EDUQAS

PRACTICALS FOR
GCE PHYSICS

Contents
Measurement of the density of solids 5
Determination of unknown masses by using the principle of moments 6
Measurement of g by freefall 7
Investigation of Newton’s 2nd law 8
Determination of Young modulus of a metal in the form of a wire 9
Investigation of the force-extension relationship for rubber 10
I-V characteristics of the filament of a lamp and a metal wire at constant temperature 11
Determination of the internal resistance of a cell 12
Measurement of the intensity variations for polarisation 14
Determination of wavelength using Young’s double slits 14
Determination of wavelength using a diffraction grating 16
Determination of the speed of sound using stationary waves 16
Determination of resistivity of a metal 18
Investigation of the variation of resistance with temperature for a metal wire 19
Measurement of the refractive index of a material 20
Determination of h using LEDs 21
Radioactive Analogue with dice 23
Investigation of charging and discharging a capacitor to determine the time constant 24
Investigating the damping of a spring 28

Investigation of the force on a current in a magnetic field 29

Measurement of specific heat capacity 31
Estimation of absolute zero by use of the gas laws (Charles’ Law) 32
Investigation of magnetic flux density using a hall probe 34
Measurement of the density of solids

Theory

The density of regularly shaped solids can be determined by mea-

suring their mass, m, and calculating their volume, V. The density, ρ,
can then be found using:
m
ρ=
V

Apparatus

• Various regularly shaped solids both rectangular and circular,

• 30 cm ruler (resolution ±0.1 cm) 1 1

Irregular shapes are harder to mea-
sure, so we use the Archimedian
principle and a water displacement can
• Vernier calipers / micrometer (resolution ±0.01 mm) 2 to measure the volume. If faced with a
buoyant object you can weigh it down
with another object, so long as you
• Balance (resolution ±0.1 g) subtract the volume of that weight from
the total volume of water displaced.

Experimental Method

Determine the mass of the object using the balance. The volume of
a rectangle can be found by measuring the length, l, width, w, and
height, h. Calculate the volume, V using:

V = lwh

The volume of a sphere is found by measuring the diameter to find Figure 1: Displacement can in use.
the radius, r, and then calculate the volume using: 2
Don’t forget to specify the measuring
instrument used in an exam question
4 3
V= πr
3

In both cases calculate the density using: ρ = m/V.

6

Determination of unknown masses by using the principle of moments

Theory:
Apply the principle of moments to a metre rule to first determine its mass and
then determine the mass of an unknown object.

Apparatus:

• Meter rule (resolution ±0.1 cm)

• Clamp and stand

• Nail

• 200g mass and hanger

• Unknown mass (eg. 150g covered in tape and labelled as W) and

hanger

• Loops of thread

Experimental Method:

Figure 2: Experimental set-up for the

measurement of an unknown mass by
moments. It would be possible to use a
knife-edge fulcrum (pivot) instead

Loop a 200 g (1.96 N) mass over the metre rule and adjust it un-
til the ruler is horizontal3 . Note down the distance, x, of the mass 3
This is important - the line of action
of the force and the distance from pivot
from the pivot. The mass (or weight) of the metre rule can now be
must be perpendicular
calculated using the principle of moments:
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 7

0.20 × metre rule weight = 1.96 × x

Now remove the 200 g mass and replace it with the unknown weight,
W, and again adjust the position of the weight until the ruler bal-
ances. Measure the distance, d, of the unknown weight from the
pivot. The unknown weight can again be calculated by applying the
principle of moments:

0.20 × metre rule weight = d × unknown weight

The unknown weight can be converted into a mass (in kilograms)

by dividing by 9.81. This can then be checked using a top pan bal-
ance.4 4
better to use the term “Top-pan
balance” than “scales”

Measurement of g by freefall

Theory:
An equation of motion can be used to calculate the acceleration due
to gravity, g.5 5
There are two common alternative
methods to the one below.
1 1. Manual timing - This method has a
s = ut + mv2 (1) lot of inherent errors, and gives poor
2
results. One of the biggest sources is
Where : u = initial velocity = 0, (2) the approx 0.3 s it takes to start and
s = height, h and (3) stop a manual timer. The next most
significant are usually parallax and
a = acceleration due to gravity, g (4) air resistance.
1 2 2. Using lightgates - Lightgates are
This gives h = gt (5) very accurate, and a viable alterna-
2
tive for high precision results
(6) All of these methods rely on the same
basic equations of motion
If a graph of height, h, (y-axis) is plotted against time squared, t2 ,
(x-axis) the gradient will equal g/2, or g = 2 × gradient.

