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ENGLISH SKILLS MODULE: LEVEL 3

Academic year 2020-2021
Mr. Théoneste NSABIMANA
E-mail: [email protected]
HARD WORK FOR BETTER SUCCESS

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COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Language is the most commonly used and effective medium of self-expression in all spheres of human
life – personal, social and professional. Thus, a student must have enough knowledge of English language
so as to be able to pursue all the courses of study and handle the future jobs. This course aims at assisting
university students to acquire proficiency, both in spoken (oral) and written language. It is within this
framework that students have to learn English bearing in mind that:
 English is the medium of instruction in Rwanda.
 It helps people to communicate on a regular basis with more than two billion.
 English is the dominant business language. Research from all over the world shows that cross-
border business communication is most often conducted in English.
 Many of the world‘s top films, books and music are published and produced in English, which
means that by learning English, you will have access to a great wealth of entertainment.
 Most of the content produced on the internet (50%) is in English. So, being familiar with English
will allow students have an access to an incredible amount of information which may not be
otherwise available.

GENERAL OBJECTIVES:

By the end of this course, students should be able to:

 communicate orally with confidence in various academic, social, professional and other
situations;
 use the English Language accurately and appropriately for different purposes;
 write with clarity, accuracy and relevance for various purposes;
 interpret various texts critically;
 participate actively in discussions, debates and other oral activities;
 develop academic writing skills in order to present reasoned and mature arguments
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UNIT 1: WHAT IS COMMUNICATION?

1.1. DEFINITION OF COMMUNICATION

Communication (from Latin commūnicāre, meaning "to share") is the activity of conveying information
through the exchange of thoughts, messages, or information, as by speech, visuals, signals, writing, or
behavior. It is the meaningful exchange of information between two or more living creatures. Thus,
Communication is defined as the process by which people share ideas, experience, knowledge and
feelings through the transmission of symbolic messages. The means of communication are usually spoken
or written words, pictures or symbols. But we also give information through body language, gestures, and
looks, facial expressions can show how we feel and what we think about an issue or another person.
1.2. COMMUNICATION TOOLS
There are four basic communication tools which are listening, speaking, reading as well as writing. All
four of these basic tools can be learned and improved. First, you must want to improve your
communication skills. Next, you must understand them and recognize their importance in the
communication process. Then, you need to learn some new skills. Finally, you must practice good skills
to become a better, more effective communicator. Therefore, whether spoken or unspoken, messages
should contain most of these elements: Who, What, When, Where, Why and How
- Who? Characteristics of the receiver (s).
- Why? Purpose of the communication.
- What? Content of the message.
- How? Oral, written, visual or a combination of all three.
- Where? Location /place.
- When? Timing/time limit/expected response time.

1.3. COMMUNICATION PURPOSES

All communication is goal-oriented, i.e, it is always purposeful and the purposes of communication are
briefly:
-To give/ provide practical information (e.g: a seminar on the modular system will be held in the small
auditorium from 9-16 August 2016.)
-To request information (e.g I would like to know when the seminar on the modular system is starting.)
-To persuade (e.g. movit is good for your skin; it removes all the spots on the skin, etc) others and offer
recommendations
- To state precise responsibilities
-To create or promote goodwill: the purpose is to create a positive image of yourself and your
organization (friendly and helpful feelings). Goodwill is both an experience and a commodity.

1.4. COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS

Communication occurs in several kinds of contexts:
1.4.1. Intrapersonal communication
This refers to communication within us, talking to ourselves or thinking. Intrapersonal communication is
important in the formation of an individual‘s self-image.
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1.4.2. Interpersonal or dyadic communication (IPC)

Interpersonal communication is a person to person, two-way, verbal and non verbal interaction that
includes the sharing of information and feelings between individuals or in small groups that establish
trusting relationships. Interpersonal communication is classified into the following types:
1.4.2.1. Small group communication
This refers to the communication that takes place among people who work together with a common goal.
In any organization, there are small formal (ex: meeting) and informal group communication (ex: study or
tutorial groups).
1.4.2.2. Public communication
Public communication refers to public speaking. It is usually one-way communication and is formal in
nature.
1.4.2.3. Mass communication
Mass communication refers to the transmission of a message to a mass audience. It is a one-way form of
communication as feedback is limited and as there is no direct contact between the sender and the
receiver.
1.4.2.4. Intercultural communication
This refers to communication between people who belong to different cultures, who have thus different
values, beliefs, behaviors and ways of communicating.
1.4.2.5. Organizational communication
An organization consists of a group of people who work together to reach specific goals, and the way an
organization is managed (autocracy or democracy, for instance) affects the communication within the
organization. The direction/means in which the message travels between the sender and the receiver
within an organization is referred to as a channel. There are four channels or directions:

a) Upwards Communications: It is non directive in nature from

down below, to give feedback, to inform about progress/problems, seeking approvals. Upward: a
worker addressing a manager
b) Downwards Communication: Highly directives from senior to
subordinates, to assign duties, give instructions, to inform to offer feedback, approval to highlight
problems etc.
c) Lateral or Horizontal Communication: Among colleagues,
peers at same level for information sharing, for coordination, to save time. It is called lateral or
sideway because it is a type of communication between co-workers.
d) Informal or the grapevine communication: This happens when informal messages or rumors
travel in any direction in an organization.

1.5. ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Communication of any sort is a two-way process that requires understanding and a proper feedback. The
goal of communication is to convey information—and the understanding of that information—from one
person or group to another person or group. This communication process is divided into three basic
components:
A sender transmits a message through a channel to the receiver. (Figure shows a more elaborate model.)
The sender first develops an idea, which is composed into a message and then transmitted to the other
party, who interprets the message and receives meaning. Information theorists have added somewhat
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more complicated language. Developing a message is known as encoding. Interpreting the message is
referred to as decoding. The other important feature is the feedback cycle. When a person receives a
message, she responds to it by giving a reply. The feedback cycle is the same as the sender‐receiver
feedback noted in Figure.

1. Sender (the source or sender‘s mind): The sender is the person who initiates the communication by
thinking about an idea to communicate to the receiver. He is sometimes referred to as the source, the
communicator, or the encoder.
2. Message: The meaning, content or subject, i.e, the encoded idea or the content the communicator
wishes to convey.
3. Medium: The concrete form (signal or channel) through which the message is conveyed or
transmitted. Media can be spoken (e.g. lecture, conversation, etc.) or written (letter, newspaper, etc.)
4. Audience or receiver (listener‘s mind-destination): This is the person the message is addressed to.
5. Feedback: There is a reversal role with the receiver subsuming the role of the sender and the original
speaker, that of the receiver.
Note: For any interaction to turn into communication, we need a sender (speaker/encoder/communicator)
and a receiver (listener/ decoder/interpreter). Between the two, we have a message to be transmitted and a
medium or channel through which it has to be sent forth.

1.6. CHANNELS OF COMMUNICATION

A channel of communication is a structure or conduct used to transmit messages between persons. The
channel or modality may be auditory (e.g. spoken message), visual (such as the use of body movement,
written text, diagram or video), kinesthetic (communication by feel or touch) or a combination of these.

1.7. TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

People communicate with each other in a number of ways that depend upon the message and its context in
which it is being sent. Two types of communication are commonly known:
a) Verbal Communication b) Nonverbal Communication
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1.7.1. Verbal communication

Verbal communication refers to the form of communication in which message is transmitted verbally.
The communication is done by word of mouth and a piece of writing. In other words, verbal
communication is any communication involving words, whether they are spoken (oral messages like
interviews, radio broadcasts, conversation, etc.) or written (letters, books, posters, class notes, etc.)
Verbal Communication is further divided into:
- Oral communication
- Written communication
1.7.1.1. Oral communication
In oral communication, spoken words are used. It includes face-to-face conversations, speech, telephonic
conversation, video, radio, television, voice over internet. Oral communication is influenced by the
volume, speed and clarity of the speaker.
Advantages
Oral communication is advantageous because
- It uses emotions to persuade, to focus the attention of the audience on specific points, etc.
- It brings quick feedback.
- In a face-to-face conversation, one can guess whether he/she should trust what‘s being said or
not, by reading facial expression and body language
Disadvantages
In face-to-face discussion, the users are unable to deeply think about what they are delivering.
1.7.1.2. Written communication
In written communication, written signs or symbols are used to communicate. A written message may be
printed or hand written. Memos, reports, bulletins, job descriptions, employee manuals, and electronic
mail are the types of internal written communication. For communicating with external environment in
writing, electronic mail, Internet Web sites, letters, proposals, telegrams, faxes, postcards, contracts,
advertisements, brochures, and news releases are used.
In written communication, the message is influenced by the vocabulary and grammar used, writing style,
precision and clarity of the language used. Written communication is the most common form of
communication being used in business. So, it is considered core among business skills. Speech comes
before writing, but writing is more unique and formal than speech.
Advantages
Written communication
- Helps lay down apparent principles, policies and rules for running an organization
- Provides valid records and references
- Helps fix and delegate responsibilities
- Is valid and reliable
- Messages can be edited and revised many time before it is actually sent.
- Written communication provides record for every message sent and can be saved for later study.
- A written message enables receiver to fully understand it and send appropriate feedback.
Disadvantages
Written communication
- Costs huge in terms of stationery (Envelopes, papers, printing and photocopying services, etc.)
- Requires great skills and competences in language use. Poor writing skills have a negative impact
on an organization‘s reputation.
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- Too much paper work and e-mails burden is involved.

