Arithmetic of complex numbers

BLOCK 1

1.1 Introduction

In this block we explain how the set of real numbers is extended to enable us to find
solutions of a greater range of equations. This leads to a study of complex numbers,
which are useful in a variety of applications, especially alternating current circuit
analysis. Complex numbers may seem rather strange at first because you will be
dealing with imaginary rather than real quantities. Nevertheless they are so useful in
applications that an understanding of them is essential.

1.2 Finding the square root of a negative number

If a real number is squared the answer cannot be negative. For example, squaring
both 7 and - 7, the result is positive. That is,
72 = 49 and ( - 7)2 = 49
It is impossible to obtain a negative result by squaring a real number.
Suppose we introduce a new sort of number, called j, with the property that
j2 = - 1. The number j cannot be a real number because its square is negative. We
say it is imaginary. Having defined j2 as - 1 it follows that j = 2 -1 and we can
use this to write down the square root of any negative number.

Key point j is an imaginary number such that j2 = - 1

Example 1.1
Write down expressions for the square roots of (a) 9, (b) - 9.

Solution
(a) 29 = ; 3
(b) Noting that - 9 = 9 * - 1 we can write

2 -9 = 29 * - 1
= 29 * 2 -1
= ;3 * 2 -1

Then using the fact that 2 -1 = j we have

2 -9 = ;3j
 1.2 Finding the square root of a negative number 443 11
Example 1.2
Write down (a) 2100, (b) 2 - 100, (c) 2 -v2.

Solution
(a) 2100 = ; 10
(b) Write - 100 = 100 * - 1 so that
2 - 100 = 2100 * ( - 1)
= ;10j

(c) 2 -v2 = 2 - 1 * v2
= ; jv

Example 1.3
Using the fact that j2 = - 1 simplify (a) j3, (b) j4.

Solution
(a) j3 = j2 * j. But j2 = - 1 and so j3 = -1 * j = - j.
(b) j4 = j2 * j2 = ( -1) * ( - 1) = 1.

Using the imaginary number j it is possible to solve all quadratic equations.

Example 1.4
Use the formula for solving a quadratic equation to solve 2x2 + x + 1 = 0.

Solution
- b ; 2b2 - 4ac
We use the formula x = . With a = 2, b = 1 and c = 1 we find
2a
- 1 ; 212 - (4)(2)(1)
x =
2(2)
-1 ; 2 -7
=
4
- 1 ; 27j
=
4
1 27
= - ; j
4 4

Example 1.5
Use the formula for solving a quadratic equation to solve x2 - 10x + 29 = 0.

Solution
-b ; 2b2 - 4ac
Using the formula x = we find
2a
11 444 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers

10 ; 2 - 16
x =
2
Now using j we can find the square root of - 16 and write down two solutions of the
equation. Finally simplifying the answers gives
x = and 5 + 2j and 5 - 2j

Exercises

1 Write down an expression for 4 Solve the following quadratic equations:

(a) 24, (b) 2 - 4, (c) 281, (d) 2 - 81. (a) x2 + 1 = 0 (b) x2 + x + 2 = 0
(c) x2 + 5x + 3 = 0 (d) 2x2 + 5x + 3 = 0
2 With the help of a calculator find (e) 2x2 + x + 3 = 0
(a) 27, (b) 2 - 7, (c) 25.32, (d) 2 - 5.32.
5 Solve the quadratic equation
3 Simplify (a) - j2, (b) (- j)2, (c) ( -j)3, (d) -j3. 5x2 - 11x + 13 = 0.

Solutions to exercises

1 (a) ;2 (b) ;2j (c) ; 9 (d) ; 9j 3 1 223

(d) - 1, - (e) - ; j
2 4 4
2 (a) ;2.646 (b) ;2.646j (c) ;2.307
(d) ;2.307j 11 2139
5 ; j
10 10
3 (a) 1 (b) -1 (c) j (d) j
1 27 5 213
4 (a) ; j (b) - ; j (c) - ;
2 2 2 2

1.3 Complex numbers

Real and imaginary parts

In Example 1.5 we found that the solutions of the equation x2 - 10x + 29 = 0
are 5 ; 2j. The solutions are known as complex numbers. A complex number
such as 5 + 2j is made up of two parts, a real part 5 and an imaginary part 2.
The imaginary part is the multiple of j.
It is common practice to use the letter z to stand for a complex number and write
z = a + bj where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.
 1.3 Complex numbers 445 11

Key point If z is a complex number then we write

z = a + bj
where a is the real part and b is the imaginary part.