Apparatus:

Experimental Method:
When the switch is pressed it disconnects the electromagnet releasing
the metal sphere6 . At the same instant the timer starts. When the 6
One of the problems with this method
sphere hits the magnetic switch it breaks the circuit stopping the is that the de-magnetisation of the coil
is not instant. To minimise the time
timer, thus recording the time it takes for the sphere to fall through a delay we use a soft-iron ball
height, h. The time taken for the ball bearing to fall through a range
of different heights needs to be measured. Plot a graph of height, h,
(y-axis) against time squared, t2 , (x-axis) and calculate the value of g
using: g = 2/gradient.
8

Figure 3: “g” by freefall

Investigation of Newton’s 2nd law

Theory:
The gravitational force of the slotted masses attached via the pulley
causes the entire mass of the system to accelerate. That is the mass
of the rider, M, and the total mass of the slotted masses, m. New-
tonâĂŹs second law, therefore, can be written as:

mg = ( M + m) a

and so the acceleration of the system is:

mg
a=
( M + m)

We can use this to test Newton’s second law. If the total mass of the
system (M + m) remains constant7 then the acceleration, a, should be 7
This is really important and is the
proportional to the gravitational force, mg. reason that we take masses from the
hanger and place them onto the car and
vice-versa
Apparatus:

Experimental Method:
Fix the thread to the rider and attach five slotted 5 gram masses to
the other end as shown in the diagram. Set the light gates to record
the acceleration and allow the slotted masses to fall to the ground.
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 9

Figure 4: Newton’s law experiment.

Note that an air-track is not strictly
necessary, we’re trying to minimise the
effect of friction on the system.

Record the gravitational force, mg and the acceleration, a. Remove

one of the slotted masses and place it on the rider (so keeping the
total mass of the system constant). Repeat the experiment until all
the different accelerating masses have been removed. Plot a graph
of acceleration (y-axis) against gravitational force, mg (x-axis). This
should be a straight line through the origin. 8 8
By using a scales to measure the
combined mass of the system M +, m
you could check that the gradient is
equal to 1/( M + m)
Determination of Young modulus of a metal in the form of a wire

Theory:
Stress F/A Fl
Young modulus = Strain or E = x/l rearranging E = xA where:

F = applied load (7)

A = area of cross-section of the wire (8)
x = extension (9)
l = original length (10)
(11)

If a graph of applied load, F (y-axis) is drawn against extension, x

(x-axis) the gradient is Fx and so:

l
E = gradient ×
A

The original length l can be measured and the area of the wire found
using A = πr2 hence E can be determined.
10

Figure 5: Young’s Modulus apparatus

Apparatus:

Experimental Method:
Hang two identical wires from a beam and attach a scale to the first
wire and a small weight to keep it straight.9 Also put a small weight 9
We use this method to eliminate any
thermal extension/contraction
on the second wire to straighten it and a Vernier scale linking with
the scale on the comparison wire. Measure the original length, l, of
the test wire and its diameter at various points along its length10 . Use 10
Measuring at several places along the
length is a favourite of exam boards.
this to calculate the mean cross sectional area A. Then place a load of
5 N on the test wire and find the extension, x. Repeat this in 5N steps
up to at least 50N. Plot a graph of load (y-axis) against extension
(x-axis) and calculate the gradient. Use this to find a value for the
Young modulus.

Investigation of the force-extension relationship for rubber

Theory:
Rubber is an example of a polymer with weak cross bonds. Natural
rubber is a polymer of the molecule iso-prene. It has weak van der
Waals cross-bonds and only a few covalent (strong) cross-bonds.

Apparatus:
• Rubber band of cross-section approximately 1 mm by 2 mm
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 11

• Clamp and stand G-clamp to secure (if required) 50 g mass holder

plus a number of 50 g masses

• Optical pin (for use as a pointer if required)

• Metre rule (resolution ±0.001m) Micrometer (resolution ±0.01mm)

Experimental Method:
Hang a (cut) rubber band of (approximate) cross-section 1 mm by 2
mm vertically from a stand, boss and clamp. The base of the stand
Figure 6: Hysteresis graph for rubber
should be secured using a G-clamp. Hang a 50 gram mass holder band
from the band. Place a metre rule as close as possible to the mass
holder. The length can be read using an optical pin attached to the
base of the mass holder. Measure the length, width and thickness of 11
If, instead of testing to failure, you
now unload the masses and measure
the rubber when it is supporting the 50 gram holder. Try to avoid
the extension you can measure the
squashing the rubber with the micrometer screw gauge. Increase elastic hysteresis - the work done in
the mass in 50 gram steps, measuring the extension each time. Con- rearranging the internal structure of the
rubber.
tinue until the band breaks.11 Plot the force - extension curve and
determine the Young modulus from the linear section.

