UNIT 2 MIGRATION AND URBAN

PROBLEMS
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Migration: Concept and Meaning
2.3 Status of Migration
2.4 Rural-urban Migration: Causes and Effects
2.5 Migration and Urban Slums
2.6 Conditions of Urban Slums
2.7 Migration and Urban Problems
2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.9 Key Words
2.10 References and Selected Readings
2.11 Check Your Progress - Possible Answers

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Urbanization is taking place at a rapid pace in the cities of developing countries
mainly due to rural-urban migration. Rural-urban migration is the movement of
people fiom the countryside to the cities. This has resulted in rapid urban growth
and the proportion of people living in towns and cities has been increasing. The
rural-urban migration is caused as a result of push and pull factors. The major
push factors are natural disasters, poor living conditions, agricultural change,
unemployment, war and conflict, etc. Some of the major pull factors are
employment, higher incomes, better healthcare and education, attraction to urban
facilities and way of life and protection fiom conflict, etc. This rapid urbanization
results in problems like pollution, lack of clean drinking water, employment
opportunities, traffic problems, poverty, substance abuse, garbage disposal and
sewage problems.

After studying this unit you should be able to

1 Discuss the meaning of migration and define who migrants are.
I

I Discuss what the broad flows of migration are.

Analyse effects and consequences of rural-urban migration.
Explain the reasons of migration of rural-urban migrants.
Explain the effect of rural-urban migration on urban basic amenities.
Discuss the characteristics of slums dwellers.
Discuss the conditions of basic amenities prevailing in slums.
Identify the problems occurring in urban areas due to migration.

24
 Migratiop and Urban
MIGRATION: CONCEPT AND MEANING Problems

Migration means movement of people from one place to another. Any place can
gain population by births and by in-migration of people from outside the area of
the place. Similarly, any place can lose population by deaths and by out-migration
of people fiom the area of the place. Thus migration is an important factor,
which affects the structure of the population. For example, if young adults of
working age migrate, the population of the place receiving the migrants become
I
younger and the number of workers in the population increase. Thus the Census
I
I
of India notes that the migration $ocess affects the place where migrants move
I

I
in and the areas fiom which the migrants move out.

Migration to urban areas is not always bad. Urban areas have higher productivity
I than the rural areas. The income level is also higher in the urban areas than rural
I
I
areas of India. Kundu and Sarangi (2007) inferred that migration is a "definite
instrument of improving economic wellbeing and escaping poverty for the adult
population in large, medium and small towns". Thus migration fiom rural to
urban areas may actually reduce the poverty level of India. Scholars and
I economists have advocated that migration to cities will actually develop an
economy and thus should be encouraged (Billsborrow, 1998; World Development
Report, 2009). The World Development Report (2009) cites examples of densely
populated city like Tokyo, highly mobile country like U.S.A. to put forth its
I view that migration of people is associated with growth. But the problem remains
that too much migration creates problems for the governance of the city. It is
particularly relevant for already dense cities of India. In this unit we shall learn
about migration and urban problems in India.

2.2.1 Indian Census and Concept of Migration

Before going to the discussion on migration in India, we should know who gives
the data on higration and what is the definition of migrants. In Unit 1, we have
seen that the Census of India enumerates total population of India. The Census
of India also enumerates the total migrants in India. It should be noted here that
National Sample Survey Organisation also collects data on migration in India in
various rounds but that is on the basis of samples. Here, we shall learn about
I
migration in India following census definitions, concepts and data. At present
the migration data is given by Census of India by place of birth and by place of
last residence. But till 1961, migration data were being given only by place of
birth (POB). This means if one was found residing at a place other than one's
place of birth, the person was enumerated as migrant. In 1971, for the first time
the migration data were collected by place of last residence (POLR) in addition
to place of birth. This means that if one's place of enumeration is different from
one's place of last residence, one is enumerated as migrant by POLR. This enabled
I
one to get the recent movements of the migrants, which is not captured by data
on place of birth. For example, say, Sunil was born in 1976 at Patna and in 2001
I
was found at Delhi, then, he has been enumerated as migrant from Patna to
Delhi by POB in 2001 census. But in between Sunil went to Kolkata in 1993 and
I stayed there up to 1998 and migrated to Delhi in 1999. Enumeration as migrant
by POB does not capture this recent movement of Sunil. This is captured by
migration by POLR. Sunil has been enumerated as migrant by POLR fiom Kolkata
I to Delhi in 2001 Census. So, the definition of migrant by POB is that a person is
Urban Development in POLR is that a person is enumerated at a place other than his place of last
India
residence.