Example 1.6
State the real and imaginary parts of - 11 - 19j.
Solution
The real part is - 11

The imaginary part is - 19

Equal complex numbers

Two complex numbers are equal only when their real parts are equal and their imag-
inary parts are equal. So if a + bj is equal to 3 - 2j it follows that a must be 3 and
b must be - 2.

Complex conjugate
In Example 1.5 we solved the quadratic equation x2 - 10x + 29 = 0 and saw that
the second solution, 5 - 2j, is almost the same as the first, 5 + 2j; only the sign of
the imaginary part has changed. The number 5 - 2j is said to be the complex
conjugate of 5 + 2j.
In general, to find the complex conjugate of a complex number the sign of the
imaginary part is changed from + to - , or vice versa. We denote the complex
conjugate of z by z.

Key point If z = a + bj, its complex conjugate, denoted by z, is

z = a - bj

When solving quadratic equations with real coefficients any complex roots occur in
complex conjugate pairs just as we saw in Example 1.5.

Example 1.7
A complex number z1 is given by z1 = a1 + b1j.
(a) State the real and imaginary parts of z1.
(b) Write down the complex conjugate of z1.

Solution
(a) The real part of z1 is a1. The imaginary part is b1.
(b) The complex conjugate of z1 is found by changing the sign of the imaginary
part. Thus z1 = a1 - b1j.
11 446 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers

Example 1.8
Write down the complex conjugates of each of the following complex numbers:
(a) z1 = 11 + 2j, (b) z2 = 7 - 3j, (c) z3 = 8, (d) z4 = - 9j.
Solution
In each case the sign of the imaginary part is changed. In part (c) there is no imagin-
ary part to alter.
(a) z1 = 11 - 2j
(b) z2 = 7 + 3j
(c) z3 = 8
(d) z4 = 9j

Exercises

1 If z = a + bj explain what is meant by z. 3 Write down the complex conjugate of

(a) 3 + 13j (b) 3 - 13j (c) 17j (d) 18.5
2 State the real and imaginary parts of (e) 3.36 + 2.24j
(a) 3 + 7j (b) a1 + b1j (c) - 0.35j
(d) cos u + j sin u (e) cos vt + j sin vt 4 State the real and imaginary parts of
jV sin (vt + f).

Solutions to exercises

1 z is the complex conjugate of z. That is, 3 (a) 3 - 13j (b) 3 + 13j (c) - 17j
z = a - bj. (d) 18.5 (e) 3.36 - 2.24j

2 (a) real part 3, imaginary part 7 4 Real part 0, imaginary part V sin (vt + f).
(b) a1, b1 (c) 0, - 0.35 (d) cos u, sin u
(e) cos vt, sin vt

1.4 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

Given two complex numbers we can find their sum and difference in an obvious way.

Key point Addition and subtraction of complex numbers

If z1 = a1 + b1j and z2 = a2 + b2j then
z1 + z2 = (a1 + a2) + (b1 + b2)j
z1 - z2 = (a1 - a2) + (b1 - b2)j
 1.4 Addition and subtraction of complex numbers 447 11
Note that to add the complex numbers we simply add the real parts together and add
the imaginary parts together.

Example 1.9
If z1 = 3 + 11j and z2 = 18 - 21j find (a) z1 + z2, (b) z2 - z1.
Solution
(a) z1 + z2 = (3 + 11j) + (18 - 21j)
= 21 - 10j
(b) z2 - z1 = (18 - 21j) - (3 + 11j)
= 15 - 32j

Example 1.10
If z1 = 3 + 4j and z2 = 8 + 11j, find (a) z1 + z2, (b) z1 - z2.
Solution
(a) To add the complex numbers just add the real parts and then add the imaginary
parts:

z1 + z2 = 11 + 15j

(b) Subtract the real parts, and then subtract the imaginary parts:
z1 - z2 = (3 + 4j) - (8 + 11j)

= - 5 - 7j

Exercises

1 If z1 = 1 + j and z2 = 3 + 2j find 3 If z = a + jb and w = g + jd write down

(a) z1 + z2, (b) z1 - z2 , (c) z2 - z1. z + w.

2 If z = 13 - 11j and w = -2 + 5j find

(a) z + w, (b) z - w, (c) w - z.