I-V characteristics of the filament of a lamp and a metal wire at con-

stant temperature

Theory:
Ohm’s law states that for a conductor the current, I, is directly pro-
portional to the potential difference, V, provided physical factors such
as temperature and pressure remains constant. Therefore by plotting
the I-V characteristic of each of, a metal wire and a filament lamp, the
validity of Ohm’s law as applicable to each of these components can
be determined. A graph of I against V is linear for a metal wire and
non-linear for a filament of a lamp.

Apparatus:
• Variable d.c. voltage supply

• Switch

• Ammeter

• Voltmeter

• Component either in the form of a filament bulb e.g. 12 V, 24 W

bulb or a metal wire e.g. 1 m length of constantan mounted on a Figure 7: VI graphs of common compo-
wooden batten nents
12

Experimental method:
The circuit should be set up as in figure 8.

Figure 8: V-I Characteristics set-up.

Note the variable powersupply and
the switch. This basic circuit is used
to investigate almost every electrical
component

Starting with the output of the variable d.c. voltage supply set to
its minimum value, slowly increase the value of the applied voltage.
The current through the component and the potential difference
across the component should be recorded for a range of values of the
applied voltage. A graph of current against voltage should then be
plotted. This procedure can be repeated for different components.

12
I’ve tried to be quite clear here and
Determination of the internal resistance of a cell give a bit of extra detail. Internal
resistance is a favourite of examiners
and I’d be amazed if this experiment
Theory: didn’t show up in some way
12 When charge flows through a cell it is given energy by the cell.
The number of joules of energy given to each coulomb of charge that
passes through the cell is the e.m.f.13 of the cell. The energy can only e.m.f. is an abbreviation for electro-
13

motive force.
be transferred to the charges at a finite rate, we model this as the
cell having resistance. This model resistance is called the internal
resistance of the cell. A cell can be thought of as a source of e.m.f.
with a resistor connected in series.
When current flows through the cell a voltage develops across the
internal resistance. This voltage is not available to the circuit so it is
called the lost volts, (VL ). VL can also be written as Ir The voltage
across the ends of the cell is called the terminal potential difference,
(Vt.p.d ). Vt.p.d can also be written as IR Because voltage is a measure

Figure 9: Internal resistance graph

 eduqas practicals for gce physics 13

of energy, and energy is always conserved, the e.m.f. of a cell is equal

to the sum of its terminal potential difference, (Vt.p.d ), and the lost
volts, (VL ). This gives rise to the equation:

E = Vt.p.d. + VL

This equation can be written in different forms, e.g. E = I ( R + r )

The most common form of the equation used for determining the
internal resistance is V = E − Ir where V is the terminal p.d. of a
cell; E is the emf of the cell; I the current flowing in the circuit and r
is the internal resistance. V = IR and the equation can be re-written
as R = EI − r. Therefore a graph of R against 1/I should be linear.

Apparatus:
• Cells - e.g. 3 or 4 1.5 V ‘D’ type batteries connected in series

• Switch

• Ammeter or multimeter set to A range - ±0.01 A

• Various resistor values 0 Ω to 60 Ω

Experimental method:
The circuit should be set-up as follows:

Figure 10: The internal resistance

investigation

The resistor values should be varied and the current values recorded.
Plot a graph of R (y-axis) against 1/I (x-axis). The graph should be
a straight line with the intercept on the y-axis which is equal to the
value of the internal resistance.
14

Measurement of the intensity variations for polarisation

Theory:
The light waves in a ray of light from a lamp have vibrations in all
planes and directions. The light is unpolarised. When the light passes
through a polaroid filter; the vibrations will be in one plane or di-
rection only. In the experiment with two pieces of polaroid, the first
polarises the light. The light will then not pass through the second
polaroid if the direction in which the second filters polarises light is
at right angles to the polarising direction of the first polaroid.

Apparatus:
• Two pieces of polaroid

• Lamp e.g. 24 W, 12 V bulb in holder

Experimental method:

Figure 11: Investigating the Polarisation

of light. When the full version (not on
the spec) is done, the intensity of light
and the angle of the analyser relative
to the polariser is measured. The
experiment is used to test malus’s law.
According to malus, when completely
plane polarized light is incident on
the analyzer, the intensity of the light
transmitted by the analyzer is directly
proportional to the square of the cosine
Investigate the variation in intensity by looking through the lamp of angle between the transmission axes
through both polaroids and rotating one of the polaroids through of the analyzer and the polarizer.