- It doesn‘t bring instant feedback.
- It takes more time in composing a written message as compared to word-of-mouth.
- People struggle for writing ability.
Verbal communication can be either formal or informal.
1.7.2. Non-verbal communication
Non-verbal communication is the sending or receiving of wordless (no word) messages. We can say that
it is a type of communication other than oral and written. Gestures, body language or posture, facial
expressions and eye contact, object communication such as clothing, hairstyles, architecture, symbols, are
called nonverbal communication channels. In other words, nonverbal communication is all about the
body language of speaker.
Importance
- Detecting deception or affirming a speaker‘s honesty
- Assuring reliability (trust): people have more faith in non-verbal cues than verbal messages
- Expressing efficiency: to register the meaning of something
- Giving support and clarity: non-verbal communication reveals true feeling, motivation and
character.
Note: Verbal communication can be either formal or informal.

1.7.2.1. Formal communication

In formal communication, certain rules, conventions and principles are followed while communicating
message. Formal communication occurs in formal and official style. Usually professional settings,
corporate meetings, conferences undergoes in formal pattern. In formal communication, use of slang and
foul language is avoided and correct pronunciation is required. Authority lines are needed to be followed
in formal communication.
1.7.4. Informal communication
Informal communication is done using channels that are in contrast with the ones used in formal
communication. It‘s just a casual talk. It is established for societal affiliations of members in an
organization and face-to-face discussions. It happens among friends and family. In informal
communication use of slang words, foul language is not restricted. Usually, informal communication is
done orally and using gestures. Informal communication, unlike formal communication, doesn’t follow
authority lines. In an organization, it helps in finding out staff grievances as people express more when
talking informally. Informal communication helps in building relationships.

1.8. BARRIERS TO EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

Communication is most effective when it moves speedily and smoothly in an uninterrupted flow, but the
free flow of communication frequently breaks down due to barriers-any obstacles or difficulties that come
in the way of communication. They may be physical, mechanical, psychological, cultural or linguistic.

1.8.1. Physical barriers

 Noise can manipulate the interpretation of conversations. Also, in factories, oral communication
is rendered difficult by the loud noise of machines.
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 Time and distance:

(a) Lack of time may hamper communication. For instance, when you address somebody who is
in a hurry, the person is likely not to listen.
(b) Distance like the use of the telephone only can also inhibit conversation.
 Environmental stress: Heat, humidity, poor ventilation, vibrations, a strong glare can contribute to
distortions in the sending and receiving of messages.
 Ignorance of the medium (oral, written, audio, visual and audiovisual): the medium of
communication becomes a barrier when it is unfamiliar to the communicators. For example, you
cannot use maps or charts to workers who have never been taught to read them.
 Not being able to see the non-verbal cues, gestures, posture and general body language can make
communication less effective.

1.8.2. Mechanical barriers

These are barriers raised by the channels employed for interpersonal, group or mass communication or by
the absence of communication facilities.
 For interpersonal communication: a telephone that is in poor working order, cross-talk heard in an
office, or during long distance calls.
 In group communication: a rundown or whistling microphone, a wrong placement of
loudspeakers…
 In mass communication: a film projector that does not function properly, smeared ink in
newspaper, static on the radio, a rolling screen on television, a barely readable point-size…

1.8.3. Psychological barriers

These are barriers due to some social or psychological problems.
 Attitudes: We tend to favorably receive information that agrees with our attitudes and opinions
and to react unfavorably against information that disagrees or tends to run contrary to our
accepted beliefs.
 Emotions: The sender cannot organize a message properly when he is perplexed, excited, afraid;
nervous…the emotions of the receiver also affect the communication process. If he is angry, he
will not take the message in proper light.
 Resistance to change: We outright resist changing in any form except where it is to our benefit.
 Closed mind/ Lack of collaborative effort: A person with a closed mind is difficult to
communicate with since his mind is made up and since he says he knows what he knows and does
not want to know anything else.
 Unsolicited communication faces stronger barriers than solicited communication. For example,
when one looks for advice, one listens carefully; however, it is rare to pay much attention to a
sales letter that comes to me unsolicited.
 Background knowledge: lack of knowledge of a subject may impair understanding

1.8.4. Semantic barriers

Semantics refers to the meaning of language used. Language facilitates understanding, but there are times
when it can be a barrier to communication since different participants in communication may understand
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a word differently or/and interpret it in a different way according to their mental attitude and
understanding. The message communicated by the sender may not convey the same meaning to the
recipient. So, meanings exist in both words themselves and in the minds of people.
 Interpretation of words: Language (lack of language skills, words used whether spoken or written,
the way conversations are carried on, incorrect interpretation, etc.) For example, one word may
have many senses, and the receiver is at liberty to interpret it in any of those meanings.
 Misunderstanding due to semantic problems: don‘t use difficult words, use simple language.
EX: The failure was due to…, and here are curves
 The use of jargon. Over-complicated, unfamiliar and/or technical terms.

1.8.4.1. Different comprehension of reality

No two people perceive reality in identical manners. They rather have perceptual differences, i.e. they see
things differently.
o Abstracting: the process of focusing attention on some details and omitting others. As people
have different abstractions, keep in mind that an abstract can never be a whole story. What looks
pertinent to one report may look insignificant to another.
o Slanting (allness=Tendency to believe that what someone says about a particular subject is all
that he/she has to say on that subject): giving a particular bias or slant to the reality, being aware
of the existence of other aspects, but deliberately selecting a few and making them representative
of the whole. Allness - knowing only a part and ignoring the rest, but we think that we know the
whole.
o Inferring: inferences are statements that go beyond facts (what we can see, hear, smell, feel, and
taste) and the conclusions based on facts.

Example: When an employee leaves his office one hour late for 2 weeks or so, the manager may ask
himself many questions about that employee:

1.8.4.2. Wrong choice of medium

Each media (oral, written, visual and audiovisual) has its own merits and limitations. For example, a
report on sales figures requires a tabular form rather than lengthy paragraphs or a talk on the phone. In
case of supervisor misbehaves, the employee will have a face-to-face communication rather than a written
letter expressing regrets.

1.8.5. Natural differences

Age, sex, and culture: natural differences can impede communication. E.g. Girls being mentored by men
do not address their mentors freely.
Remarks: There are many other communication barriers which may include
- Emotional barriers and taboos. Some people may find it difficult to express their emotions and
some topics may be completely 'off-limits' or taboo.
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- Lack of attention, interest, distractions, or irrelevance to the receiver.

- Cultural differences. The norms of social interaction vary greatly in different cultures, as do the
way in which emotions are expressed.

1.9. MEASURES TO OVERCOME COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

To overcome communication barriers:

 Encourage open communication climate: Employees should be free to express their opinions, to
disagree with their boss, to confess their mistakes, etc. So, the employers should not strangle
them by intimidating and frustrating them.
 Plan and clarify ideas (test thinking by discussing with other people, collect ideas and suggestions
from others, support the decision of those responsible for carrying communication, increase the
level of motivation, use simple, clear and meaningful language: the meanings should not be
ambiguous.). The contents of communication should be adequate and complete the sentences
logical and well-organized.
 Time your message carefully (what, where, why, who, when and how) to avoid boredom on the
part of the audience
 Chose well the medium and method of communication. Sometimes, oral communication is faster,
but it needs to be supported by written communication. Reinforce words with action: practice
what you preach.

UNIT 2: SPEAKING SKILLS

1. PUBLIC SPEAKING

Here are a few „key principles‟ to keep in mind when you are preparing to speak in front of others,
whether it is in the classroom, at a conference, in an interview, or as part of a seminar. The principles are
deliberately broad so that they can be applied to a range of disciplines and contexts.

Key Principles of Communication:

1) We are all always communicating: There are three main registers of communication; to be as
effective as possible, we must be actively aware of them all.
 Body language: non-verbal communication
 Tone: vocal communication

2) Content: the content or message
3) Goal and Audience: What do you want your given audience to do/remember?
 Be clear about your Goal.
 Modify your Goal to appeal to your specific Audience. (Remember, you can change your
goal, but not your audience!)
4) WIIFM: “What‟s In It For Me?”
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 This question (asked from the perspective of your audience) must be answered as directly
and practically as possible at the beginning of any lecture, interview, conference paper,
seminar discussion.
 Tell your audience what they will gain from paying attention to and remembering the
material you are presenting/discussing?
5) Credibility: “Why should I listen to you?”
 Tell your audience how you know what you know. Have you done research/ taken a
class/ received your degree/ done this before/ had personal experience in a given area?
 Do you have common ground with your audience? This can also help establish credibility
and WIIFM (―I am like you, I know that this information will help you as it has me…‖).

Tips for Non-verbal and Vocal Communication:

1. Physical Communication
1) Take up space
 Stand with your feet hip distance apart, fully facing your audience.
 Build in meaningful movement, commanding space between lectern, computer,
chalkboard etc.
 Make eye contact
 Spend a few seconds with each person you look at.
 For bigger lecture halls, use an M or a W pattern to spread eye contact
throughout the room.
2) Avoid defensive postures:
 Arms crossed, hands in pockets, hands clasped behind or in front of body.
 These postures limit your gestural ability and will make your audience close off as well.
3) Avoid fiddling with props
 Put down the pen/chalk/remote when you are not using them.
 If you know you play with jewelry, don‘t wear it; if you play with your hair, pull it back;
 Empty your pockets of change and keys that make noise and tempt fiddling.
 Stand your ground
 Avoid swaying, pacing
 Avoid the hip-cock
 Fake it till you make it
 Smile!! Even if you don‘t feel like it; this will put your audience at ease and soon you
will feel better!
2. Vocal Communication:
1) Be aware of your habits in the following areas:
 Volume – how loud you speak in relation to size of space and audience
 Pitch – where in your voice you speak (high/low/monotone)
 Rate – Speed, how slow or fast you speak
 Vocal Variety – how often you change your pitch, rate, and volume
 Together, these aspects create Tone: the emotion, confidence, enthusiasm with which
you speak.
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2) Avoid filler words: um, uh, sort of, like, you know

What to do?

