1.

Neuroanatomy Review
2. Division of the Nervous System
a. The nervous system is complex and is made up of many parts or systems that
interact with one another to produce our behaviours
b. Typically, we make 2 large distinctions - CNS (中央神经系统)vs PNS (初级神经系统）
3. Direction of Information Flow
a. The flow of information within the nervous system follows specific
direction
b. Afferent information : is a sensory information coming into into the CNS
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i. Incoming information
c. Efferent information : is the motor information leaving the CNS
i. Outgoing information
4. Finding Your Way Around the Brain
a. Many brain structures have several names, and terms are often used interchangeably or haphazardly
i. Ex : cerebrum vs telencephalon vs cerebral cortex vs cerebral hemispheres
ii. Ex : visual cortex vs primary visual cortex vs striate cortex vs area v1
b. Many names for nervous system structures include information about their
anatomical locations
i. Ex : dorsolateral ,prefrontal cortex
5. Finding Your way around the brain
a. (背部/上部) Dorsal/Superior = “above”
b. (腹侧/下侧)Ventral/Inferior = “below”
c. (中部)Medial = “middle”
d. (侧部)Lateral = “ to the side”
e. (前部)Anterior/ Rostral = “front”
f. (后部)Posterior/ Caudal = “back”
6. Anatomical Orientation
a. Perspective of a viewer
i. dorsal view = “above “ (1)
ii. Ventral view = “below” (2)
iii. Frontal view = “front” (3)
iv. Lateral View = “side” (4)
v. Medial View = “middle” (5)
b. Planes ( Slices )
i. Axial/Horizontal/Transverse Slice
1. ● Reveals a dorsal or ventral View
ii. Sagittal Slice （失状切片）
1. ● Reveals a medial view
iii. Coronal Slice （冠状切片）
1. ● Reveals a frontal view
7. Other terms
a. the nervous system is bilaterally symmetrical: it has a left and right side that
mirror one another
i. Bilateral“on both sides” （双边）
1. Example: Right temporal lobe and left temporal lobe
ii. Ipsilateral “on the same side” （单边）
1. Example: Right leg and right arm
iii. Contralateral“on the opposite side” （对侧）
1. Example: Right leg and left arm
iv. Proximal“are close to one another” （近侧）
1. Example: My right and left eye
v. Distal “are far from one another” （远端）
1. Example: My head and my toes
8. Surface features of the brain
a. If I were to pop open your skull, the first thing I would
encounter would not be the brain itself.
b. (脑膜)Meninges : 3 layers of protective tissue that encase the brain and spinal cord
 1. Purpose is to protect the nervous system
ii. Dura mater (硬脑膜): Outer, tough layer of fibrous tissue that encloses the brain in a
kind of loose sac
iii. Arachnoid layer (蛛网脑膜): Middle ; thin sheet of delicate connective
tissue that follows the brain’s contours
iv. Pia mater (軟腦膜): Inner ; moderately through membrane of
connective tissue that clings to the surface of the brain
9. Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) (脑脊液）
a. Fills the ventricles(脑室) and circulates, located between the arachnoid
layer and the pia mater
b. Colourless solution made of sodium chloride and other salts
c. Cushions the brian so that it may expand or move without hitting the skull
10. Meningitis : (脑膜炎）
a. Inflammation of the meninges ( particularly the pia mater and the arachnoid layer and the
CSF between them)
b. Cause by microorganisms entering the meninges and causing infections
c. The earliest symptom is often severe headache and cervical rigidity
d. Differs from encephalitis(脑炎) - inflammation of the brain
11. Cerebral Geography
a. Cerebrum(大脑）
i. Major structure of the forebrain;consists of two identical left and right hemispheres