360°.
Note the change in intensity that occurs.

Determination of wavelength using Young’s double slits

Theory:
Young’s interference experiment, also called Young’s double-slit
interferometer, was the original version of the modern double-slit
experiment, performed at the beginning of the nineteenth century by
Thomas Young. This experiment played a major role in the general
acceptance of the wave theory of light. The fringe spacing, ∆y is
given by the equation∆y = λD d where λ is the wavelength of the light;
D is the distance from the slits to the screen where the fringes are
viewed and d is the distance between the slits. A graph of ∆y against
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 15

D should be a straight line and the gradient can be used to determine

the wavelength of the light.

Apparatus:
• Laser pen

• Stand and clamp

• Double slit

• Screen

• Metre rule

• 30 cm ruler or digital callipers

Experimental method:
The apparatus should be set-up as follows:

Figure 12: Young’s Slits experiment

Measure the fringe spacing

∆y, the spacing between the slits, d, and the distance, D, from the
slits to the screen using either the ruler or digital callipers. Vary the
distance, D in equal intervals. Plot a graph of the fringe spacing ∆y
Figure 13: Fringe pattern for red light of
(y-axis) against the slit-screen distance D (x-axis). This should be 633 nm.
a straight line through the origin. If the fringes are close together;
∆y can be determined by measuring the separation of a number of
fringes. So determine by dividing the distance by the number of
fringes measured.
16

Determination of wavelength using a diffraction grating

Theory:
The diffraction grating equation is given by nλ = d sin θ. The spacing
between the lines in a diffraction grating is usually specified or can
be found from the grating ruling.
By measuring the angle θ, the wavelength of the light can be deter-
mined.

Apparatus:
• Laser

• Diffraction grating of known d value or ruling e.g. 300 lines cm− 1

• Metre rule

• Screen Figure 14: Geometry of diffraction

• Stand and clamp for laser and grating

Experimental method:
The apparatus should be set-up as follows: The value of θ can be

Figure 15: Diffraction grating setup

determined from tan θ = Dx .

Using the equation nλ = d sin θ then the wavelength can be deter-
mined for various orders of diffraction.

Determination of the speed of sound using stationary waves

Theory:
When resonance first occurs the length of air in the tube, l, plus a
small end correction, e (to account for the position of the tuning fork
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 17

above the tube) will be equal to a quarter of a wavelength. Hence:

l + e = λ/4

but
λ = c/ f

so
c
l= −e
4f
If a graph is plotted of l (y-axis) against 1/ f (x-axis) it should be a
straight line with a small negative y-intercept.
The gradient of the graph equals c/4, and so the speed of sound,
c, can be found. The small negative intercept will give the end correc-
tion.
Figure 16: Standing waves in an open
ended pipe
Apparatus:

Figure 17: Speed of sound set-up

A range of at least five different tuning forks will be needed along

with a metre ruler of resolution ±0.001 m.

Experimental method:
Initially place the resonance tube as deep as possible into the water.
Then gradually raise it. As this is being done hold a vibrating tuning
18

fork over the top. When resonance occurs (a loud sound will be
heard) measure the length of the tube above the water level. Repeat
the above for each of the tuning forks. Plot a graph of length (y-axis)
against 1/frequency (x-axis). Use the gradient to determine a value
for the speed of sound.

Determination of resistivity of a metal

14 14
There are lots of possible experiments
here. So long as you are systematic in
ρl
changing only one variable in R = A
Theory:
ρl
Resistivity, ρ can be found using the equation R = A where l is the
length of the wire, A the cross-sectional area and R the resistance.
This can be compared with the equation for a straight-line y =
mx + c. A graph plotted of R (y-axis) against l (x-axis) will be a
ρ
straight line through the origin of gradient A . The cross sectional
area can be found using A = πr2 and the resistivity calculated by
ρ = gradient × A.