 Enlist a monitor or tape yourself; you need to hear it to change it.

 Replace these with silence: Pauses are good for you (sound well considered) and your audience
(time to process info)!
 Avoid up speak: when you turn statements into questions, upward inflection after all statements.

Know Yourself to Help Yourself: How do your nerves manifest themselves?

a) Note what happens when you get up to speak

b) Do you sweat/ shake/ mind goes blank/ pace/ talk too fast/ and so on?
c) Knowing what to expect will keep you from feeling thrown off in the moment.
d) Mind shift: this is normal and even necessary! It is your body‘s way of getting ready to perform.
Anxiety = Energy!

Anticipate and prepare:

 Wear dark colors if you know sweat;

 Write yourself notes to SLOW DOWN in the margins of you notes;
 Take a deep breath when your mind goes blank
 Warm-up and get some exercise beforehand to release nervous energy in your body
 Do not drink too much caffeine before presenting
 Build in some meaningful movement (not pacing!) to use some of that nervous energy
 Bring water
 Make sure your blood sugar is not too low (don‘t forget to eat!)
 DO NOT tell your audience you are nervous. Things are never as apparent from the outside as the
inside.
 Be other-centered: Remember that you are speaking in service of you audience. Everything you
do is to help them learn/ remember/ take action. The less you focus on yourself, the less nervous
you will be.

2. MAKING AN ORAL PRESENTATION

When making an oral presentation in class, you must know your subject well and convince your audience
that they have something to gain from listening to you. Here are some things you can do to make effective
oral presentation.

 Be prepared. Research your subject to ensure that you are knowledgeable. Practice your
presentation until you feel comfortable. Make sure you can present your information within
whatever time limits you will have. Anticipate questions you may be asked and prepare answers
to these.
 Know your audience. Tailor your presentation to your audience‘s level of knowledge about the
subject of your presentation, what they need to know and their interest.
 Be positive. Make it clear that you are knowledgeable and enthusiastic about your subject.
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 Don‟t read your presentation. Talk to your audience. Use your notes as prompts as needed.
 Provide examples. Try to make your presentation as concrete and ―down to earth‖ as possible.
Add appropriate anecdotes and humor to drive home a point.
 Use visual aids. Supplement what you say with visual aids such as handouts, charts,
transparencies, and slides. Make sure that everyone can easily see the visual aids. Don‘t use
visual aids that are so complex that the audience will spend its time trying to read them instead of
listening to you. Visual aids are supplements to what you say, not replacements of what you say.
 Maintain eye contact. Shift your eye contact around the room so that everyone feels that you are
talking to them.
 Actively involve your audience. People can only listen so long without their attention
wandering. Making your presentation interesting will help you to capture and keep your
audience‘s attention for a while, but you must do more. Build in some simple and quick activities
for your audience so that they are actively involved in your presentation. Ask questions that you
are confident your audience will be able to answer.
 Use your voice effectively. Vary the tone of your voice and be careful not to talk too quickly.
 End on a high tone. Leave your audience feeling upbeat about what they have just heard.

Activity: Topics for oral presentation

1. How can the government of Rwanda solve the issue of street children?

2. What will the government of Rwanda gain from being a member of EAC?

3. Talk about the goodness of Catholic University of Rwanda.

4. How can university students improve their English as a language of instruction in classroom
environment?

5. Talk about COVID-19 pandemic.

UNIT3: JOB INTERVIEW

When applying for a job, you write an application letter and a C.V. Your prospective employer
may at a time call you to present yourself so that you can be seen. Your presence helps him
decide whether you measure up to the position advertised. An interview can be defined as one-
on-one conversation between an interviewer and an interviewee. An interview also means a face
to face interaction between the interviewer and the candidate/candidates so as to obtain desired
information from him/them. It can also be defined as a way of exchanging meanings between
individuals by using a common set of symbols. Interviews generally need a preparation. Job
interview seem frightening, even if the individual is well prepared. Interviews have a definite
structure. Clear communication should take place during an interview. All interviews have a
definite purpose familiar to the interviewer and the candidate/interviewee.
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An interview is a conversation between two or more people where questions are asked by the
interviewer to elicit facts or statements from the interviewee. Interviews are a standard part of
journalism and media reporting, but are also employed in many other situations, including
qualitative research.

Ten Interviewing Rules

By Carole Martin, Monster Contributing Writer

In the current job market, you'd better have your act together, or you won't stand a chance against
the competition. Check yourself on these 10 basic points before you go on that all-important
interview.

1. Do Your Research

Researching the company before the interview and learning as much as possible about its
services, products, customers and competition will give you an edge in understanding and
addressing the company's needs. The more you know about the company and what it stands for,
the better chance you have of selling yourself in the interview. You also should find out about
the company's culture to gain insight into your potential happiness on the job.

2. Look Sharp

Select what to wear to the interview. Depending on the industry and position, get out your best
interview clothes and check them over for spots and wrinkles. Even if the company has a casual
environment, you don't want to look like you slept in your outfit. Above all, dress for confidence.
If you feel good, others will respond to you accordingly.

3. Be Prepared

Bring along a folder containing extra copies of your resume, a copy of your references and paper
to take notes. You should also have questions prepared to ask at the end of the interview. For
extra assurance, print a copy of Monster's handy interview take-along checklist.

4. Be on Time

Never arrive late to an interview. Allow extra time to arrive early in the vicinity, allowing for
factors like getting lost. Enter the building 10 to 15 minutes before the interview.

5. Show Enthusiasm

A firm handshake and plenty of eye contact demonstrate confidence. Speak distinctly in a
confident voice, even though you may feel shaky.
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6. Listen

One of the most neglected interview skills is listening. Make sure you are not only listening, but
also reading between the lines. Sometimes what is not said is just as important as what is said.

7. Answer the Question Asked

Candidates often don't think about whether they are actually answering the questions their
interviewers ask. Make sure you understand what is being asked, and get further clarification if
you are unsure.

8. Give Specific Examples

One specific example of your background is worth 50 vague stories. Prepare your stories before
the interview. Give examples that highlight your successes and uniqueness. Your past behavior
can indicate your future performance.

9. Ask Questions

Many interviewees don't ask questions and miss the opportunity to find out valuable information.
The questions you ask indicate your interest in the company or job.

10. Follow Up

Whether it's through email or regular mail, the interview follow-up is one more chance to remind
the interviewer of all the valuable traits you bring to the job and company. Don't miss this last
chance to market yourself.

It is important to appear confident and cool for the interview. One way to do that is to be
prepared to the best of your ability. There is no way to predict what an interview holds, but by
following these important rules you will feel less anxious and will be ready to positively present
yourself.

Tips for the interviewee

1. The interviewee should be dressed formally, and not casually. Have a pleasing
appearance as the candidate‘s personality is a significant part of the communication.
2. Always carry an extra CV, a notepad to write on, a pen, and all essential things required
in an interview.
3. Practice, in advance. Prepare and rehearse for the unexpected also.
4. Research a lot about the organization for which you are being interview.
5. As soon the interview gets over, pen down the name of the interview and the feedback of
the interviewer.
6. Be punctual. Try reaching before time for the job interview.
7. Do not indulge in a fight or argument with the interviewer.
8. Answer the questions specifically, truly and undoubtedly.
 15

9. Be courteous and sophisticated during an interview.

10. Just ―be yourself‖. Do not boast about yourself. The interviewer is smart enough to judge
the candidate‘s intelligence and aptness for the job.
11. Do not make negative statements or comments about your past employer.
12. Your body language should be positive during the interview, i.e.,maintain an eye-to-eye
contact with the interviewer, sit in well balanced and confident posture, do not lean on
the table, do not yawn, smile when appropriate, etc.

Tips for the interviewer

1. The interviewer should be an active listener. He should not interrupt unnecessarily.
2. The interviewer should be considerate enough. Even if the interviewer does not agree
with the interviewee, he must respect the latter‘s feelings.
3. The interviewer should be friendly and understanding. He should begin the interview in a
friendly manner, some friendly conversation and then show concern in family
background, hobbies, etc. This will make the interviewee more relaxed and comfortable.
4. The interviewer should restrain to the time allotted. He should not indulge in arguments
unnecessarily he should try to be precise.
5. The interviewer must be thoroughly prepared for the questions that are likely to be asked.
He should be a good planner.
6. The interviewer must focus attention on the interviewee. He should use positive gestures
when conducting the interview.
7. Encourage/invite questions from the interviewee. Ensure that the interviewee clarifies the
question he has. When selected a candidate should not feel he was not told about a certain
aspect of the job. Avoid distraction in the interview area. Ensure that there is no or
minimal distraction where the interview is being conducted. A phone ringing all the time
in the background can distract the interviewer and interviewee.

Things to be taken into account during the preparation phase:

Do some research on the company.

You will make a good impression if you can tell intelligently about the company‘s products. This
will show that you are interested in the company. You can read company brochures, check
information on a company‘s web site, or talk with friends under a company‘s employ.

Practise answering questions that are often asked to job applicants during interviews.