2.3 STATUS OF MIGRATION

In this section on status of migration, we will discuss in-migration and flow of
migration in India.

2.3.1 In-migration in India

Migration data is given by space, time, reason and gender. Space means the
place, area (village/town/district~state),urban and rural origin or destination.
The lowest unit for enumerating migrants' place of last residence is village or
town. Any change of residence within the village or town or city is not considered
migration. Migration data is presented as change of residence within the district
(intra-district movement), change of residence from one district to another (inter-
district movement) and change of residence between one state and another (inter-
state movement). Time is given by duration of stay at any place. If all the divisions ,
are taken together, it is called 'all durations'. Reasons of migrations are classified
in different categories, which we shall study in 2.6. Some of the migration data
is given by gender i.e. by male and female. In India, the total in-migrants by
place of last residence in 2001 were 314,541,350 persons by all durations of
residence.
Table 2.1 Total in-migrants in india by place of last residence, 2001
(All durations of residence)
Place of last residence Total Rural Urban

Last residence elsewhere in 309,385,525 207,773,661 101,611,864

India

Last residence outside India 4,946,860 2,508,775 2,438,085

Unclassifiable 208,965 94,956 114009

Total 314,541,350 210,377,392 104,16,958

Source: Census of India, 2001

Out of them 309,385,525 persons were internal migrants i.e. these people migrated
from some place within India. A total number of 4,946,860 persons migrated
from some place outside India whereas 208965 persons could not be classified.
Here, we are concerned with the internal migrants of India, i.e. people who
migrated from some place within India. The total internal migrants of India were
30.07 per cent of the total population of India in 2001. It was 29.2 per cent in
197 1,30.3 per cent in 1981 and 27 per cent in 1991. Thus internal migration in
India has increased from 1971 and 1981 while it fell in 1991 but has increased
again to 30.3 per cent in 2001. Out of the total internal migrants in India,
101,611,864 persons migrated to urban areas, which is a huge number in itself.
In terms of percentage the total urban migrants were 32.8 percent of the total
internal migrants in India in 2001.
 2.3.2 Flow of Migration in India Migration and Urban
Problems
Collected data about migration is usually classified by streams, distance, duration,
reason and gender and presented for clear understanding of the flow and reasons
of migration. The data on streams of migration is classified by movements from
rural to rural areas, from rural to urban areas, from urban to rural areas and from
urban to urban areas. The data on distance is usually given by within the district
movement, by inter-district movement, by within the state movements and by
interstate movements. The data on duration is classified by number of years.
When all the durations are clubbed together, we get the data by all durations as
has been given in Table 2. land 2.2.

In India rural-rural migration was around 63 per cent and rural-urban migration
was about 19 per cent in 2001 (by all durations). Similarly, urban-urban and
urban-rural migration was around 13 per cent and 5 per cent respectively in
2001. Thus we find that rural-rural migration is the largest in volume in India,
which is followed by rural-urban migration. But rural-urban migration is very
I important for its effects on urban areas. We also learn another important thing
about migration by gender. Women are more mobile than men in India. The
percentages of female migrants in all the streams of migration are more than
male migrants (Table 2.2). Rural-rural migration in India is overwhelmingly
dominated by women and was 84.81 per cent in 2001. The percentages of women
migrants in urban-rural (65.01%), urban-urban (54.87%) and even in rural-urban
(52.59%) flows were more than men in 2001. Most of the women in India migrate
at least once after marriage in India and this is one reason for which women are
found to be more migratory than men India. The other reasons are that women
have started moving more with the family and also on their own for employment
than before.

Table 2.2: Distribution of internal in-migration in india by place of last

residence, stream and gender, 2001(All Durations of Residence)

Stream Total Migrants (,000) Percentage

Total Male Female Total Male Female

Rural-Rural 171,735 26,080 145,655 100.00 15.19 84.81

Rural-Urban 51,686 24,505 27,180 100.00 47.41 52.59

Urban- Rural 12,999 4,547 8,451 100.00 34.98 65.01

Urban-Urban 36,562 16,500 20,061 100.00 45.13 54.87

Soul-ce:Census of India, 2001 Migration Tables

Now, let us look at the distribution and growth of internal migrants in India by
streams and by 0-9 years duration. This will show us the growth of the migrants
in different census periods. This is given in Table 2.3.