1. Responsible for most conscious behaviours.
2. Enfolds the brain stem, which is responsible for most of our unconscious
behaviours
b. Cerebellum（小脑）
i. Little brain
ii. Major brainstem structure specialized for learning and coordinating
movements/balance
1. Assists the cerebrum in generating other behaviours
c. (脑回)Gyrus - small protrusions or bumps on the folded cortex
i. (褶皱外侧)Gyri (outer of the folds)
d. (脑沟)Sulcus - grooves of the cortex
i. (褶皱内侧)Sulci (Inner of the folds)
12. Cerebral cortex （大脑皮层）
a. thin sheet of nerve tissue folded multiple times to fit inside the skull;forms the outer layer
b. Each hemisphere (both left and right) is an almost mirror
image of one another and is divided into four lobes.
c. Each lobe is named for skull bone it lies beneath.
i. Frontal lobe (executive function, motor planing)
ii. Parietal lobe (sensory integration, touch)
iii. Temporal lobe (audition, language , music)
iv. Occipital lobe(vision)
d. Can predict behavioural changes based on damage
13. Central sulcus (中央沟)
a. Divides the frontal and parietal lobes
b. Divides the primary motor cortex and the primary somatosensory cortex
c. Some sulci are so deep they are called fissures
d. Longitudinal fissure
i. Deep fissure which separates the 2 hemispheres
14. Lateral fissure(外侧沟）
a. Divides the frontal and parietal lobes from temporal lobe
15. Parieto-occipital sulcus(顶枕沟)
a. Divides the parietal lobes from the occipital lobes
16. Brianstem（脑干）
a. Central structures of the brain
 b. responsible for most unconscious behaviours
i. Includes the hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus, etc
ii. Controls basic physiological functions
17. The brain’s surface is covered with blood vessels and arteries(动脉) that supply
oxygenated blood to the outer and inner regions and remove deoxygenated
blood and waste.
18. Major Cerebral Arteries
a. Anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries (前中后）
b. Stroke(中风)
i. Sudden appearance of neurological symptoms as a result of severe interruption of
blood flow
ii. Often results in cellular death of the affected region
iii. Area differs depending on which artery is affected
iv. Symptoms are contralateral（对侧的）
19. Internal Features
a. Two main types of cells, both only visible with microscope
i. Neurons(神经元）
1. Carry out the brain’s major functions
2. Approximately 80 billion
ii. Glial cells（胶质细胞）
1. Aid and support the activities of neurons
2. Approximately 80 billion
b. Grey matter（灰质）
i. Darker areas of the nervous system predominantly composed
of cell bodies and blood vessels
ii. Most external part of the brain
1. Neurons collect or modify information or support this activity
c. White matter (白质)
i. Lighter areas rich in fat sheathed(i.e., ‘myelinated’) neural axons
ii. Most interior part of the brain
1. Fatty coverings (or myelin) is responsible for the colour
2. Connections between and among brain cells. Processing information
d. Corpus callosum (胼胝体)
i. The largest white matter tract in the brain; 200 million nerve fibres
ii. Connects the 2 cerebral hemispheres to provide a route of direct communication
e. Ventricle (脑室）
i. Wing-shaped cavities in the brain that contain CSF to cushion the
brain. CSF is produced by cells that line the ventricles.
ii. Four Ventricles
1. Two lateral ventricles (left and right)
2. Third ventricle (near Corpus callosum)
3. Fourth ventricle(near cerebellum)
4. All 4 are connected to each other and connect with the cerebral
aqueduct(大腦導水管) which runs down the length of the spinal
cord.
iii. Roles of CSF:
1. Allow certain compounds access to the brain
2. Removes waste from the brain
3. Cushions from injury
20. Internal Features - Microscopic
a. Nucleus(细胞核） (pl. nuclei) (ex. Red nucleus)
i. A group of cells forming a cluster that can be identified with special
stain to form a functional grouping
b. Axon
i. Fibre of a neuron that carries messages to other neurons
c. Nerve
 i. Large collection of axons coming together outside the CNS
d. Tract
i. Large collection of axons coming together inside the CNS
21. The Central Nervous System (中央神经系统）
a. Spinal Cord （脊髓）
i. Not a single structure, rather several spinal segments
ii. Each receive/send information from/to a discrete part of the body.