Solutions to exercises

1 (a) 4 + 3j (b) -2 - j (c) 2 + j 3 a + g + j(b + d)

2 (a) 11 - 6j (b) 15 - 16j (c) - 15 + 16j

11 448 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers

1.5 Multiplication of complex numbers

To multiply two complex numbers we use the normal rules of algebra and also the fact
that j2 = - 1. If z1 and z2 are the two complex numbers their product is written z1 z2.

Example 1.11
If z1 = 5 - 2j and z2 = 2 + 4j find z1 z2.

Solution
z1z2 = (5 - 2j)(2 + 4j)
= 10 - 4j + 20j - 8j2
Replacing j2 by -1 we obtain
z1z2 = 10 + 16j - 8( -1)
= 18 + 16j

In general we have the following result:

Key point Multiplication of two complex numbers

If z1 = a1 + b1j and z2 = a2 + b2 j then
z1z2 = (a1 + b1j) (a2 + b2 j)
= a1a2 + a1b2 j + b1a2 j + b1b2 j2
= (a1a2 - b1b2) + j(a1b2 + a2b1)

Example 1.12
Find z1 z2 if z1 = 3 - 2j and z2 = 5 + 3j.

Solution
z1z2 = (3 - 2j)(5 + 3j)

= 15 + 9j - 10j - 6j2
Simplify your result to obtain
(3 - 2j)(5 + 3j) = 21 - j

Example 1.13
Find z z if z = a + bj.

Solution
Recall that z is the complex conjugate of z.
z z = (a + bj) (a - bj)
= a2 + baj - abj - b2j2
 1.6 Division of complex numbers 449 11

= a2 - b2(- 1)
= a2 + b2
Note that the result is purely real: multiplying a complex number by its conjugate
results in a non-negative real answer. For example, taking a = 4 and b = 3, we see
that (4 + 3j)(4 - 3j) = 42 + 32 = 25.

The result of the previous example is particularly important.

Key point If z = a + bj then

z z = a2 + b2

Exercises

1 If z1 = 1 + j and z2 = 3 + 2j find 4 Find a cubic equation with roots

(a) z1z2, (b) z1, (c) z2, (d) z1z1, (e) z2z2. z = 2, z = 1 + j and z = 4 + 2j. (Note that
this cubic equation will have complex
2 Express in the form x + jy coefficients.)
(a) j(3 + 2j) (b) (4 - 2j)j (c) 5j(1 - j)
(d) (1 + j)(9 + j) 5 Find the real and imaginary parts of
(a) 7(2 + j), (b) - 13(j - 1).
3 Find a quadratic equation whose roots are
s = - 7 + 0.5j and s = - 7 - 0.5j. 6 Find (a) (4 - 3j)(4 + 3j),
(b) (5 - 2j)(5 + 2j).

Solutions to exercises

1 (a) 1 + 5j (b) 1 - j (c) 3 - 2j (d) 2 (e) 13 4 For example,

z3 - (7 + 3j)z2
2 (a) - 2 + 3j (b) 2 + 4j (c) 5 + 5j
+ (12 + 12j) z - 4 - 12j = 0
(d) 8 + 10j
5 (a) real 14, imaginary 7 (b) 13, - 13
3 For example, 4s2 + 56s + 197 = 0
6 (a) 25 (b) 29

1.6 Division of complex numbers

Division of complex numbers requires a special technique that uses the complex
conjugate. Consider the following example.
Example 1.14
z1
Find when z1 = 3 + 2j and z2 = 4 - 3j.
z2
11 450 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers

Solution
We require
z1 3 + 2j
=
z2 4 - 3j
The special technique is to multiply both numerator and denominator by the com-
plex conjugate of the denominator. Overall, this is equivalent to multiplying by 1 and
so the fraction remains unaltered. However, it has the effect of making the denomi-
nator purely real as we saw in Example 1.13.
3 + 2j 3 + 2j 4 + 3j
= *
4 - 3j 4 - 3j 4 + 3j
(3 + 2j)(4 + 3j)
=
(4 - 3j)(4 + 3j)
12 + 8j + 9j + 6j2
=
16 + 12j - 12j - 9j2
6 + 17j
=
25
6 17
= + j
25 25

In general we have the following result:

Key point Division of two complex numbers

z1 a1 + b1j
=
z2 a2 + b2 j
a1 + b1j a2 - b2 j
= *
a2 + b2 j a2 - b2 j
a1a2 + b1b2 + (a2b1 - a1b2)j
=
a22 + b22