27
Urban Development in
India
1
Table 2.3 Distribution and growth of Migrants by streams
(0-9 years duration) in india, 1971-2001

Source: Bhagat, B.R.

From Table 2.3 we find that, migration in all the streams declined in 1981-91

state migration increased by 7.3 percent during 1991-2001 but rural-urban

interstate migration grew by 76.5 per cent during 1991-2001. Similarly, urban -
urban intrastate migration grew by 23.6 per cent and urban-urban interstate
migration grew by 24.3 per cent during 1991-2001. Thus we find that migration
to urban areas has grown considerably during 1991-2001. However the most
remarkable growth is seen in interstate rural-urban migration.
So we have learnt here:
Rural-Rural migration is highest by volume in India.
a Rural-Urban migration is second highest by volume in India.
a Rural-urban interstate migration has grown rapidly during 1991-2001.
Women are more mimatorv than men in all the streams of mimation in India.

Migrations usually happen due to reasons of social change and economic

development. People move from less developed areas to more developed areas.
It may also happen due to natural disasters like drought or flood. People may
move from rural to rural areas, from urban to rural areas, from urban to urban
areas and from rural to urban areas. Here we shall talk of migration to urban
areas. Migration towards urban areas can be from both urban and rural areas.
However, rural to urban migration has important connotations for urbanization.
Thou& there are other flows of mieration as has been mentioned above. rural to
urban migration is considered very important for urbanization and development Migration and Urban
Problems
because of its consequences on the migrants and on urban areas and urbanization.
We have already learnt in Unit 1 that rural-urban migration is an important
component of urbanisation (see Unit I).

2.4.1 Causes of Rural-Urban Migration

The migrants usually have high work participation rate compared to the non- -
migrants. Some of them have better educational qualification than non-migrants.
However a substantial portion of the rural-urban migrants is less educated, poor
and come from agricultural background and belongs to Scheduled Caste and
Scheduled Tribe community. Some of them move alone while majority of them
move with family. In 1981, Census of lndia widened the scope of enquiry on
migration and started collecting 'reasons of migration from place of last
residence'. In 2001 census, reasons of migration were given by place of last
residence and were seven in number as has been shown below in Table 2.3.

Table 2.3: Reasons of migration of rural-urban and urban-urban migrants,

2001 (Percentage)

Moved after 4.98 6.18 3.90 8.14 10.35 6.33

birth
Moved with 24.87 20.59 28.74 27.89 26.31 29.20
Household
Others 11.22 13.29 9.35 16.93 20.55 13.95
Total 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

Source: Census of India, 2001 Migration Tables

Work or employment was the most important reason for migration of rural-urban
male migrants. More than fiftyper cent of the rural-urban male migrants migrated
for employment and about 21 per cent of them moved with household. Also
about 35 per cent of the male urban-urban male migrants migrated for employment
while 26 per cent migrated with family. More than fifty per cent of the rural-
urban female migrants migrated due to mamage while around 29 per cent of the
rural-urban female migrants migrated moved with the household. Among the
women who have moved from urban to urban areas around 45 per cent moved
for marriage and 29 per cent moved with household. So we find that majority of
the migrants to urban areas migrate for employment and majority of the female
migrants to urban areas moved due to marriage or move with household.

29
Urban Development in Pe0ple move from rural to urban areas for various reasons like, worsening in
India
econc~ m i situation,
c employment, higher wages, better amenities, change in social
environment, education and so on. It is widely documented that male migrants
from rural to urban areas in India migrate for reasons related to worsening in
econc~ m i csituation, employment and better employment (Census, 2001 and
Banerjee, 1986).

Though macro data like that from Census finds women moving mainly with
family and marriage, many micro studies have shown that many of the rural-
urbar1 women migrants migrate for employment (Singh, 1984, Chattopadhyay,
2005, Neetha 2004). Traditionally women have been categorised as passive
move:rs, moving with family or for marriage. This is primarily because in macro
data 1like in Census they are not found moving on their own for work. However,
micrc studies have found women migrating on their own for work in many kinds
of wc)rklike nursing, domestic service etc. Some of them who migrate alone are
usually unmarried, widowed or divorced and belong to Scheduled Castes or
Schecduled Tribes community. They migrate to work to support themselves and
their families at origin. This type of women migrants is found mostly in the
lowe1 income group. Even when these women migrate with family the underlying
cause:of migration mostly happen to be work, earn and support the family.