This will help you feel ready and more confident.

 16

Below are some of such questions:

1. Tell us about yourself/ Will you introduce yourself?

To answer this question, start with your name, give your place information, education in short,
job experience if any, and then family details in short.

Answer:

My name is John MUKIZA. I live in Gasabo. I have done B.A in English. I have two years of
experience in teaching. I am married.

2. Why do you want to work for this company?

To answer this question, tell them what you like about the company, relate it to your long term
career goals.

Answer:

Sir, it is a great privilege for anyone to work in a reputed company like yours. When I read about
your company I found that my skills are matching your requirements where I can showcase my
technical skills to contribute to the company growth.

3. What are your main strengths?

To answer this question, you may mention any of the following: adaptability, hard work,
honesty, flexibility, optimism and fast decision making.

Answer:

I am an honest, self motivated and hard working man, with positive attitude towards my career
and my life.

4. What are your weaknesses?

To answer this question, you may mention any of the following: straightforward, impatient,
sensitive, more talkative, trust people very quickly, I can‘t say no when someone asks for help,
 17

take decisions very quickly, to speak lies is difficult for me, I am a bit lazy about what I am not
interested in.

Answer:

I can‘t say no when someone asks me for help and speaking lies is difficult for me.

5. Why should we hire you?

To answer this question, you may focus on: share your knowledge, work experience, skills
related to job, and career goals.

1. Sir, as I am a fresher, I have theoretical knowledge but I can do hard work for your
organization. And I will put all my efforts for the good progress of your organization.

2 . With reference to my qualification and work experience I satisfy all the requirements for this
job. I am sincere with my work and would never let you down in any way. I promise, you will
never regret for the decision to appoint me in your organization.

6. Tell us what you know about this company.

To successfully answer this question, make sure you have studied about the company in details,
you have researched about the company current issues, and have updated your knowledge about
their competitors.

Answer:

Your Company is one of the fastest growing companies in Rwanda. The work environment of
the company is very good. People feel proud to be part of your company as you provide full
support for their employees.

7. Why are you looking for a job change?

To answer this question, thank the previous organization, explain what you learnt from past job
experience, share your reasons for job change by relating them to career goals.

Answer:

I am thankful to my previous organization because I have learnt a lot of things from there. As I
consider things, changes are necessary for everyone to enhance their skills, knowledge and for
 18

personal growth and financial growth. Your organization is a good platform where I can learn
more.

8. What are your salary requirements?

Here, never share your salary requirements as a fresher. However experienced candidates can
share their expected salary. Always say as per the company norms for the job.

Answer:

1. I am a fresher. Salary is not first priority for me. This is a big platform for my career and I also
want to improve my knowledge and skills and gain experience. So I expect a considerable salary
according to my ability and your company‘s norms which will fulfill my economic needs.

2. I have seven years of experience in teaching. My current salary is….and has never been a big
issue for me. Still, I am expecting salary as company‘s norms as per my designation and my
qualification and experience which can help me to maintain the standard of level of my personal
and economic needs.

9. Do you have any questions to ask us?

To answer this question, express thanks, ask about salary structure, job timings, job location,
overtime allowance, training period, transport facility.

Answer:

Thank you for giving me this opportunity to ask questions. Sirs, I would like to know about job
timings and transport facility and what will be the job location and salary scale for this job in
your organization.

Point to remember

Besides common questions, interviewers can ask you specific questions pertaining to your field
of study or just the position advertised. So make sure you are prepared enough for them.

Things to take note of the day of interview:

 19

1. Dress in clean, neat, and wrinkle-free clothes. Bear in mind that many employers feel that if
you do not care enough to dress up for the interview, then you do not care enough about the job.

2. Arrive on time, preferably some minutes before the appointment time. You will appear
careless and make a bad impression if you are even a little late or rush in at the last minute.

3. Be courteous or polite to anyone (receptionist, administrative assistant, or any other employee)

you meet. The interviewer may ask them for their opinion of you after you are gone.

4. Before entering the room, make a moderate knock at the door.

5. Entering the room, do not rush in. Wait until you are welcomed in. Once you have been
welcomed in, express your first appreciations by saying, ‗Thank you.‘

6. Once you are already in the room, remain standing until you are asked to sit down. As you are
requested to sit down, again you should show your gratitude and say, ‗Thank you.‘

7. When sitting, lean forward slightly toward the interviewer to show your interest. Relax and
focus on your purpose.

Things to take note of during the interview:

1. Speak clearly and audibly.

2. Use appropriate language. Never be arrogant either in tone, speech or action. Employers prefer
humble and disciplined people. However, you should not fear nor be too submissive. Employers
look for people with self-confidence.

3. Be pleasant. Angry or gloomy looking people are not often liked. However, a giggling person
or one who is unserious is not tolerated either.

ASSIGNMENT

1. Suppose you applied for X or Y position in A or B company. To your delight you have
passed the written test, and now you have to sit for an interview. Pair off with a
classmate. Take turns being the interviewer and the interviewee.
 20

2. In group of 5 students, choose any job position and formulate 5 questions as an

interviewer and answer the as if you are an interviewee.

UNIT 4: CONDUCTING DEBATES/INITIATING A DISCUSSION

Debates have been known ever since the beginning of democracy. They are nowadays common in
learning institutions. In many schools debates are held at least once a week.

1.1. Roles in debates

A debate, being an organized way of exchanging views, has certain rules that must be followed.

1.1.1. Chairman or Chairperson(Moderator)

There must be a chairperson whose duty is to lead and control the house or audience. S/he must see to it
that order is maintained. S/he is the only boss during the debate.

1.1.2. Secretary

S/he records the proceedings of the debate.

1.1.3. Main speakers

They are also called honorable. They are both proposers and opposers.

1.1.4. Time keeper watches over the time.

1.1.5. Sergeant-at-Arms

Sometimes, some debate meetings are arranged to have a Sergeant-at-Arms whose duty is to watch over
the proceedings of the debate as far as the discipline is concerned. In any case, he can push any
troublemaker out physically! We must agree, however, that this arrangement is not always necessary
during debates in schools. This is something adopted in parliaments that has been allowed into some
learning institutions.

1.2.Debate organization

In the debate there must be two sides: the proposition side, and the opposition side. Each side is
represented by two speakers who sit together with the chairperson in front of the audience. There must
also be a motion or a topic for discussion. A motion is that thing we are going to talk about. The motion is
usually put in an affirmative statement. For example:

―Capital punishment should be abolished‖

Or: ―That capital punishment should be abolished‖

Not: ―Capital punishment should not be abolished‖

 21

This is also worth in the debate.

 Order of speaking: The main speaker from the proposition side puts his/her views to the house
first. The main opposer follows. The second proposer comes next and the second opposer comes
last. After this, the chairperson declares the debate open to the house. Everyone who speaks from
the floor is limited to a certain amount of time so that the tendency to waste time is minimized.
 Addressing the chairperson: This chairperson is the one who gives permission for speaking in a
debate. Once the permission is given, the one to speak honours the house by addressing the
chairperson and recognizing the house. Like this:

―Mr Chairman (or Mr/Madam Chairperson), honourable speakers, and the house.‖

After that, the speaker currently speaking should put forward his/her arguments clearly and brightly.

At the end of the speech, s/he should thank the chairman and the house. Like this:

―Thank you Mr Chairman (Mr/Madam Chairperson) and the house.‖ When the chairperson decides that
the debate be closed to the house, s/he calls upon the main proposer to summarise his/her points. After
that, the main opposer is called upon to summarise his/her points. During the summary no interruptions or
points of information are entertained.

1.3. Points to consider

In the debate, people (audience) are allowed to intervene. Here are some expressions to take into
consideration.

1.3.1. Point of information

If a member of the audience feels that s/he should inform the current speaker on a certain point or points,
s/he should put up his hand to try and catch the eye of the chairperson. When s/he succeeds, s/he should
say: „Point of information‘. The chairperson then asks the current speaker whether s/he wishes to be
informed. If s/he says „yes‟ then the informer goes ahead and gives the information. It should be noted
that only one person is allowed to stand. On some occasions, the speaker may refuse to be informed. In
that case, the chairperson allows him/her to go on without interruption.

1.3.2. Point of order (when there is disorder)

Unlike the point of information, the point of order cannot be refused. When a point of order is raised, the
current speaker has no alternative but to sit down and wait to listen to the order being put. Essentially, a
point of order is to point out any abnormality in the conduct of the debate. If valid, the chairperson asks
the wrongdoer to rectify the mistake there and then.

1.3.3. Point of inquiry (when you want to ask)

1.3.4. Point of defense (when you want to defend your side)

1.3.5. Point of supplement (when you want to add something to what has been said)
 22

Useful expressions in the debate

What do you think of… I think (that)………

What‘s your opinion about…… In my opinion…….

As for me………..

To me……………

According to me….

Do you think that…… ? Yes, I think so.

No, I don‘t think so

I‘m sure/certain. I‘m not (quite) sure.

I agree with……………. I don‘t agree with…..

I disagree with………

I strongly disagree with….

I partly agree with……..

You are right. You‘re wrong.

On one hand On the other hand

You can also use these ones:

As far as I‘m concerned

As far as I know

As a matter of fact

Anyone will tell you

Anyone knows perfectly well

Exercises: Proposed motions

1) The coming of Europeans has done more harm than good.

 23

2) A teacher is better than a doctor.

3) Is dowry really necessary for better marriage in today‘s Rwanda.

4) Fire is better than electricity.

5) A telephone is better than a radio.

6) A house is better than a car.