Example 1.15
z1
If z1 = 2 + 9j and z2 = 5 - 2j find .
z2

Solution
Both numerator and denominator are multiplied by the complex conjugate of the
denominator.
So
2 + 9j 2 + 9j 5 + 2j
= *
5 - 2j 5 - 2j 5 + 2j

10 + 45j + 4j + 18j2
=
25 + 4
 1.6 Division of complex numbers 451 11
Simplify the result to produce
2 + 9j 8 49
= - + j
5 - 2j 29 29

Exercises

3 + 2j 1
1 If z1 = 1 + j and z2 = 3 + 2j find 4 If z = express both (a) and
z1 z2 z1 z2 2 - j z
(a) (b) (c) (d) 1
z2 z1 z1 z2 (b) z + in the form x + jy.
z
7 - 6j 3 + 9j
2 Find (a) , (b) . 1
2j 1 - 2j 5 Express in the form a + bj.
cos u - j sin u
3 Express the following in the form x + jy:
1 2 3 1 2
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
j j -j 1 + j 1 - j

Solutions to exercises

5 j 5 j 5 12 4 7 72 56
1 (a) + (b) - (c) j (d) + j 4 (a) - j (b) + j
13 13 2 2 13 13 13 13 65 65
7 5 cos u + j sin u
2 (a) - 3 - j (b) - 3 + 3j
2
1 j
3 (a) - j (b) - 2j (c) 3j (d) - (e) 1 + 1j
2 2

Computer and calculator exercises

Computer algebra packages allow the user to input

2 Solve the equations
and manipulate complex numbers. Investigate how
(a) x3 + 7x2 + 9x + 63 = 0
the complex number a + bj is input to the package
(b) 2x4 - 3x3 + 11 = 0
to which you have access.
3 A common requirement in control theory is to
1 Use a package to express each of the following
find the poles of a rational function, G(s). The
numbers in the form a + bj:
poles are the values of s that make the
5 denominator zero. Find the poles of
(a) (2 - j)6 (b)
(3 - 2j)4 0.25
G(s) = 3 2
s - 2s + 0.1s + 0.006
11 452 Block 1 Arithmetic of complex numbers

End of block exercises

1 Write down an expression for (a) 21, 7 Express the following in the form x + jy:
(b) 2 - 1, (c) 249, (d) 2 -49. 5 2 + j 3
(a) (b) (c)
-j j 4 - j
2 Find 2 - 9.24. j 2j
(d) (e)
1 + j 1 - j
3 Solve the equations
8 Write down the complex conjugate of
(a) x2 + x + 1 = 0, (b) 7s2 + s + 1 = 0. (a) a + jb (b) cos u + j sin u
(c) cos u - j sin u (d) cos vt - j sin vt
4 Write down the complex conjugate of
(a) 15 + 3j (b) - 3j + 2 9 Express in the form x + jy
1 1 23 (a) (3 + 2j)j(4 - 3j)
(c) j + 3 (d) + j (b) (5 + 3j)(2 + j)(2 - j)
2 2 2
(2 - 3j)(6 + 7j)
5 Find (c)
3 + 2j 5 + 4j j(1 - j)
(a) , (b) .
5 + 4j 3 + 2j 10 Find a quadratic equation whose roots are
x = - 3 + j and x = -3 - j.
6 Find z1 z2
(a) z1 z2, (b) , (c) , if z1 = 3 + 5j
z2 z1 11 Find a cubic equation with roots x = 1,
and z2 = 3 - 5j. x = 1 - j and x = 1 + j.

Solutions to exercises

12 3 1 1
1 (a) ;1 (b) ;j (c) ;7 (d) ; 7j 7 (a) 5j (b) 1 - 2j (c) + j (d) + j
17 17 2 2
2 ; 3.04j (e) - 1 + j

1 23j 1 3 23 8 (a) a - jb (b) cos u - j sin u

3 (a) - ; (b) - ; j
2 2 14 14 (c) cos u + j sin u (d) cos vt + j sin vt

4 (a) 15 - 3j (b) 3j + 2 29 37
9 (a) 1 + 18j (b) 25 + 15j (c) - j
2 2
1 1 23
(c) - j + 3 (d) - j
2 2 2 10 x2 + 6x + 10 = 0, for example
23 2 23 2
5 (a) - j (b) + j 11 x3 - 3x2 + 4x - 2 = 0, for example
41 41 13 13

8 15 8 15
6 (a) 34 (b) - + j (c) - - j
17 17 17 17