So we find that majority of the male migrants and possibly a substantial portion
of the women migrants to urban areas migrate to work and earn livelihood. Those
who are educated and trained get work in the formal sector but the uneducated
ones keep working in the informal sector or unorganised sector. Next.we shall
learn what are the effects of migration of rural-urban migration on urban slums.
We have learnt here:
The most important reason of migration of rural-urban male migrants is
work or employment.
The most important reason of migration of rural-urban female migrants is
marriage according to census data.
However, rural-urban female migration is not all passive, many women from
rural area migrate to urban area for work.

2.4.2 Effects of Rural Urban Migration . ,

%
In-migration to any area increases its population. This affects the structurk and
profile of the population of the area of destination as well as that of origin. If
young people of working age group migrate to a place, then the age composition
of the people at destination changes and become younger. This means when
young people out-migrate from an area, the older people and children are left
behind. Thus, the age composition of people of the area of origin of the migrants
tilts to the higher side. This is what happens when a substantial number of people
of working age group from rural areas migrate to urban areas. If substantial
numbers of men out-migrate from the rural area to work in the urban area, then
the numbers of women become more in the area of origin at rural area. Similarly,
if substantial numbers of men in-migrate to any urban area, then the numbers of
men become more in the population of the afea of the destination. Thus rural-
 Rural-urban migration results in change in income and work status of the Migration and Urban
Problems
concerned rural-urban migrants. Most of the rural-urban migrants migrate to
work and earn higher income. Thus the incomes of the rural-urban migrants
generally increase after migration. Migration may also affect the work-status of
the migrants. If the migrant was not working before migration, then helshe has
become worker from non-worker. The migrant may have been doing agricultural
work in rural area but have started doing some non-agricultural work in urban
area after migration. The rural-urban migrant may have also turned from casual
worker to regular worker. Thus, rural-urban migration has the potential to change
the migrant's income and work profile.
Rural-urban migration also has social impacts. The rural-urban migrants try to
imbibe different aspects of urban society. The urban society is different from
rural society in different aspects. Restrictions are less in an urban society. The
rural-urban migrants, especially women find the urban areas less restrictive and
more open. As a result, the migrants find more freedom and can perform many
things in urban areas, which they could not do in rural areas. Also the rural-
urban migrants are found to work in many activities in urban areas, which they
could not have done in the rural areas. Caste, religion and ethnic background is
not important for work in most urban areas.
But, most importantly in-migration to urban areas puts pressure on the urban
basic amenities, like water supply, drainage, sewerage, housing, transport facilities
*,! and so on, which are already constrained in Indian cities. The financial resources
-
.,
of urban local bodies are limited and increase in migration to urban areas creates
problems for urban governance. We have discussed the condition of basic
"'amenities in urban areas in Unit 1 and shall also discuss the effects of rural-
urban migration on basic urban amenities later in this Unit.
In this section we learnt about the effect of urbanization and now answer the
questions given in check your progress 1
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Write your answer in about 50 words.
b) Check your answer with possible answers given at the end of the unit
1) What is the most important reason of migration of rural-urban migrant men
and women?
.......................................................................................................................
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7
4
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31
I" Development in 2) How does rural-urban migration affect the demographic profile of the people
at origin and destination?
.......................................................................................................................

Migration has resulted in escalation of Urban slum. Some of the probelms of

Urban Slums are narrated.

A high percentage of the residents of urban slums are less educated and belong
to scheduled caste and scheduled tribe population. Most of them are rural-urban

- - - -
and help the families financially. Thus they inevitably move from rural areas to
some areas where housing is cheap.

To understand the magnitude of problems of urban slums we should first know

what is the percentage of urban population living in slum areas. We have learnt
some of it in Unit 1. However I shall mention those here in short for reference.

I
(Table 2.4). A total of 15 per cent of the total urban population were found to
live in slums in urban India whereas 23.1 per cent of the urban population of the
towns reporting slums were living in slum areas in 2001 (Table 2.4). The

Table 2.4: Percentage of slum population in india and million plus cities in
2001

Indicators NoJPercentage

No. of citiesltowns reporting slum population 640

% of slum population to total urban population 15.0

% of slum population to total population of cities1 23.1

towns reporting slum population

% of slum population in million -plus cities 24.1

I Source: Census of India, 2001

I Thus understandably million plus cities where employment opportunities are

more have the largest percentage of slums.