7) Water is better than fire.

8) Girls are better than boys.

9) Women are better drivers than men.

UNIT 5: LETTER WRITING

1. HOW TO WRITE AN APPLICATION LETTER AND A C.V OR RÉSUMÉ

1.1. WRITING AN APPLICATION LETTER

What is an application letter?

An application letter is a letter that you write to a prospective employer when you are trying to get a job.

Kinds of application letters

Application letter are of two kinds:

- Solicited application letter (written in response to an advertisement)

- Unsolicited application letter (not written in response to an advertisement)

 24

Semi-block or indented form (British correspondence style)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

KIGALI CITY

POB BOX : 24523

KIGALI

August 10th, 2018

The Representative of UNHCR in Rwanda.

P.O BOX 125 KIGALI KIGALI - RWANDA

Dear Sir,

RE: Applying for the post of Field Manager

Having heard from one of my friends under your employment that you need a Field Manager in your
office, I offer my services for the post and hope that your will give me an opportunity of proving my
worth to you.

I am Bachelor‘s degree holder in English from Mount Kenya University. Besides, I have worked for Save
the Children since 2015 but wish to leave my present position because it does not offer me the
opportunities which I would expect to find in an organization like yours.

I would appreciate working in a modern and challenging company like yours. I am ready to attend an
interview if necessary. Enclosed are copies of my academic testimonials.

I am looking forward to hearing from you.

Yours faithfully,

John Mugambi

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 25

(American correspondence style)

...................................................................................................................................................................

John Mugiraneza

Western Province

Rubavu District

Tel: 08454509

E-mail: [email protected]

October 21st, 2017

The Managing Director BRALIRWA / GISENYI

P.O BOX 112 GISENYI.

Dear Sir,

Re: REPLY TO AN ADVERTISEMENT FOR THE POSITION OF JUNIOR CLERK

With reference to your advertisement in The New Times dated the 21st September 2017, I submit my
application for the above mentioned post in the light of my qualifications and experience given below.

I am a holder of a Bachelor‘s Degree in Management, and possess a good knowledge of English.

During my studies, I was working as an honorary part-time clerk for the University and have thus gained
sufficient practical experience for filing, dispatching and drafting simple letters.

I enclose two testimonials- one from KIU Finance Director and another from the Mayor of Rubavu
District.

I assure you that I shall do my utmost to please you with my hard and honest work.

I am looking forward to receiving your favorable reply.

Yours faithfully,

John Mugiraneza

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 26

Like any other business letter, an application letter consists of the following:

1. The sender‟s address

The usual position of the sender‘s address is the top right hand corner.

2. The date

This is written on the right hand corner, just below the writer‘s address, after leaving a gap of one to
two lines.

3. The receiver‟s address

This is written on the left hand of corner, after skipping two to three lines from the date.

4. The letter opening/salutation

This should appear to three lines below the writer‘s address. The letter opening can be written in different
ways, notably:

Dear Sir,

Dear Sirs,

Dear Madam,

Gentlemen,

Note: Every letter opening must normally be followed by a comma.

5. The subject

This indicates the purpose of the letter. It is written below the receiver‘s address.

6. The body

This is the letter itself, the communication, the message.

It consists of three sub-parts: introduction, development and conclusion.

a. Introduction

This expresses the sense of the letter. The introduction must be striking and straight to the point.

The introductory paragraph of an application letter can be written as follows:

1. I wish to apply for the post of ―Secretary‖ in your enterprise, advertised in today‘s ―IMVAHO
NSHYA‖.

2. I am humbly writing to apply for the position of ―Accountant‖ advertised in ―The New Times‖ dated
the 3rd December 2012.
 27

3. In response to your advertisement in this morning‘s ―The New Vision‖, I submit my application for the
above mentioned post in the light of my qualifications and experience given below.

4. I wish to be considered for the post of ―Traffic Manager‖ which I understood has fallen vacant in your
enterprise recently.

b. Development

This is brief account of your age, qualifications, work experience, etc. such information is provided so as
to impress a prospective employer of your suitability for the post he/she wants to fill. This means that you
must that you must give him/her all the necessary details of the skills and competences that you have.

The development should be made up of more than one paragraph. Note that each paragraph of this section
should contain one issue. Therefore, the number of paragraphs that this section must have depends on the
number of issues the writer intends to communicate to the addressee. Remember to indent the paragraphs
if you are using the Standard English version.

c. Conclusion

Here, an assurance is generally given by the applicant that he/she would do his/her best to satisfy the
employer in case he/she is selected of the job.

Examples of concluding paragraph

1. I shall do my best to satisfy you with my hard and honest work, if selected for the post.

2. I shall be highly obliged if you could consider me for the post.

3. Should you be pleased to give me a chance, I assure you, Sir, that I will do my utmost to satisfy you in
all ways.

4. I look forward to hearing from you.

7. The letter ending/subscription

You can write the following expressions. If you do not know the person you are writing to, use:

Yours faithfully,

Faithfully yours,

Truly yours,

Respectfully yours,

With due respect,

If you are know the person you are writing to, use:

Yours sincerely,
 28

Sincerely,

8. The signature

This is placed below the letter ending.

9. The sender‟s name

This is placed below the signature.

1.2. WRITING A CURRICULUM VITAE/RÉSUMÉ

A curriculum vitae (C.V.) is a document giving detail on your qualifications, work experience, personal
skills, etc. that you send to a prospective employer when you are applying for a job.

Structure of a c.v

A good C.V. mainly consists of the following components:

1. Personal profile (details/Identification)

Here, your name, contact address, nationality, place of birth, date of birth, marital status must be
provided.

2. Education background/ Qualifications

Past and present academic qualifications must be detailed in this part.

Note:

-That the most recent achievements should always appear on top of the ladder.

-It is not important to provide information on your primary education.

3. Work experience

Here, an account of your past and present work experience should be given. When describing your work
experience, start with the most recent job. Do not fail to mention relevant training courses you have ever
had.

4. Key skills/ acquired experience and capabilities

In this part, provide information on key skills of yours. Examples include ―holding a driver‟s license‖,
―mastery of computer‖, ―fluency in English‖, etc.

5. Personal interests or hobbies

In this part, list your relevant interests or hobbies, i.e. what you prefer doing as extra curriculum activities,
such as reading, swimming, football, sightseeing, music, etc.
 29

6. Languages

Here, mention the languages you can speak and write. Do not fail to specify your level of proficiency in
each language.

7. References

In this part, list two or three people who may be contacted by your prospective employer for them to
provide information about you. Remember to write down their contacts (telephone numbers and e-mail
addresses)

Sample of a C.V.:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

CURRICULUM VITAE

I. PERSONAL PROFILE

Names: Peter NGABO

Place: Musanze District

Date of birth: 11/11/1970

Nationality: Rwandan

Marital Status: Married

Address: Rubavu District, Western Province

Tel.: 078864543

E-mail: [email protected]

II. EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

YEAR INSTITUTION AWARD

2010-2012 Kampala University English Language and Education
Literature Program. Award: MEDL
2000-2004 National University of Rwanda Bachelor‘s degree in Education(Bed)
1986-1993 Maendeleo Institute, DRC) Certificate in Teacher-Training College
 30

III. WORK EXPERIENCE

DATES WORKING PLACE POSITION HELD & RESPONSIBILITIES

March 2016- Present Kigali Institute of Science and
English Lecturer and Director of CELA
Technology (KIST) (Centre de Langues)
2014-March 2016 Kagarama Secondary School English and French teacher and Head of
Languages Department.
2010-2014 Nyanza Technical School(ETO- French and English teacher and Head of
Gitarama) Languages Department. 2008
2008-2010 MINEDUC National English Trainer

IV. ADDITIONALS:

From 2011 to Present: Part time Language Lecturer at AUCA (Adventist University of Central Africa).

In 2008: Training the staff in English and helping with translations.

In 2007: Training soldiers in English at Marine Regiment.

V. ACQUIRED EXPERIENCE AND CAPABILITIES

 Ability to interact with people of diverse backgrounds

 Ability to work under minimum supervision
 Ability to work for longer hours even under tense and stressful conditions.
 Research and analytical skills
 Powerful Communication skills
 Very effective team work
 Computer literate

VI. PERSONAL INTERESTS & HOBBIES

Reading and Music

VII. LANGUAGES

I can speak and write four languages: English, French, Kinyarwanda & Kiswahili.

VIII. REFERENCES

1. Dr. KARASIRA Njoroge, Rector of KIST, Tel.: 0788309567

2. MUGISHA Jean Paul, BNR, Tel.: 0788539686; 252540876

I, Peter NGABO, declare that the information provided above is correct and authentic.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
 31

ASSIGNMENT

Suppose you have read an advertisement about job vacancy, position of accountant, Bralirwa Co
Ltd. in IMVAHO NSHYA. Draft an application in response to that advertisement, as well as a c.v.
standing as its accompaniment. Be as creative and imaginative as possible.

2. BUSINESS LETTERS

Question: You are running a Bakery business, however due to increased demand for the products, you
have decided to seek for funds from financial institutions, draft an application letter that will accompany
your business proposal.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

NYIRANGARAMA BAKERS LIMITED

P.O.BOX 4325 KIGALI-RWANDA

20/01/2019

THE LOANS MANAGER

BK LIMITED

P.O.BOX 673 KIGALI.

Dear Sir/Madam,

RE: APPLICATION FOR A LOAN FOR BUSINESS EXPANSION

I humbly submit my request for a business loan to be used in expanding my business. The business deals
in confectionary products including cakes, bread, dog biscuits and others. It has been in existence for four
years.

