=Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) =

I/ymax

I R Z
Serial Size Axis xx
Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y Axis x-x Axis y-y RATIO D/T
Gross Net
mm cm 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm cm cm 3 cm 3
914 x 419 717325 639177 42481 38.1 9.27 15586 2021 25.2
- 623866 555835 36251 37.8 9.11 13691 1733 28.5
914x 305 503781 469903 14793 37.0 6.34 10874 961.3 29.0
435796 406504 12512 36.8 6.23 9490 819.2 32.9
375111 350209 10425 36.3 6.05 8241 685.6 38.1
324715 303783 8632 35.6 5.81 7192 569.1 44.7
838 x 292 339130 315153 10661 34.3 6.08 7971 725.9 31.8
278833 259625 8384 33.6 5.83 6633 573.6 38.7

115
 245412 228867 7111 33.1 5.64 5879 487.6 44.4
762x267 239464 221138 7699 30.9 5.54 6223 574. 30.3
204747 189341 6376 30.5 5.38 5374 478.1 35.3
168535 156213 5002 30.0 5.16 4471 277.1 43.1
686 x254 169843 156106 6225 28.0 5.36 4902 486.6 29.2
150015 137965 5391 27.8 5.28 4364 423.7 32.7
135972 125156 4789 27.6 5.18 3979 377.5 36.0
117700 108580 3992 27.2 5.0 3472 315.5 41.8
610x305 207252 192203 14873 26.1 7.02 6549 961.3 20.2
151312 1402269 10571 25.8 6.81 4901 688.6 26.2
124341 115233 8471 25.6 6.68 4079 555.9 30.9
610x229 111673 101699 4253 25.0 4.88 3620 369.6 27.9
98408 89675 3676 24.8 4.8 3217 321.1 31.2
87260 79645 3184 24.6 4.7 2874 279.1 35.1
75549 69132 2658 24.2 4.54 2509 233.6 40.7
610x178 63970 57238 1427 23.5 3.51 2124 160.0 40.2
55779 50076 1203 23.1 3.39 1865 135.3 46.7
533x330 141682 121777 16064 22.9 7.72 5199 963.2 19.6
125618 107882 14093 22.8 7.64 4657 849.6 21.6
109109 93647 12057 22.6 7.53 4091 730.3 24.2
533x210 76078 68719 3208 22.1 4.54 2794 302.8 25.6
66610 60218 2755 21.9 4.46 2469 261.5 28.7
61530 55671 2512 21.8 4.41 2293 239.2 30.8
55225 50040 2212 21.7 4.34 2072 211.3 34.2
47363 43062 1826 21.3 4.18 1793 175.0 40.0
533x165 40414 35752 1027 20.8 3.32 1528 124.1 39.2
35083 31144 863 20.5 3.21 1337 104.5 45.6
457x191 45653 40469 2216 19.1 4.21 1954 229.9 23.8
40956 36313 1960 19.0 4.15 1767 204.2 26.2
37039 32869 1746 18.8 4.09 1610 182.6 28.8
33324 29570 1547 18.7 4.04 1458 162.4 31.5
29337 26072 1328 18.5 3.95 1293 139.9 35.7
457x152 36160 32058 1093 18.6 3.24 1555 142.5 24.6
32380 28731 963 18.5 3.18 1404 126.1 27.1
28522 25342 829 18.3 3.12 1248 109.1 30.5
25464 22613 794 18.3 3.23 1120 104.0 34.2
21345 19034 645 17.9 3.11 949.0 84.61 41.3
406 x178 27279 23981 1448 17.0 3.91 1322 161.2 25.8

116
 24279 21357 1269 16.9 3.85 1186 141.9 28.6
21520 18928 1108 16.8 3.82 1059 124.7 31.8
18576 16389 922 16.5 3.67 922.8 103.8 36.9
406x152 26938 23811 1047 16.9 3.32 1294 136.2 23.0
23798 21069 908 16.7 3.26 1155 118.8 25.8
20619 18283 768 16.5 3.18 1011 100.9 29.3
406x140 15603 13699 500 16.3 2.92 775.6 70.26 35.9
12408 10963 373 15.9 2.75 624.7 52.61 46.2
381x152 21276 18817 947 15.8 3.33 1095 122.7 23.8
18632 16489 814 15.7 3.27 968.4 106.2 26.7
16046 14226 685 15.5 3.21 842.3 89.96 30.7
356x171 19483 17002 1278 15.1 3.87 1071 147.6 23.2
16038 14018 1026 14.9 3.77 849.3 119.2 27.6
14118 12349 885 14.8 3.71 749.0 103.3 30.9
12052 10578 730 14.6 3.58 684.7 85.39 36.3
356x127 10054 8688 333 14.3 2.60 570.0 52.87 33.0
8167 7099 257 14.0 2.48 468.7 40.99 41.0
305x165 11686 10119 988 13.1 3.80 751.8 118.5 22.7
9924 8596 825 13.0 3.74 646.4 99.54 26.0
8500 7368 691 12.9 3.67 559.6 83.71 29.8
305x127 9485 8137 438 12.5 2.68 611.1 69.94 22.2
8124 6978 367 12.4 2.63 530.0 58.99 25.3
7143 6142 316 12.3 2.58 470.3 51.11 28.4
305x102 6482 5792 189 12.5 2.13 414.6 37.00 29.0
5415 4855 153 12.2 2.05 350.7 30.01 34.7
4381 3959 116 11.8 1.92 287.5 22.85 44.8
254x146 6546 5683 633 10.9 3.39 504.3 85.97 20.4
5544 4814 528 10.8 3.34 433.1 72.11 23.5
4427 3859 406 10.5 3.19 352.1 55.53 29.2
254x102 4004 3565 174 10.5 2.19 307.6 34.13 26.0
3404 3041 144 10.3 2.11 264.9 28.23 30.6
2863 2572 116 10.0 2.02 225.4 22.84 37.4
203x133 2880 2469 354 8.71 3.05 278.5 52.85 21.5
2348 2020 280 8.53 2.94 231.1 41.92 26.1