I ..
Next 1 shall refer to some characteristics of urban slum dwellers. Approximately,
literacy of a person shows the kind of work that can be do.
 Table 2.5: Literacy rate in urban india, urban slums and in slums of million Migration and Urban
Problems
~ l u cities
s in 2001
Persons/Male/Female Literacy Rate
Urban Urban Urban Slums in
India Slums Million plus cities
Persons 80.3 73.1 76
Male 86.7 80.7 82 .
Female 73.2 64.4 68
Source: Census of India, 2001

From Table 2.5 we find that literacy rate in urban slums are lower than that of
urban India. In 2001, total literacy rate in urban India was 80.30 whereas it was
only 73.1 in urban slums. Comparing literacy rate of men we find that it was
86.7 and 80.7 for urban India and urban slums of India respectively in 2001.
However, the literacy rate of people in urban slums of million plus cities is more
than that of urban slums in urban India but it is less than that of the general
population in urban India. This explains the fact that in slums like Dharavi of
Mumbai various kinds of skilled and educated persons are found.

Another major characteristics of slums in urban lndia is its ethnic characteristics.

1 A majority of slum population is found to be coming from Scheduled Caste and

I Tribes respectively (Table 2.6). However, the slums of million-plus cities were I

more than 22.01 per ceat, which was the average of urban India in 2001. Mumbai
had a remarkably high (65.91) percentage of Scheduled Caste population followed
by Meerut (63.95) and Faridabad (59.92). Scheduled Tribe population was found
to be 14.56 percent in slums

Table 2.6: Percentage of Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Ikibe population

in slums in india and million-plus cities, 2001

4. Bangalore 29.28 15.26 10.0

5. Chennai 45.03 27.20 18.9
6. Ahmedabad 22.41 19.6 1 13.5
 7. Hyderabad 33.46 27.74 17.2
8. Pune 41.87 21.54 19.4
9. Kanpur 29.84 55.47 14.4
10. Surat 34.78 41.94 20.9
I I. Jaipur 30.90 22.98 15.9
12. Lucknow 11.34 4.6 1 8.2
13. Nagpur 44.05 59.31 35.9
14. Indore 30.35 11.82 17.7
15. Bhopal 20.27 13.57 8.7
16. Ludhiana 26.18 0.00 22.5
17. Patna 0.81 0.00 0.3
18. Vadodara 24.06 27.41 14.2
19. Thane 41.20 35.19 27.8
20. Agra 14.23 8.91 9.5
21. Kalyan-Dombivili 10.31 1.30 2.9
22. Varanasi 21.19 0.00 12.6
23. Nashik 32.87 23.01 12.9
24. Meerut 63.95 36.23 44.1
25. Faridabad 59.92 0.00 46.5
26. Haora 19.34 9.97 11.7
27. Pimprichinchwad 36.00 12.14 12.2
1 Source: Census of India, 2001, Slum Population, Series- 1

Thus we have learnt that a major part of the urban slum dwellers are rural-urban
migrants, are not educated and belong to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes.
One more thing that characterises slum population is its high work participation
rate. Slum dwellers come to work in cities and towns and that is why they get
engaged in any work that they get and that is why work participation rate is
generally higher in the slums than the general urban population. We present
work participation rate of slum workers in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7: Work participation rate in urban india and in urban slums of
india i

Place Work participation rate

Persons Male Female
Urban India 29.3 47.2 9.4
Urban slums of India 32.9 51.3 11.9
Source: Census of India, 2001, Slum Population, Series- 1
 Migration and Vrban
2.6 CONDITIONS OF URBAN SLUMS Problems
I

Before discussing the conditions of urban slum, it is pertinent to discuss the

character of urban slum.