The project is estimated to take five million Rwandan francs (5,000,000 Rwfs) and will take several
years. The repayment period is two years. A business proposal and other relevant documents are attached
on this letter for more information.

I will be grateful if my request is responded to positively.

Yours faithfully,

Joseph MANZI

MANAGING DIRECTOR
 32

2.1. CREDIT NOTE

Question: You have received a complaint letter from your client over damaged goods in transit; you have
received the damaged goods back. Write out a credit note to correct the above overcharge.

A credit note is a document issued by the seller to the buyer in order to acknowledge and correct an
overcharge on the original invoice.

Such a document is prepared in a situation where:

 Some goods are damaged on the way

 Some goods sent were not ordered for

 Some goods sent are of a different fashion from those ordered for

 Some goods were in excess of what was ordered for etc.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

MUGISHA ELECTRICALS AND ELECTRONICS LIMITED

P.O.BOX 2134 KIGALI RWANDA

TEL: O783229012

NO….1324… CREDIT NOTE Date: 20/01/2021

Kigali Quincaillerie Shop Ltd

This is to acknowledge and confirm the receipt of your letter of complaint about the damaged goods on
transit and credit as follows.

Description Quantity Rate Amount (Rwfs)

Original Invoice
No. 322 50 bulbs 1,000 50,000
Returns Inwards
No. 012 15 bulbs 1,000 15,000
Balance due 35,000

Terms and conditions of payment remain unchanged as stated in the original invoice.
 33

We kindly apologize for all inconveniences caused.

MUSA KAGABO

Sales Manager

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

A credit note can also be drafted in a letter form as shown below

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

MUGISHA ELECTRICALS AND ELECTRONICS LIMITED

P.O.BOX 2134 KIGALI RWANDA

TEL: O783229012

No…210… Date: 20/01/2021

Kigali Quincaillerie Shop Ltd

RE: CREDIT NOTE

In responses to your complaint letter dated 15th January 2019, concerning the damaged goods sent to you
on Invoice No. 332, we regret to apologize for the inconveniences caused.

However, the original invoice has been adjusted from the original invoice of 50,000 (fifty thousand
Rwandan francs) to 35,000 (thirty-five thousand Rwandan francs), following an adjustment on the value
of returns for the damaged goods worth 15,000 (fifteen thousand Rwandan francs).

Therefore the balance due is 35,000 Rwfs and the terms and conditions of payment still stand as specified
on the original invoice.

We once again apologize for the inconveniences caused to you.

Yours in service,

MUSA KAGABO

Sales Manager

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
 34

2.2. DELIVERY NOTE

A delivery note is a document prepared and sent by the supplier/seller to the buyer, along with the goods,
showing the details of goods being sent.

It is prepared in more than one copy such that the supplier remains with a copy and another one sent to
the buyer along with the goods.

On reaching the buyer‘s side, the buyer receives the goods, cross checks them along with the delivery
note to confirm whether the goods sent are the ones recorded on the delivery note.

It is also important for the buyer to cross check it with the local purchase order to find out whether the
goods sent are the ones ordered for, and in case of any deviation a complaint or comment is put on the
delivery note and sent back to the supplier.

It is also important to note that some businesses use a delivery note as an invoice at the same time i.e.
involving the description of goods and their corresponding prices and quantities.

UNIT 6: HOW TO WRITE MINUTES

What is meant by minutes?

Minutes are defined as a record of what was discussed during a formal meeting of any organization. They can
also be defined as a report kept about the meeting.

Importance of minutes

Whatever name they are given, what is important is that minutes record what happens or what is discussed in the
meeting with the purpose of having a record for reference in implementing the decisions made by the
organization. As the organization meets, it sets out plans, and to check whether these plans have been
implemented, the surest way is to check the minutes.

The other purpose of minutes is for attribution. In this case they are a record of what said what and when. The
minutes are prepared by the secretary of the meeting, they are important for record purposes. They can be cross
checked in a need for what was discussed upon arises and they are also useful for implementation purposes i.e.
implementing what was discussed upon.

Minutes are prepared and they have to be passed on to the members for editing and approval, before they are
signed by the designated authorities.
 35

Components of minutes

The following are some of the main components of minutes:

1. The title or the heading

This is always written in capital letters and underlined. It must have the name of the group that is meeting, the
date, time and venue of the meeting.

Note that the time could either be reflected from when the meeting started or from when it started to when it
ended.

Example:

MINUTES OF THE CURSU‟S MEETING HELD AT TABA CAMPUS ON 5TH SEPTEMBER 2020 AT
11:OO AM

2. Record of attendance

Attendance is a list of members present, members absent with apologies, those absent without apologies, and as
far as possible people in attendance (i.e. guests who have been invited in for advice).

Note: The list of those attending the meeting must be recorded beginning with the senior most, i.e. begin with
the chairperson followed by the vice chairperson, then come the names of the others listed in alphabetical order.
The secretary‘s name should come last.

The record of attendance is organized as follows:

(a) Present
(b) Apologies
(c) Absent
(d) In attendance

3. The agenda

This specifies the general topics that guided the discussion during the meeting. There are some mandatory or
compulsory items that must always be there, notably:

1) Opening prayer
2) Communication from the chair (welcoming participants, thanking them for their punctuality,
addressing apologies received, etc.)
3) Approval of the previous minutes (reading, correcting, and then approving the minutes)
4) Matters arising from the previous minutes (reviewing the minutes to see whether the decisions and
recommendations made in the previous meeting have been implemented)
5) AOB ( issues that might be raised during the meeting)
6) Adjournment (the time when the meeting adjourned)
7) Next meeting (the date of the next meeting if the group intends to meet again)
 36

Note: Other items will depend on what the meeting is set to discuss. They are placed between Matters arising
and AOB.

4. Actual minutes

It is in this part that all the topics or issues of the agenda (be mandatory or specific) are tackled and discussed,
one by one. Each item of the agenda is given a number and a heading.

e.g. Min. 01/12/13: Opening prayer

Min. 02/12/13: Communication from the chair

Point to remember

-Discussions should not be recorded word for word. That is, minutes should record only decisions arrived at.

- In minutes, do not write the names of people who made suggestions. It is common to use the passive voice: ―it
was reported….‖, ―the matter was discussed…….‖, ―it was decided………‖, ―it was suggested……‖, etc.

5. Signing off

At the bottom, blanks are left for the secretary and the chairperson‘s signatures after the minutes have been
confirmed at the next meeting.

Sample of minutes:

MINUTES OF THE KAMPALA UNIVERSITY FOREIGN STUDENTS ASSOCIATION 3RD

GENERATION HELD ON 22ND OCTOBER 2013 AT KAMPALA CAMPUS AT 11:00 AM

I. ATTENDANCE

Present:

Ms. Brumen Alice, Chairperson

Mr. Onze Charles, Vice Chairperson

Ms. Dough Pete

Ms. Kroges Rebecca

Ms. Kips Agnes

Mr. Matt Oga

Mr. Joe Fida, Secretary

 37

Apologies:

Ms. Cox Peters

Mr. Cowford Acham

Mr. Bendict Gonen

Absent :

Ms. Justin Inka

Ms. Amelia Akol

II. AGENDA

1. Opening prayer
2. Communication from the chair
3. Reading of the previous minutes
4. Reaction from matters arising
5. About launching of Association
6. Nomination of the speaker
7. AOB
8. Adjournment
9. Next meeting
10. Closing prayer

III. CURRENT MINUTES

Min 1/10/13: Opening Prayer

There was an opening prayer from Mr. Onze Charles.

Min 2/1O/13: Communication from the Chair

The chairperson welcomed everyone to the meeting and thanked them for attending promptly.

Min 3/10/13: Confirmation of the previous minutes

The minutes of the previous meeting were read through and members responded. Eventually, they were
accepted and duly signed by the chairperson and the secretary.

Min 4/10/13: Matters arising from the last meeting

Members wanted to know why the dress rehearsal scheduled to take place before the provincial Drama Festival
was not organized. The Chairperson explained that three main characters had been sick.
 38

Min 5/10/13: Launching of the Association

It was agreed that the launching should be on 8th April 2006 at Gaba Campus at 2:00 PM.

Min 6/10/13: Nomination of the Speaker

Mr. Giten Kinde was nominated as the speaker for Mutundwe Campus and Keiza Brandy as speaker of Gaba
Campus.

Min 7/10/13: AOB

Raised: Students excursion to be in Jinja.

Min 8/10/13: Adjournment

There being no other business, the meeting was adjourned at 2.15pm.

Min 9/10/13: Next meeting

The next meeting will take place at Mutundwe Campus, on November 5th, 2013.

Min 10/10/13: Closing Prayer

There was a closing prayer said by Ms. Krugen Rebecca

Minutes compiled by:

Secretary: Mr. Joe Fida Signature....................................

Confirmed by:

Chairperson: Ms. Brumen Alice Signature:.......................................

Date: ......................................

HOW TO WRITE THE AGENDA

An agenda is a list of items to be discussed in a meeting. It is always prepared prior the meeting and
circulated to members before the meeting is due. Sometimes the agenda is sent to members along with an
invitation notice or it is given out on the very day of the meeting, depending on the company policies.

Question:

You are the company secretary of the firm, draft the agenda to be followed in the forth coming meeting.
 39

Following the question, Agenda will appear as follows:

SHEMA FRUITS PROCESSORS LIMITED

P.O.BOX 6435 KIGALI

TEL : 0784233721

Ref No……435…… DATE:…20/12/2018…

The Heads of Departments‘ Meeting scheduled on 21st December 2018 at 2.00 p.m. in the Board Room.