Apparatus: Figure 18: Geometry of resistivity

• leads

• ammeter

• voltmeter

• 1.5 V ‘D’ type battery

• metre rule

• 110 cm length of nichrome wire

• 1 micrometer / vernier callipers (resolution ±0.01 mm) 15 15

This is important for accuracy

• 30 cm ruler (resolution ±0.001 m)

Experimental Method:
Leaving one crocodile clip fixed at one end of the wire, the other clip
should be moved along at suitable intervals e.g. every 10 cm / 20 cm
to cover the whole range of the wire. Readings on the voltmeter and
ammeter should be noted for each length and the resistance deter-
mined using R = VI . The diameter of the wire can be found using
a micrometer or Vernier callipers and the cross-sectional area deter-
mined 16 . Plot a graph of R (y-axis) against l (x-axis) and calculate 16
The diameter of the wire should
be measured in three places and an
the resistivity using: ρ = gradient × A.
average taken
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 19

Figure 19: Experimental set-up for

Resistivity of a wire investigation

Investigation of the variation of resistance with temperature for a

metal wire

Theory:
Resistance increases with temperature for metals in a linear relation-
ship. This practical will enable data to be obtained to investigate this
relationship. 17 . 17
A common substitution is to swap
the wire in the investigation for a
thermistor. Thermistors are semicon-
Apparatus: ductor devices that have the reversed
behaviour to normal wires. As their
• Bunsen burner; tripod, gauze and stand temperature increases, the resistance of
a thermistor decreases
• 250 ml beaker of water

• Ice 18 18
Because the effect of resistance
change with temperature is small, it
• Thermometer 0 °C to 100 °C is important to cover as large a range
of temperatures as is safe and practical.
• Multimeter set on ohm range to measure resistance In an A-level lab it would be possible
to get down to about −40 °C and
• Copper coil up to about 1200 °C. These extreme
temperatures are dangerous however
and would need particular precautions
• Stirrer

Experimental method:
The circuit should be set up as follows: The water bath should be
heated and the water stirred continuously in order to ensure an even
temperature throughout the water bath. Once the required tempera-
ture has been reached then remove the heat and record the reading
20

Figure 20: Resistance of a wire with

Temperature

of resistance or take the ammeter and voltmeter readings. This pro-

cess should be repeated at intervals until the water boils. Repeat the
experiment during cooling. Plot a graph of resistance (y-axis) against
temperature (x-axis). This should be a straight line through the ori-
gin. An ice water mixture can be used to record the resistance at a
temperature of 0 °C.

Measurement of the refractive index of a material

Theory:
The refractive index, n, of a material can be determined from the
equation sin θi = sin θr where n = refractive index, θi is the angle of
incidence and θr is the angle of refraction.
The above equation assumes that the incident ray is travelling in
air. A graph of sin θi (y-axis) against sin θr (x-axis) will give a straight
line through the origin and the gradient is equal to the refractive
index, n.

Apparatus: Figure 21: Refractive index measure-

ment
• Suitable white light source e.g. ray box fitted with a single slit to
produce a narrow parallel beam of light

• Power supply for ray box and connecting leads

• Rectangular block of glass or Perspex

 eduqas practicals for gce physics 21

• 1 or 2 sheets of plain paper

• Protractor

• 30 cm ruler

Experimental Method:
The following arrangement should be set-up. The angle of refrac-

Figure 22: Experimental set-up for

determining Snell’s law. It is advisable
that you are a precise as possible with
your drawing and measuring so as to
obtain quality results

19
Particular care should be taken here.
The more precise the drawing, the
tion θr can be measured by drawing in the line joining the incident
better the final results.
and emergent rays for different values of the angle of incidence19 .
The angles can be measured using the protractor after drawing in
the normals20 . A graph of sin θi (y-axis) againstsin θr (xaxis) can be 20
the “normal” is a line at 90° to a
plotted which should give a straight line. A value of n can then be surface. In this case it is at 90° to the
glass block, as shown by a dotted line
determined from the gradient. in the diagram

21
The energy levels in the LED are
Determination of h using LEDs quantised, and they are constructed
such that their emissions are monochro-
matic. Because energy is conserved,
Theory: the only light that the LED can emit
will have an energy corresponding to
The Planck constant, h, can be determined by using a light emitting the energy level transition inside the
diode (LED) and measuring the minimum voltage, Vmin , at which material.
Potential difference is a measure of
light is just emitted by the diode. 21 The Planck constant can then the energy difference between two
hc
be determined from the equation Vmin = eλ where c is the speed of points. The potential required to light
light 3.00 × 10 ms 1 and e is the electronic charge, 1.60 × 10−19 C. A
8 − the LED must therefore be the energy
of the photons released. Photon energy
is given by E = h f , where h is planck’s
constant and f is the frequency of light.
22

graph of Vmin against 1/λ should be a straight line with the gradient
equal to Vmin = hec . 22 22
Many experiments have equations
in the form y = mx + c. You should
expect to have to match the variables
Apparatus: in an equation with the parts of an
equation of a straight line. It would
• Variable d.c. power supply be unsurprising to have a question
requiring you to calculate gradients and
• 1 kΩ protective resistor Y-intercepts