2.6.1 Character of Urban Slum

What kind of living conditions do the slum dwellers have in the slums? National
Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO), conducted a survey in 2002 on the
conditions of urban slums, which covered all the urban areas (recognised by
199 1 census) of whole of Indian Union except Leh and Kargil districts of Jammu
and Kashmir. We shall discuss the conditions in urban slums following the data
of this survey. According to NSSO, "slum is a compact settlement with a collection
of poorly built tenements, mostly of temporary nature, crowded together usually
with inadequate sanitary and drinking water facilities in unhygienic conditions".
Such an area, for the purpose of survey by NSSO, is considered as "non-notified
slum" if at least 20 households lived in that area. The slums, which are notified
by the local- bodies like municipality, Municipal Corporation etc. are called
"notified slums".
Table 2.8: Percentage distribution, ownership of land and density of
household in the notified and non-notified slums in india, 2002
,-
*
-
Description Notified Non-notified
slums slums
--
d
Percentage distribution of slums by 51 49
notifiedlnon-notified
Percentage of total surveyed households 65 35
living in notified fnon-notified slums
Percentage of slums located on public land 63 63
Percentage of slums located on private land 35 35
Average number of household per slum 205 112
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, Sarvekshana, Report No. 486,
Condition of Urban Slums, 2002,58th round (July2002-Dec 2002)
According to the National Sample Survey (NSS) data (2002), around 51 per cent
of the slums were notified while 49 per cent were non-notified slums in 2002
(Table2.8). Around 65 per cent of the households were living in notified slums
-
and 35 per cent of the households were living in non-notified slums. Majority of
6 the slums are situated on public lands. However, some of them are situated on
private lands too. According to NSS data (2002) around 63 per cent of the notified
as well as non-notified slums were found on public land while 35 per cent of
them were on private land while the location of the rest were not known. Notified
slums are in somewhat better condition than the rest as we shall find later and
possibly because of that, those slums were much dense than the non-notified
slums. On an average 205 households were found in notified slums compared to
112 (average) households in non-notified slums. Thus we find that the majority
of the slums are located on public land and notified slums are denser than the
non-notified slums. Let us see what kind of environment, structures and basic
services the slums have.
35
Urban Development in 2.6.2 Conditions of Road in Urban Slum
India
Around 86 per cent of the notified slums and 67 per cent of the non-notified
slums had pucca approach road (Table 2.9). Around 71 per cent of the roads
within the notified slums and 37 per cent of the non-notified slums were pucca.
Waterlogging on the roads create health hazards in the slums. Around 36 per
cent of the notified slums and 54 per cent of the non-notified slums were affected
by water logging either on the approach road or on the roads within the slums.

- Table 2.9: Percentage distribution of slums by conditions of road, 2002

m e of road Notified Non-notified
Slums slums
Pucca approach road 86 67
Pucca inner road 71 37
Water logging on approach road inner road 36 54
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, Sarvekshana, Report No. 486,
Condition of Urban Slums, 2002,58th round (July2002-Dec 2002)
2.6.3 Conditions of Housing in Urban Slum
One of the basic requirements of survival of human being is a place to stay or a
house. The stmcture of the houses of the slum-dwellers was divided as 'pucca',
'semi-pucca' and 'katcha' in the NSS survey. A pucca structure is one?which is
having roof and wall made of pucca materials whereas a katcha structure is one,
which is having roof and wall made of katcha material. A structure, which does
not fall in these two categories were categorised as semi-pucca. Table 2.10 gives
the information about type of structure of the majority of houses in the slums.
About 64 per cent of the notified slums had majority of houses pucca, 30 per
cent had majority of houses semi-pucca and in 6 per cent of them had majority
of houses kathca in 2002. In contrast, only 30 per cent of the non-notified slums
had majority of the houses pucca, 40 per cent of them had majority of the houses
semi-pucca and 30 per cent of them had majority of the houses katcha in 2002.
Thus, though all the notified slums did not have majority of the houses pucca
but still they were better than non-notified slums.
Table 2.10: Percentage distributions of slums by type of structure of the
majority of the houses, 2002
rLpe of structure of the majority of the houses Notified Non-notified
Slums Slums
Pucca 64 30
Semi-pucca 30 40
Katcha 6 30
Total 100 100
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, Sarvekshana, Report No. 486,
Condition of Urban Slums, 2002,58th round (July2002-Dec 2002)
I Table 2.11: Percentage distribution of slums by major source of drinking
water, 2002
v p e of major source Notified slums Non-notified slums
Migration and Urban
Problems
I
Tap 84 71
Tube well 10 22
Well 2 2
Others 4 5
Total 100 100
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, Sarvekshana, Report No. 486,
Condition of Urban Slums, 2002,58th round (July2002-Dec 2002)
Another basic requirement for living is drinking water. Supply of safe drinking
water to all is an accepted goal of government of India. Table 2.11 presents the
percentage distribution of slums by major source of drinking water. Major source
of drinking water in 84 per cent of the notified slums and 71 per cent of the non-
notified slums was tap in 2002. In another 10 per cent of the notified slums and
22 per cent of the non-notified slums major source of drinking water was tube-
well in 2002. Thus in 94 per cent of the notified slums and 93 per cent of the
-
b>
non-notified slums major source of drinking water was tap or tube-well. This is
not a very bad situation. But the actual situation depends on duration of availability
i' ofwater and quality of the water available, which may not be ideal and satisfactory.