AGENDA

Item In charge

1. Opening prayer Sales

Manager
2. Communication from the Chairperson
Chairperson
3. Reading of the Agenda
Secretary
4. Review and adoption of the Agenda
All members
5. Review of minutes from previous meeting
Secretary
6. Matters arising All
members
7. Communication from the Managing Director
Director
8. Matters arising All
members
9. A.O.B. All members
10. Closing prayer
Secretary

Prepared by the Secretary

Date: …20/12/2018…

Additional practice on minutes writing:

SHEMA FRUITS PROCESSORS LIMITED

P.O.BOX 6435 KIGALI

TEL : 0784233721
 40

Ref No……435…… DATE:…21/12/2018…

MINUTES OF THE HEAD OF DEPARTMENTS MEETING HELD ON 21ST DECEMBER 2018

FROM THE BOARD ROOM AT 2.00 P.M.

Members present:

1. Mr. Achidri Andrew M.D/ Chairperson

2. Mr. Luwaga Henry HOD- Finance

3. Mr. Semwogerere Hasssan HOD- Production

Ms. Ariho Anitha Logistics Manager

Members absent with apology:

1. Mr. Kalisa George HOD- Marketing

2. Ms. Ingabire Winnie HOD- Purchasing

Min. 1.0 Opening prayer

Was led by Mr. Luwaga Henry

Min.2.0 Communication from the Chairperson

He welcomed members who had attended the meeting and passed on apologies to those
who had not turned up.

Min.3.0 Reading of the Agenda

Was read by the Secretary, and all members adopted and passed it.

Min.4.0 Reviewing of the previous minutes of the meeting

They were read by the Secretary, reviewed and approved by all members, passed as true
records to be filled and signed by the chairperson.

Min.5.0 Communication from the Managing Director

5.1 He informed members about the grant that the company received from UN, and told them that
it was specifically for putting a new production unit.

5.2. He also asked members for their combined efforts so that they may utilize the funds well
since the UN officials will have to audit and ask for accountability thereafter.

5.3 He asked members to arrange another meeting specifically to draft a budget for the grant.

Min.6.0 Matters arising

 41

6.1 Members thanked the M.D. for his endeavour to source for the grant and they were very
pleased.

6.2 The Production Manager however asked the members, if possible to allocate some of the
funds to a new ―extracting machine‖ as the existing one is wearing out and getting obsolete.

6.3 The M.D. and all members accepted the request and promised to allocate some funds to a new
machine.

Min.7.0 A.O.B.

7.1 The Finance Manager (Mr. Luwaga Henry) informed the members about his introduction
ceremony which is due in January and called upon their support.

7.2 The M.D. (Mr. Achidri Andrew) also informed members the good news of his wife Leah who
had given birth to baby girl and named her Leachidri.

7.3 The date of the next meeting was discussed and agreed to be held on 29th December, 2018.

Min.8.0 Closing prayer

Was led by the company secretary and the meeting was adjourned.

Minutes prepared by:………………………….

Mr. Ms. Gatesi Sharon

Company Secretary

Minutes edited by:…………………………….

Mr. Achidri Andrew

Managing Director

PRACTICE EXERCISE

Work on either of the following questions:

1. Write the minutes based on the following agenda:

1.Opening prayer.
2.Communication by the chair.
3.Approval of the previous minutes.
4.Matters arising from the previous minutes.
5.How to develop our communication skills.
6.Strategies leading to better performance.
7.Farewell picnic.
8.AOB.
9.Date of the next month‘s meeting.
 42

Note: The meeting was held by Year IV/Fin./Day Students.

FOR ASSIGNMENT

2. Suppose you attended X or Y organization‟s meeting, where you were assigned to take the minutes.
Write the minutes of that meeting. Be as creative and imaginative as possible.

UNIT 7: HOW TO WRITE A MEMO

Definition
A memo is a message or other information in writing sent by one person or department to another in the
same business organization. It is used between people at different levels within an organization, for
instance from a superior to a subordinate, from a subordinate to a superior, or between employees of
equal status,…

Specific uses of a memo

Specific uses of a memo include:

 Giving instructions;
 Conveying a piece of information;
 Reminding people about existing arrangements or regulations;
 Fixing responsibility;
 Requesting information etc.

Presentation of a memo

A memo mainly consists of: main heading, ―To‖ and ―From‖ headings, date and reference, and main
body.
1. Main heading
This is the title itself: MEMO or MEMORANDUM
2. „To‟ and „From‟ headings
These make clear who sent the memo, and to whom it was sent.
Always mention both the name and the position of the sender as well as those of the recipient, except
when sending identical memos to several people.
Example:
 43

1. To: Murego Medard, Head Teller

From: Dr Bahati Prince, Branch Manager
2. To: All Sales Staffs
From: Dr Tim NDAMIYE, Head of Sales Department
3. Date and Reference
A date is essential on a memo to indicate when the communication was sent. A reference is equally
important to indicate the sense of the communication.
4. Main body
This is the memo itself, the message, the communication. It should clearly and concisely be expressed.
5. Signing off
The person sending the memo should endorse it.
Sample of a memo:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
INTERNAL MEMO

To: All support workers

From: The Director of Human Resources

December 4th, 2020

Concern: Your lateness for work

I have noticed during the last few days that you come to work late. This is in violation of the Article 20 of
our institution‘s regulations.

I, therefore, take this opportunity to remind you that you have to take punctuality seriously. If there is an
unexpected happening that prevents you from arriving at work place on time, please contact me to address
your problem in advance.

Note that any lateness without apology will result in a disciplinary action.

Hoping that you are going to slap yourselves, I thank you.

 44

Sincerely,

DHR
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Activity
Assume you are Mayor of X or Y District, and then draft a memo addressing all the Executive Secretaries
on any issue of your choice.

UNIT8: HOW TO WRITE A CIRCULAR

A circular is written communication to different individuals in different copies but having the same
information. A copy is usually drafted and then duplicated or photocopied in many copies to be given out
(circulated) to the concerned parties.

A live example is a school circular which is usually given out to students at the end of each term to take to
their parents or guardian. The contents of a circular are almost the same as those of a memo, only that
with the latter, it is specifically an internal communication.
Example:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
JOJO COFFEE HULLING FACTORY
P.O.BOX 6947 LIRA PACHWACH
TEL: 0781287716

NO:……780…… CIRCULAR DATE: 01/04/2021

TO ALL HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS,

CALL FOR AN URGENT MEETING

You are here by requested to attend an ad hoc meeting scheduled on Saturday, 04th April, 2018 at 4.30
p.m., it will take place in the Main Hall. The issues to be discussed concern an urgent need for
replacement of a Personnel Manager.
 45

Please endeavor to attend in person and keep time.

MUHIRE Prince
General Manager
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

UNIT 9: PUBLIC NOTICE

A notice is also an internal communication within an organization, it is almost having the same
components as those of a circular, including the date, time and place of meeting and the subject matter of
the business to be carried out (in case it‘s calling for a meeting or discussion).

It is not necessarily that a notice has to be an internal communication, it may also be a public notice i.e.
normally put in journals and other press media.
Example1:

………………………………………………………………………………………………..

NOTICE

The office of Vice Rector Administration and Finance of Catholic University of Rwanda wishes to inform
the public that the Logistics Department of CUR formerly located at TABA Campus moved to SAVE
Campus with effect from 20th January, 2019.

Our telephone number and e-mail remain the same.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Example2:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
SHEMA FRUITS PROCESSORS LIMITED
 46

P.O.BOX 6435 KIGALI NEW

TEL: 0784233721
NOTICE
ALL HEADS OF DEPARTMENTS ARE CALLED UPON FOR A MEETING SCHEDULED ON 21ST
FEBRUARY, 2019 AT 2.00 PM, VENUE WILL BE THE BOARD ROOM.

MATTERS TO BE DISCUSSED ARE CONCERNING THE WAY FORWARD FOR COMPANY

DEVELOPMENTS.

PLEASE DO ATTEND WITHOUT FAIL.

MANAGING DIRECTOR
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

UNIT 10: REPORT WRITING

What is a report?

A report is a written presentation of factual information based on an investigation or research. Reports are
a highly structured form of writing often following conventions that have been laid down to produce a
common format. Structure and convention in written reports stress the process by which the information
was gathered as much as the information itself. Reports form the basis for solving problems or making
decisions, often in the subjects of business and the sciences. The length of reports varies; there are short
memorandum (memo) reports and long reports. Most often you will be asked to write a long report.

What makes an effective report?

Report structure:
 47

Reports follow a standardized format. This allows the reader to find the information easily and focus on
specific areas. Most reports must have:
1. Title Page
2. Acknowledgement
3. Table of Contents
4. Abstract or Executive Summary
5. Introduction (or Terms of Reference)
6. Procedure or Methodology
7. Findings and/or Discussion
8. Conclusions
9. Recommendations
10. References
 48

11. A report may also contain:

12. 1. Cover letter
13. 2. Bibliography
14. 3. Glossary
15. 4. Appendices

The table below summarizes the main headings used in reports and outlines the purpose of each section.
Please note: Further headings or subheadings may be used depending on the report‘s content, and are
specific to the individual report.