• Voltmeter (resolution ±0.01 V) [multimeter set to appropriate

range]

• Connecting leads

• Various LEDs - with known wavelengths

Experimental Method:
The circuit should be set-up as follows:

Figure 23: Experimental set-up for a

diode. Note the protective resistor to
prevent excess current from dmaging
the LED

The voltage should be varied until light is just emitted by the

LED. Record the voltage it corresponds to Vmin . The LED should
be replaced and the procedure repeated for LEDs with different
wavelengths of light. Plot a graph of Vmin (x-axis) against 1/λ (y-axis)
and use it to determine a value for h.
Radioactive Analogue with dice

Theory:

Radioactive decay is based on the assumption that the disintegrations

are entirely at random. This can be modelled using dice to represent
the atoms of a radioactive isotope.24 24
The throwing of dice isn’t a perfect
model as the probability is discrete as
opposed to continuous

Apparatus:

• 100 dice or cubes with only one side coloured

• 1 cup to hold dice

Experimental Method:
Figure 24: Half-life Dice

Throw the dice onto the table. Suppose all the dice with the number
1 uppermost have disintegrated. Remove these dice and count the
number remaining. Repeat this for a further 9 throws (making 10 in
all) and note down the number of throws and the number of dice
remaining each time. When complete combine the results of the class
so you have data for approx 1000 dice rolled 10 times. 25 Plot a graph 25
This is worth thinking about - we
of number of dice remaining (y-axis) against number of throws (x- want a statistically significant number
of events
axis). This should give an exponential curve with a half-life of about
3.8 throws.
You could use ICT such as computer modelling, or data logger
with a variety of sensors to collect data, or use of software to process
data.
24

Figure 25: Example results vs an actual

decay curve.

Investigation of charging and discharging a capacitor to determine

the time constant

Theory:
The discharge of a capacitor is given by the equation:
t
Q = Q0 e− RC

which can be written in terms of the voltage across the capacitor as:
t
V = V0 e− RC

By using logs, the above equation can be written as:

−t
ln V = + ln V0
RC
which can be compared with y = mx + c. The charging of a capacitor
is given by:  
t
V = V0 1 − e− RC .

Apparatus:
• d.c. power supply Figure 26: Charging and discharging
graphs
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 25

• Voltmeter (multimeter set on d.c. voltage range or CRO) - resolu-

tion ±0.01 V

• Stopwatch - resolution - either ±1 sec or ±0.01 sec

• 4mm leads

• Suitable switches

• Electrolytic capacitors e.g. 1000 µF or 2000 µF

• Resistors e.g. 100 kΩ or other values

Experimental method:

The following circuit can be used to investigate the charging of a

capacitor:

Figure 27: Experimental set-up for the

charging of a capacitor

The above circuit can then be re-arranged to investigate the dis-

charging of a capacitor as follows:

Figure 28: Experimental set-up for the

discharging of a capacitor
26

Charging the capacitor:

Set up the circuit from the above diagram and by using electrolytic
capacitors the correct polarity connection
needs to be checked by supervisors. The two way switch needs
to be in position 1 so that the capacitor can be charged and then
switched over to position 2 to discharge. Pre-trial readings can be Figure 29: An Electrolytic capacitor -
taken to determine suitable time intervals. It’s very important to connect them
correctly.

Discharging the capacitor:

The method is similar to charging the capacitor. Initially the switch is
to be left open and then connected so that the capacitor charges.

Extension:
The value of the capacitor could be hidden and the experimental
set-up used to determine its value. The equation (t1/2 = 0.69R) i.e.
the time taken for the voltage to fall to half its initial value could be
investigated using the data obtained.

Data Logging:
The voltage across the capacitor can be measured using a suitable
voltage sensor.