k 2.6.4 Urban Sanitation

Sewerage and drainage facility is one of the most important basic services needed
in urban areas. In the absence of proper sewerage and drainage facility, the
environment of any area becomes filthy and unhealthy. Data about these facilities
are presented in Table 2.11. There were no sewerage facility in an overwhelming
70 per cent of the notified slums and 85 per cent of the non-notified slums in
2002 (Table 2.12). Underground or covered drains were found in only 25 per
cent of the notified slums and in 13 per cent of the non-notified slums. Most of
the notified slums (60 %) had open drains. Forty three per cent of non-notified
slums had open drains while there was no drainage facility in 44 per cent of the
non-notified slums.
Table 2.12: Percentage distribution of slums having underground sewerage
and drainage facility, 2002
Availability of underground sewerage1 Notified Non-notified
drainage facility slums slums
Underground sewerage 30 15
No sewerage 70 85
Underground /covered drains 25 13
Open drains 60 43
No drainage 15 44
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, Sarvekshana, Report No. 486,
Condition of Urban Slums, 2002,58th round (July2002-Dec 2002)
 Urban Development in Next, let us see, how garbage is disposed in urban slums. The data regarding this
India
is presented in Table 2.13. Arrangement of garbage disposal was made by local
bodies like panchayat or municipality or corporation in 79 per cent of the notified
slums and only 42 per cent of the non-notified slums. The residents or some
others make arrangement of garbage disposal in 5 per cent of the notified slums
and 12 per cent of the non-notified slums, whereas there were no arrangements
for disposal of garbage in 16 per cent of the notified slums and 46 per cent of the
non-notified slums in 2002. However, availability of arrangement of garbage
disposal is not sufficient, one has to see how frequently is the service available.
The survey reports that only 52 per cent of the notified slums and 46 per cent of
the non-notified slums get the service at least once in two days while 34 per cent
of the notified slums and 35 per cent of the non-notified slums get the service at
least once in 3-7 days and in the rest of them the service is even worse (NSS
Report No. 486).

Table 2.13: Percentage distribution of slums having arrangement of garbage

disposal facility in, 2002
Arrangement of garbage disposal made by Notified Non-notified
slums slums
Panchayat~municipality/Corporation 79 42
Residentslothers 5 12 '4
$

No arrangement 16 46
Total 100 100 d
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, Sarvekshana, Report No. 486,
Condition of Urban Slums, 2002,58th round (July2002-Dec 2002)

Table 2.14 gives the percentage slums having facility of septic tank or flush
latrine and the percentage of slums having no latrine facility. We find that 66 per
cent of the notified slums had septic tank or flush latrine facility. However, this
facility was available to only 35 per cent non-notified slums in 2002. More than
fifty per cent (5 1%) of the non-notified slums did not have any latrine facility.
However, only 17 per cent of the notified slums were found not having any
facility in 2002.

Table 2.14: Percentage of slums having septik tanWflush latrine and

percentage of slums having no latrine facility in urban slums,
2002
'Qpe of latrine facility , Notified Non-notified 4
slums slums
Septik tanklflush latrine 66 35 1
No latrine 17 51
Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, Sarvekshana, Report No. 486,
Condition of Urban Slums, 2002, 58th round (July2002-Dec 2002)

38
-

i
 2.6.4 Electricity in Urban Slum Migration and Urban
Problems
Table 2.15 presents the data regarding availability of electricity in the slums.
Electricity can be available in the houses and in the streets. 84 per cent of the
notified slums and only 53 per cent of the non-notified slums had electricity in
both the households and streets. 11 per cent of the notified slums and 25 per
cent of the non-notified slums had electricity only in the household. However, 4
per cent of the notified slums and 6 per cent of the non-notified slums had only
streetlight.

Table 2.15: Percentage distribution of slums having electricity connection,

2002
Availability of underground seweragel Notified Non-notified
drainage facility slums slums
Household and street light 84 53
Household only 11 25
Street light only 4 6
Not reported 1 16
Total 100 100

i Source: National Sample Survey Organisation, Sarvekshana, Report No. 486,

Condition of Urban Slums, 2002, 58th round (July2002-Dec 2002)

Thus we find that environment and availability of basic services are not adequate
in the urban slums. This leads to problems of health and hygiene. The other
problems of slums relate to crime and theft. Though work participation rate of
slum workers are higher than the general urban population of India, it is a fact
that everyone does not get employment. This leads to their association into
different kinds of theft and crime and slums are thought to be the breeding ground
of these activities, which is a big problem of slums.