iii. Executes most body movements
iv. Usually follows instructions from the brain
v. Can act independently of the brain
1. Ex. “Running around like a chicken with its head cut off”
vi. Spinal reflex/reflex arc
1. Automatic movement
2. Hard to prevent
a. Example: knee-jerk reflex (patellar tendon)
b. Brainstem
i. Begins where the spinal cord enters the skull and
extends up to the forebrain
ii. Receives afferent nerves coming from senses and
sends efferent out to the spinal cord to control
movements
iii. Responsible for most life sustaining behaviours
iv. Three regions of brainstem
v. Hindbrain- motor region
1. Evolutionarily the oldest part of the brain
2. Controls both voluntary and involuntary body movements;plays a role in
maintaining balance
3. Contains
a. Cerebellum
i. Controls complex movements and has a role in a variety of
cognitive functions
ii. Size of cerebellum increases with the physical speed and
dexterity of species
b. Reticular formation(网状结构）
i. Contains the reticular activating system
ii. Extends the entire length of the brainstem
iii. Plays a role in sleep-wake behaviour and arousal
1. Stimulates the forebrain
c. Pons(桥脑）
i. Bridge,connect cerebellum to the rest of the brain
ii. Controls movements of the body
iii. Eye,facial,locked-in syndrome
d. Medulla(延脑）
i. Anterior tip of the spinal cord
ii. Vital functions for life
1. Control of breathing and heart rate
2. Reasons to avoid a blow to the back of the head
vi. Midbrain- sensory region
1. A dorsal sensory component-Tectum(頂蓋)
a. Roof of midbrain
b. Sensory Processing
c. Receives a massive amount of visual and auditory information
d. Superior and inferior colliculi
i. Produce orienting movements
1. Ex.turning head to see source of sound
2. A ventral motor component-Tegmentum(蓋膜)
 a.Floor of midbrain
b.Motor processing
c.Eye and limb movements
d.Substantia nigra(basal ganglia structure)(黑质）
i. Connects to the forebrain
ii. Crucial for initiating movements
1. Parkinson;s disease
e. Perception of pain
i. Particularly drug relief from opioids
vii. Diencephalon - Integration region
1. Receives, integrates, and combines sensory and motor information on its
way to the cerebral cortex
2. Two principal structures:
a. Hypothalamus(下丘脑）
i. Less than 1% of the brain weight, but plays a role in a huge
amount of behaviours
ii. Hormone function
1. Interacts with endocrine system/pituitary glands to
target multiple body organs
iii. Feeding behaviour
iv. Sexual behaviour
v. sleeping/waking
vi. Temperature regulation
vii. Emotional and motivated behaviours
viii. Movement
b. Thalamus （丘脑）
i. The great relay station
ii. Gateway for channelling sensory information from all senses to the
cortex
1. Organises and integrates information from sensory inputs
and relays it to appropriate cortical areas
2. Lateral geniculate nucleus(visual)
3. Medial geniculate nucleus(auditory)
4. Dorsomedial nucleus(olfaction)
iii. Primary role is sensory processing but does play a smaller role in
motor processing as well
c. Forebrain (基底前脑）
i. The largest and most recently evolved region of the human brain.