Section Purpose
Title Page Gives the title of the report, the student name/number, the name
of the person the report is being submitted to, and the completion
date.
Acknowledgement You should acknowledge any help you have received in
collecting the information for the report. This may be from
librarians, technicians or computer centre staff, for example.
Table of Contents Shows the sections of the report. Gives the headings, subheadings
and page numbers. If there are charts, diagrams or tables included
in your report, these should be listed separately under a title such
as ‗List of Illustrations‘ together with the page numbers on which
they appear.
Abstract or Executive Summary Gives a summary of the whole report. Outlines the report‘s
purpose, methodology, findings, main conclusions and
recommendations. This should be a short paragraph mainly
written in past tense. Abstracts should usually be no more than
100-150 words.
Terms of Reference Briefly states the purpose and scope of the report. This includes
who requested the report, the main issues or problems to be
identified, the reason for undertaking the report and the due date
of the report.
Also The terms of reference of a report are a guiding statement
 49

used to define the scope of your investigation. You must be clear

from the start what you are being asked to do. You will probably
have been given an assignment from your tutor but you may need
to discuss this further to find out the precise subject and purpose
of the report. Why have you been asked to write it ?
Knowing your purpose will help you to communicate your
information more clearly and will help you to be more selective
when collecting your information.
Procedure/Methodology Outlines the methods used to collect information e.g. interviews,
questionnaires, observations and/or research.
Introduction Outlines the context, background and purpose of the report. States
the objectives clearly and defines terms and sets limits of the
investigation. The reader/audience can easily identify what the
report is about, how information was gathered, and why the report
is needed. Mainly uses past tense.
Findings and/or Discussion Findings: What was found during the research or investigation.
Gives the facts only – no interpretation by the writer of the report.
Tables, graphs, Tables, Pie charts, Bar charts or diagrams can be
used. Must be relevant to the issues and problems identified in the
Terms of Reference. Arranged in a logical order with headings
and sub-headings.
Discussion: You may also be required to analyse, interpret and
evaluate the findings. The discussion draws together different
parts of the findings and may refer to findings of other studies
and/or theories.

Conclusions Brief statements of the key findings of the report (full explanation
is given in the Findings and/or Discussion). Arranged so the
major conclusions come first. Should relate directly to the
objectives set out in the Terms of Reference or Introduction.
Follow logically from the facts in the Findings and/or Discussion.
Must be complete enough for recommendations to be made from
them.
 50

Recommendations (note: not all The opinions of the writer of the report about possible changes, or
reports give recommendations) solutions to the problems, including who should take action, what
should be done, when and how it should be done.
References A list of the sources that are used in and referred to in the report.
Use APA referencing style.
Bibliography (Not always required) Lists any sources that were read for the research but were not
cited in the report.
Appendices (Not always required) Additional relevant information. May include interview
questions, surveys, glossary etc. (Appendices are not included in
the word count).

Different types of reports

During your time at university you may be asked to write different types of reports, depending upon the
subject area which you have chosen. These could include laboratory reports, technical reports, reports of a
work placement or industrial visit, reports of a field trip or field work. Reports vary in their purpose, but
all of them will require a formal structure and careful planning,
presenting the material in a logical manner using clear and concise language.

Stages in report writing

The following stages are involved in writing a report:

• clarifying your terms of reference

• planning your work
• collecting your information
• organizing and structuring your information
• writing the first draft
• checking and re-drafting.

Planning your report

Careful planning will help you to write a clear, concise and effective report, giving adequate time to each
of the developmental stages prior to submission.
 51

• Consider the report as a whole

• Break down the task of writing the report into various parts.
• How much time do you have to write the report?
• How can this be divided up into the various planning stages?
• Set yourself deadlines for the various stages.

Collecting information

There are a number of questions you need to ask yourself at this stage:
• What is the information you need ?
• Where do you find it ?
• How much do you need ?
• How shall you collect it ?
• In what order will you arrange it ?

You may have much of the information you need already such as results from a laboratory experiment or
descriptions of your methods of data collection. However, there may be other material which is needed
such as background information on other research studies, or literature surveys. You may need to carry
out some interviews or make a visit to the university library to collect all the information you need.

• Make a list of what information you need.

• Make an action plan stating how you are going to gather this.

Illustration checklist
 Are all your diagrams / illustrations clearly labeled?
 Do they all have titles?
 Is the link between the text and the diagram clear?
 Are the headings precise?
 Are the axes of graphs clearly labeled?
 Can tables be easily interpreted?
 Have you abided by any copyright laws when including illustrations/tables from published
documents?
 52

Discussion
This is the section where you can analyse and interpret your results drawing from the information which
you have collected, explaining its significance. Identify important issues and suggest explanations for
your findings. Outline any problems encountered and try and present a balanced view.

Conclusions and recommendations

As it has been discussed above, This is the section of the report which draws together the main issues. It
should be expressed clearly and should not present any new information. You may wish to list your
recommendations in separate section or include them with the conclusions.

References

It is important that you give precise details of all the work by other authors which has been referred to
within the report. Details should include:
 author‘s name and initials
 date of publication
 title of the book, paper or journal
 publisher
 place of publication
 page numbers
 details of the journal volume in which the article has appeared.

References should be listed in alphabetical order of the authors' names. Make sure that your references are
accurate and comprehensive.

Appendices

An appendix contains additional information related to the report but which is not essential to the main
findings. This can be consulted if the reader wishes but the report should not depend on this. You could
include details of interview questions, statistical data, a glossary of terms, or other information which may
be useful for the reader.
 53

Style of writing

There are several points that you will need to consider when you are writing your report:

 Active or passive?

Your tutor will be able to advise whether the report should be written in the ‗active‘ or ‗passive‘ voice.

The active voice reads as follows:

‘I recommend ...’
The passive voice reads:
‘It is recommended that ...’
The active voice allows you to write short, punchy sentences.
The passive appears more formal and considered. Be aware of these differences and avoid mixing the
two voices.

Simplicity

Most written reports should avoid using overly complicated language. If a report is to persuade, brief or
justify, its message must be clear. Furthermore, the factual presentation of data should not be swamped
with sophisticated, lengthy sentences. Avoid using unnecessary jargon. This confuses even the most
informed reader.

Ensure that your abbreviations are standardized. All too often authors invent their own jargon to ease the
pressure on writing things in full. Be cautious of confusing your reader.

Use of language

Most reports should avoid the use of subjective language. For example, to report on a change in
coloration from a "stunning green to a beautiful blue" is to project your own values onto a measurable
outcome. What does the term "beautiful" mean to you? What will it mean to your reader? Such
subjective, or personal language commonly has no place in the more objective field of report writing.
 54

Report Layout

Most reports have a progressive numbering system. The most common system is the decimal notation
system.

The main sections are given single Arabic numbers: 1, 2, 3 and so on.

Sub-sections are given a decimal number: 1.1, 1.2, 1.3 and so on.

Sub-sections can be further divided into: 1.1.1, 1.1.2, 1.1.3 and so on.

An example structure would look as follows:

1. Introduction

1.1 ———————

1.1.1 ———————

1.2 ———————

1.2.1 ———————

2. Methodology

2.1 ———————

2.1.1 ———————

2.1.2 ———————

Presentation

The following suggestions will help you to produce an easily read report:

 Leave wide margins for binding and feedback comments from your tutor.
 Paragraphs should be short and concise.
 Headings should be clear—highlighted in bold or underlined.
 All diagrams and illustrations should be labeled and numbered.
 All standard units, measurements and technical terminology should be listed in a glossary of
terms at the back of your report.
 55

Redrafting and checking

Once you have written the first draft of your report you will need to check it through. It is probably
sensible to leave it on your desk for a day or so if you have the time. This will make a clear break from
the intensive writing period, allowing you to view your work more objectively.

Assess your work in the following areas:

 Structure
 Content
 Style

Summary

The skills involved in writing a report will help you to condense and focus information, drawing objective
findings from detailed data. The ability to express yourself clearly and succinctly is an important skill and
is one that can be greatly enhanced by approaching each report in a planned
and focused way.

Checklist

Title page

Does this include the :

 Title
 Author‘s name?
 Module/course details?

Acknowledgements

 Have you acknowledged all sources of help?

Contents

 Have you listed all the main sections in sequence?

 Have you included a list of illustrations?
 56

Abstract or summary

Does this state:

 The main task?
 The methods used?
 The conclusions reached?
 The recommendations made?

Introduction

Does this include:

 Your terms of reference?

 The limits of the report?
 An outline of the method?
 A brief background to the subject matter?

Methodology

Does this include:

 The form your enquiry took?
 The way you collected your data?
Reports and findings
 Are your diagrams clear and simple?
 Are they clearly labelled?
 Do they relate closely to the text?
Discussion

 Have you identified key issues?

 Have you suggested explanations for your findings?
 Have you outlined any problems encountered?
 Have you presented a balanced view?
 57

Conclusions and recommendations

 Have you drawn together all of your main ideas?

 Have you avoided any new information?
 Are any recommendations clear and concise?

References

 Have you listed all references alphabetically?

 Have you included all the necessary information?
 Are your references accurate?

Appendices

 Have you only included supporting information?

 Does the reader need to read these sections?

Writing style
 Have you used clear and concise language?
 Are your sentences short and jargon free?
 Is the grammar and punctuation correct?
 Is the spelling ok?
 Are your paragraphs tightly focused?
 Have you used the active or the passive voice?

Layout

 Have you clearly labelled each section?

 Is your labelling consistent throughout the report?

Presentation

 Have you left sufficient margin space for binding/feedback?

 58

 Are your headings clear?

 Have you checked your spelling?

PRACTICE

Suppose you are carrying out an internship in a given institution. Write an internship report including all
parts of scientific report covered so far.