2.7 MIGRATION AND URBAN PROBLEMS

Migration to' urban areas W h e r aggravates urban problems. Thus in short,
urban problems due to migration can be summed up as follows:
Migration to urban areas, especially rural-urban migration puts pressure on
the already strained urban basic services like water supply, sewerage,
drainage, garbage disposal and electricity.
Migration to urban areas puts pressure on urban housing.
Migration to urban areas makes the cities congested.
Migration to urban areas creates problems for transport in.the city by putting
pressure on the transport system.

I
Migration to urban areas aggravates problems of environmental pollution.
Rural-urban migration increases slums in urban areas.
Increase in slums give rise to anti-social activities.

39
Urban Development in
India
 Migration and Urban
2.10 REFERENCES AND SELECTED READINGS Problems

Banerjee, B. (1986), Rural to Urban Migration and the Urban Labour Market.
De1hi:Himalaya Publishing House
Bhagat, B.R. (2009), Internal migration in India: Are the underclass more mobile?
Paper presented in the 26thIUSSP General Population Conference held in
Marrakecch, Morocco, 27 September to 2 October 2009.
Billsborrow, R.E. (1998), The state of the art and overview of the chapters, in
Richard E. Bilsborrow (Ed.), Migration, Urbanisation and Development: New
Directions and Issues, Proceedings of the Symposium on Internal Migration
and Urbanisation in Developing Countries, 22-24 January 1996, New York,
(Massachusetts, United Population Fund and Klwer Academic Publishers) 1-
56.
Census of India (2001), Final Population Totals, 2001, Ofice of the Registrar
General and Census Commissioner, GOI, New Delhi.
Chattopadhyay, B. (2005), Why do women workers migrate? Some answers by
rural-urban female migrants, Urban India, 23(2), 69-91.
Kundu A. and N. Sarangi (2007), "Migration, employment status and poverty:
An analysis across urban centres", Economic and Political Weekly, January 27,
299-306.
National Institute of Urban Affairs (2005), Status of Water Supply, Sanitation
- and Solid Waste Management in Urban Areas, New Delhi: National Institute of
Urban Affairs
Neetha. N. (2004), "Making of female bread winners", Economic and Political
Weekly, 34(17), 1681-1688
Singh, A. M. (1984), "Rural to urban migration of women in India: Patterns and
implications", in Women in the Cities ofAsia: Migration and Urban Adaptation,
James T. Fawcett, Siew-Ean Khoo and Peter C. Smith, eds. Boulder, Colorado,
Westview Press.
The World Bank (2009), WorldDevelopmentReport 2009: ReshapingEconomic
Geography, Washington D.C. The World Bank

211 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS - POSSIBLE

s-
ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1) What is the most important reason of migration of rural-urban migrant men
and women?
Answer: Male migrants from rural to urban areas in India migrate for reasons
related to worsening in economic situation, employment and better employment
opportunities. The macro data like that from census finds women moving mainly
with family and marriage, many micro studies have shown that many of the
rural-urban women migrants migrate for employment.
2) What is the most important reason of migration of rural-urban migrant men
and women? 41
Urban Developmentin Answer: If young people of working age group migrate to a place, then the age
Indii
composition of the people at destination changes and become younger. This
means when young people out-migrate from an area, the older people and children
are left behind. Thus, the age composition of people of the area of origin of the
migrants tilts to the higher side. If substantial numbers of men out-migrate from
the rural area to work in the urban area, then the numbers of women become
more in the area of origin at rural area and the numbers of men become more in
the population of the area of the destination.

Check Your Progress-2

1) What is the condition of roads in urban slums?

Answer: During 2002, around 86 per cent of the notified slums and 67 per cent
of the non-notified slums had pucca approach road. Around 71 per cent of the
roads within the notified slums and 37 per cent of the non-notified slums were
pucca. Waterlogging on the roads create health hazards in the slums. Around 36
per cent of the notified slums and 54 per cent of the non-notified slums were
affected by water logging either on the approach road or on the roads within the
slums.

2) Write any three migration induced urban problems.

Answer: Migration to urban areas further aggravates urban problems. Thus in
short, urban problems due to migration can be summed up as follows:
Migration to urban areas, especially rural-urban migration puts pressure on
the already strained urban basic services like water supply, sewerage,
drainage, garbage disposal and electricity.
Migration to urban areas puts pressure on urban housing.
Migration to urban areas makes the cities congested.

42