Investigation of the energy stored in a capacitor

Theory:
The energy stored by a capacitor is given by the equation: U = QV.
Given that Q = CV then the equation for the energy stored can
be written in the form: U = 21 CV 2 . The capacitor can be charged to
various values of V and then the energy stored can be determined
by using a Joule meter. The energy stored can be measured as the
Figure 30: The energy stored in a
capacitor discharges. A graph of energy stored against V 2 should be capacitor is the area under the line on a
linear and the value of the capacitance can then be measured. graph of V vs Q

Apparatus:
• d.c. power supply

• Voltmeter (multimeter set on d.c. voltage range or CRO) âĂŞ reso-

lution ±0.01 V

• Digital joule meter

• 4mm leads
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 27

• Suitable switches

• Electrolytic capacitors e.g. 1000 µF or 2000 µF

• Resistors e.g. 100 kΩ or other values

Experimental method:
The following circuit can be used

Figure 31: Experimental set-up for

measuring the energy stored by a
capacitor

Learners can set up the circuit from the above diagram and if
using electrolytic capacitors the correct polarity connection needs to
be checked26 . The two switch needs to be in position 1 so that the 26
There’s a safety consideration here. If
capacitor can be charged and then switched over to position 2 to connected the wrong way round they
can explode as the dielectric heats to
discharge. boiling point

Extension:
The value of the capacitor could be hidden and the experimental set-
up used to determine its value. The equation (t1/2 = 0.69CR) i.e.
the time taken for the voltage to fall to half its initial value could be
investigated using the data obtained.

Data Logging:
The voltage across the capacitor can be measured using a suitable
voltage sensor.
28

Investigating the damping of a spring

Theory:
The relationship between the amplitude of oscillation, A, and time, t,
can be expressed by:
A = A0 e−λt
Where A0 = initial amplitude And λ = an unknown constant If we
take the log of both sides we get ln A = −λt + ln A0 . This can be
compared with the equation for a straight-line y = mx + c and so Figure 32: Lightly damped Simple
a graph of ln A against t will give a straight line of gradient λ and Harmonic Motion
intercept ln A0 .

Apparatus:
• 500g hanger and masses

• 2 linked springs

• pointer

• 2 clamps and stands

• G-clamps (if required)

• metre rule (resolution ±0.001 m)

• stopwatch Figure 33: An alternative set-up that

allows for water damping.

Experimental Method:
Set-up the experiment as above. Place the 500 g mass on the spring
system and attach a pointer so its position can be easily read on the
metre rule. Displace the mass by a further 2.5 cm.27 Let go of the 27
Watch those parallax errors!
mass and simultaneously start the stopwatch. Let the mass oscillate
continuously and measure the new amplitude of the system every
minute for the next eight minutes. Repeat this two more times and
find the mean amplitude at each time. Determine ln A for each time t
and plot a graph to enable you to find λ.

Extension:
A series of cards of different diameters could be included to investi-
gate the effect of different surface area on damping (the cards could
be placed on top of the different masses).
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 29

Figure 34: Experimental set-up to

measure damping of a spring. Note
that the distance between oscillator and
the ruler should be reduced so as to
minimise parallax error.

Investigation of the force on a current in a magnetic field

Theory:
The force on a current carrying wire in a magnetic field is described
by the relationship: F = BIl sin θ.
30

In this practical arrangement, the value of θ = 90o so the equation

can be simplified t o F = B Il. The value of F is determined by the
weight of the magnet placed on a balance.
In effect F = ∆mg where ∆m is the apparent change in mass as F
varies due to the magnitude of the current. The current can be varied
and a graph of F against I can be plotted which should be linear.
The length of the wire can be measured and the magnetic flux
density of the magnet can be determined from the gradient of the Figure 35: Flemming’s left hand rule
graph and the value of length of wire within the pole pieces of the allows us to remember the effects.

magnet.

Apparatus:

• Electronic scales with resolution ±0.001 g

• Ammeter

• Rheostat - value can be chosen so that the current can be varied in

the range 0 to 3.00A or 5.00A

• 20 SWG copper wire

• Ammeter or mutlimeter set to A range - ±0.01 A

• Variable d.c. power supply

• U shaped soft iron section with ceramic pole pieces

• Stand and clamp

• Metre rule

• length of wire

Experimental Method:

Set up the apparatus as shown in the diagram.

 eduqas practicals for gce physics 31

Measure the length, l of the wire which is between the poles of the
magnet. Use the rheostat to increase the current in steps from zero.
For each chosen current value, record ∆m, the apparent change in
mass of the magnet (this can be an increase or decrease, depending
upon the orientation of the current and the magnetic field). The force,
F on the wire is calculated from F = ∆mg for each value of current
I. A graph of F (y-axis) against I (x-axis) should be a straight line
through the origin. The magnetic flux density, B of the magnet can be
determined from: B= gradient/length of wire