117
Dimensional Properties – Universal Column

Universal Columns Dimensions

Serial Size M D B T1 T R1 D1 A
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm2
356 x 406 634 474.7 424.1 47.6 77.0 15.2 290.1 808.1
551 455.7 418.5 42.0 67.5 15.2 290.1 701.8
467 436.6 412.4 35.9 58.0 15.2 290.1 595.5
393 419.1 407 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.1 500.9
340 406.4 403 26.5 42.9 15.2 290.1 432.7
287 393.7 399 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.1 366.0
235 381.0 395 18.5 30.2 15.2 290.1 299.8
356 x 368 202 374.7 374.4 16.8 27.0 15.2 290.1 257.9
177 368.3 372.1 14.5 23.8 15.2 290.1 225.7
153 362.0 370.2 12.6 20.7 15.2 290.1 195.2
129 355.6 368.3 10.7 17.5 15.2 290.1 164.9
305 x 305 283 365.3 321.8 26.9 44.1 15.2 246.6 360.4
240 352.6 317.9 23.0 37.7 15.2 246.6 305.6
198 339.9 314.1 19.2 31.4 15.2 246.6 252.3
158 327.2 310.6 15.7 25.0 15.2 246.6 201.2
137 320.5 308.7 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.6 174.6
118 314.5 306.8 11.9 18.7 15.2 246.6 149.8
97 307.8 304.8 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.6 123.3
254 x 254 167 289.1 264.5 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.2 212.4
132 276.4 261.0 15.6 25.1 12.7 200.2 167.7
107 266.7 258.3 13.0 20.5 12.7 200.2 136.6
89 260.4 255.9 10.5 17.3 12.7 200.2 114.0
73 254.0 254.0 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.2 92.9
203 x 203 86 222.3 208.8 13.0 20.5 10.2 160.8 110.1
71 215.9 206.2 10.3 17.3 10.2 160.8 91.1
60 209.6 205.2 9.3 14.2 10.2 160.8 75.8

118
 52 206.2 203.9 8.0 12.5 10.2 160.8 66.4
46 203.2 203.2 7.3 11.0 10.2 160.8 58.8
152 x 152 37 161.8 154.4 8.1 11.5 7.6 123.4 47.4
30 157.5 152.9 6.6 9.4 7.6 123.4 38.2
23 152.4 152.4 6.1 6.8 7.6 123.4 29.8

Properties

I= Moment Of Inertia, R= Radius Of Gyration, Z= Section Modulus (Elastic Modulus) =

I/ymax,

I R Z
Serial Mass; per
Axis xx Axis y- Axis x- Axis y- Axis x- Axis y- Ratio
Size m
Gross Net y x y x y D/T
mm kg cm 4 cm 4 cm 4 cm cm cm 3 cm 3
356 x
634 275140 243076 98211 18.5 11.0 11592 4632 6.2
406
551 227023 200312 82665 18.0 10.9 9964 3951 6.8
467 183118 161331 67905 17.5 10.7 8388 3293 7.5
393 146765 129159 55410 17.1 10.5 7004 2723 8.5
340 122474 107667 46816 16.8 10.4 6027 2324 9.5
287 99994 87843 38714 16.5 10.3 5080 1940 10.8
235 79110 69424 31008 16.2 10.2 4153 1570 12.6
356 x
202 66307 57806 23632 16.0 9.57 3540 1262 13.9
368
177 57153 49798 20470 15.9 9.52 3104 1100 15.5
153 48525 42250 17470 15.8 9.46 2681 943.8 17.5
129 40246 35040 14555 15.6 9.39 2264 790.4 20.3
305 x
283 78777 72827 24545 14.8 8.25 4314 1525 8.3
305
240 64177 59295 20239 14.5 8.14 3641 1273 9.4
198 50832 46935 16230 14.2 8.02 2991 1034 10.8
158 38740 35766 12524 13.9 7.89 2368 806.3 13.1
137 32838 30314 10672 13.7 7.82 2049 691.4 14.8
118 27601 25472 9006 13.6 7.75 1755 587.0 16.8
97 22202 20488 7268 13.4 7.68 1442 476.9 20.0
254 x
167 29914 27171 9796 11.9 6.79 2070 740.6 9.1
254
132 22416 20350 7444 11.6 6.66 1622 570.4 11.0

119
 107 17510 15890 5901 11.3 6.57 1313 456.9 13.0
89 14307 12976 4849 11.2 6.52 1099 378.9 15.1
73 11360 10297 3873 11.1 6.46 894.5 305.0 17.9
203 x
86 9462 8374 3119 9.27 5.32 851.6 298.7 10.8
203
71 7647 6758 2536 9.16 5.28 708.4 246.0 12.5
60 6088 5383 2041 8.96 5.19 581.1 199.0 14.8
52 5263 4653 1770 8.90 5.16 510.4 173.6 16.5
46 4564 4035 1539 8.81 5.11 449.2 151.5 18.5
152 x
37 2218 1932 709 6.84 3.87 274.2 91.78 14.1
152
30 1742 1515 558 6.75 3.82 221.2 73.06 16.8
23 1263 1104 403 6.51 3.68 165.7 52.95 22.4

120