ii. Three principal structures:
1. Neocortex (cerebral cortex) （大脑皮质）
a. Cortical layers
i. Six layers of neocortex have distinct properties that might differ
layer to layer
1. Density
a. Cell density differs between layers
b. Almost none in Layer 1, very dense in 4 and 5
2. Cell type
a. Some layers are sensory, some are motor
3. Function
a. Sensory cortex has a larger 4, motor cortex has a
larger 5
4. Appearance
ii. Brodmann areas
1. Regions of the cerebral cortex defined by its
cytoarchitecture, or organisation of cells
 2. Constant debate about accuracy and more complex
mapping is possible nowadays with brain imaging
2. Basal ganglia （基底核）
a. Collection of nuclei just below the white matter of the cortex
b. Three principal structures
i. Caudate nucleus(尾狀核)
ii. Putamen(壳核)
iii. Globus pallidus(苍白球)
c. Work together with substantia nigra and thalamic nuclei
d. Controls voluntary and involuntary movement/fluidity of movement
3. Limbic system （allocortex）（边缘系统）
a. Group of structures between the neocortex and the brainstem
b. Principle Components
i. Amygdala(杏仁体）
1. Emotional and sexual behaviours
ii. Hippocampus（海马体）
1. Memory,particualrly consolidating short term to long term
memories
iii. Cingulate cortex（扣带皮层）
1. Spatial navigation and motivation
c. Plays a role in emotional and motivated behaviour
22. The Somatic Nervous System (躯体神经系统）
a. The somatic nervous system (SNS), which is part of the PNS, is monitored and controlled
by the CNS
i. Focus now is on transmitting information to the rest of the body
b. The cranial nerves are controlled by the brain
c. The spinal nerves are controlled by the spinal cord segments
d. Cranial nerves (脑神经）
i. Provide connections between the brain and parts of the head, neck, and
internal organs
ii. Afferent functions – sensory inputs to the brain from the eyes, ears, etc.
iii. Efferent functions – motor control of the facial muscles, tongue, eyes, etc.
iv. Some have both function
v. have 12 pairs, one of each for the right side (ex. right eye) one for the left (ex.
left eye)
e. Spinal nerves （脊神经）
i. Found inside the bony spinal column which is made up of a series of small
bones called vertebrae（椎骨）.
ii. 5 anatomical regions of the spinal cord
1. Cervical (颈椎）
2. Thoracic （胸椎）
3. Lumbar （腰椎）
4. Sacral （骨盆椎）
5. Coccygeal （尾骨）
iii. 31 pairs receive sensory information from/send motor information to the PNS
iv. Receive sensory information from/send motor information to the PNS
v. Dorsal fibers are afferent: they carry information from the body’s sensory
receptors.
vi. Ventral fibres are efferent: they carry motor information from the spinal cord to the
muscles.
vii. Can help locate spinal cord damage when comparing movement/sensation
1. For example, if a person has numbness in their left fingers but can still move
their hand its forsal fiber
23. The Autonomic Nervous System （自主神经系统）
a. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) is responsible for controlling the viscera(internal
organs)
 i. Typically unconscious functions of the gut, heart, liver, lungs, etc
1. Largely function in the background
b. Sympathetic system
i. Arouses the body for action (e.g., increase heart rate and blood pressure)
1. Note: “arousal” in this case does not always = increase (for ex. inhibits
digestion)
ii. Mediates the “fight or flight” response
c. Parasympathetic system
i. Opposite of sympathetic: calms the body down; prepares the body to “rest and
digest”
ii. Reverses the “fight or flight” responses
24. The Enteric Nervous System (肠神经系统）
a. The enteric nervous system (ENS) is responsible for controlling the gut
i. Sometimes considered part of the ANS
ii. Network of neurons embedded in the lining of
1. the GI tract (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, colon)
iii. Controls bowel motility, secretion, and GI blood flow
25. Ten principle of Nervous system Function
a. The nervous system produces behaviour within a perceptual world the brain
constructs
b. Neuroplasticity is the hallmark of nervous system functioning
c. Many brain circuits are crossed
d. The CNS functions on multiple levels
e. The brain is both symmetrical and asymmetrical
f. Brain systems are organized hierarchically and in parallel
g. Sensory and motor divisions exist all throughout the nervous system
h. The brain divides sensory input for object recognition and motor control
i. Brain function are both localized and distributed
j. The nervous system works through both excitation and inhibition