Measurement of specific heat capacity

Theory:
Assuming no energy losses: Electrical energy supplied by the heater Some typical values for specific heat
= heat received by the block capacity:
Substance c/JKg−1 K −1
Aluminium 900
ItV = mc(θ2 − θ1 ) Ice 2100
Iron 450
Where c = specific heat capacity and (θ2 − θ1 ) = 30o C. Hence: Wood 1700
Copper 390
ItV Water 4186
30m

Apparatus:
In addition to the apparatus shown in the diagram a balance and a
stopwatch are needed.
Blocks pre-drilled and with surrounding insulation are usually
provided, having been specially made for the purpose. A few drops
32

of glycerol could be placed in the thermometer hole to improve ther-

mal contact with the block 28 . 28
Failing to do this step results in poor
readings from the thermometer and is a
major source of error in this practical
Experimental Method:

Use a cylindrical block of the metal to be tested (such as copper or

aluminium). The block should be well lagged using an insulator such
as polystyrene 29 and it needs two pre- drilled holes, one for a heater 29
Failing to properly insulate the block
will cause energy to be lost to the
and one for a thermometer. Measure the mass, m, of the block and
surrounding, spoiling the result
record its initial temperature, θ1 . Switch the heater on and start the
stopwatch. Record the voltmeter and ammeter readings. When the
temperature has risen by 30o C switch the heater off and record the
time taken, t. The formula can then be used to determine a value for
c.

Extension:
By comparing the specific heat capacity to known constants it is
possible to determine the type of metal the block is made from.

Estimation of absolute zero by use of the gas laws (Charles’ Law)

Theory:
Charles’ law states that for a constant amount of gas, the volume
is proportional to the absolute temperature if the pressure remains
constant.

V ∝ T for constant P
Figure 36: Extrapolating from Charles’
law to absolute zero
 eduqas practicals for gce physics 33

A plot of volume versus Centigrade temperature intercepts the x-axis

at -273 oC which suggests that the gas would occupy no volume at
this temperature. This theoretical value is known as absolute zero,
and is also known as 0 Kelvin.

Apparatus:
A small bead of concentrated sulfuric acid can be trapped in a capil-
lary tube by first heating the tube with boiling water.
When the air cools down it contracts and the sulfuric acid will
move down the tube.

Experimental Method:
Figure 37: We use concentrated sul-
phuric as it is hygroscopic - it absorbs
the moisture from the trapped air bub-
ble - this ir more dangerous than using
water however it prevents the water
vapour in the air bubble from giving us
a poor result. It would also be a great
safety point to mention!

Heat the water using a Bunsen burner and stir regularly. Measure the
length of the trapped air every 10o C up to 80o C. Plot a graph of the
length of trapped air (y-axis) against temperature (x-axis). The tem-
perature scale should cover the range −400o C to 100o C. The length
scale should start at zero. Draw a line of best fit extended back until
it cuts the x-axis, this is absolute zero.30 30
See figure 36

Extension:
The pressure law will also give a value for absolute zero. Air trapped
in a flask can be heated in a water bath and the pressure measured
using a pressure gauge. A graph of pressure (y-axis) against Centi-
34

grade temperature (x-axis) can be extrapolated back to give a value

for absolute zero.

Investigation of magnetic flux density using a hall probe

Theory:
A Hall probe is a slice of doped semiconductor with a connecting
wire at each end to provide a steady current.
Another two wires are connected across the edges of the slice to
allow the Hall potential difference, VH to be measured. Note that the
slice must be placed so that it is at right angles to the magnetic field Figure 38: A schematic of a Hall probe.
lines.
When a constant current flows the Hall pd is proportional to the
magnetic field strength, and so can be calibrated using a known
magnetic field.

Apparatus:
Figure 39: Showing the placement of
• Hall probe a hall probe so as to make the wafer
perpendicular to the field lines - Note
• Solenoid that the hall probes we used in class do
not have this orientation, they are made
• Voltmeter of a combination of two perpendicular
slices so as to work in either orientation.
• Ammeter

• d.c. supply

• Magnet of known magnetic field strength

Experimental Method:
Figure 40: Showing the magnetic field
Place the Hall probe into a known magnetic field, B1 and note the in a solenoid
Hall potential difference, V1 . Then place the Hall probe in the centre
of a solenoid. Ensure, in both cases, the probe is perpendicular to
the magnetic field. Again measure the Hall potential difference, V2
when the probe is in the solenoid. The unknown magnetic field of
the solenoid, B2 , can be found using:
B1
B2 = V2
V1

Extension:
A graph of field strength against distance along the solenoid could be
drawn to show the difference in magnetic field at the ends. It is also
possible to investigate the variation of magnetic field strength with
the solenoid diameter.