COMPUTER NETWORKS

UNIT-I
‘ INTRODUCTION ’

FACULTY:
SREENU BANOTH
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR ,
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING,
IIMT COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING,GREATER NOIDA-201308.
 COMPUTER NETWORKS SYLLABUS

UNIT-I
Introductory Concepts: Goals and applications of networks, Categories of networks,
Organization of the Internet, ISP, Network structure and architecture (layering principles,
services, protocols and standards), The OSI reference model, TCP/IP protocol suite,
Network devices and components.
Physical Layer:
Network topology design, Types of connections, Transmission media, Signal
transmission and encoding, Network performance and transmission impairments,
Switching techniques and multiplexing.
UNIT-II
Link layer: Framing, Error Detection and Correction, Flow control (Elementary Data
Link Protocols, Sliding Window protocols).Medium Access Control and Local Area
Networks: Channel allocation, Multiple access protocols, LAN standards, Link layer
switches & bridges (learning bridge and spanning tree algorithms).
UNIT-III
Network Layer: Point-to-point networks, Logical addressing, Basic internetworking (IP,
CIDR, ARP, RARP, DHCP, ICMP), Routing, forwarding and delivery, Static and
dynamic routing, Routing algorithms and protocols, Congestion control algorithms, IPv6
UNIT-IV
Transport Layer: Process-to-process delivery, Transport layer protocols (UDP and TCP),
Multiplexing, Connection management, Flow control and retransmission, Window
management, TCP Congestion control, Quality of service.
UNIT-V
Application Layer: Domain Name System, World Wide Web and Hyper Text Transfer
Protocol, Electronic mail, File Transfer Protocol, Remote login, Network management,
Data compression, Cryptography – basic concepts.
TEXT BOOKS: 1. Andrew S. Tanenbaum, “Computer Networks”, 2012, Pearson
Education,

REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. P. Green - Computer Network Architectures and Protocols, Plenum Press, 1982.
2. Harry Katzan - An Introduction to “Distributed Data Processing”, A Petrocelli
Book, New York / Princeton.
3. Tittel - Theory and Problems of Computer Networking, Schaum’s outline series,
TMH.
4. Godbole - Data Communication & Networking,TMH.
5. Leon Garcia - Communication N etworks: Fundamental Concepts & Key
Architecture,TMH.
INTRODUCTION

What is Computer Network?

we will use the term ''computer network'' to mean acollection of autonomous

computers interconnected by asingle technology.

Two computers are said to be interconnected if they are able to exchange information.

copper wire; fiber optics, microwaves, infrared, and communication satellites,etc.

INTRODUCTION (CONT’D)

A very simple network (Problems) Digital Analog ;Analog-Digital.

What iferrorhappens?

A
Capture of physical lines – short message. Routing.Channel utilization
(flow control).
Who say first?
Masking the details.
B

C
 Networking Elements :
The computer network includes the following networking elements:
1.At least two computers
2.Transmission medium either wired or wireless
3.Protocols or rules that govern the communication
4.Network software such as Network Operating System

Network Goals :
The main goals of network as follows.
1.Cost reduction by sharing hardware & software resources.
2.High reliability by having multiple sources of supply.
3.Greater flexibility because of possibility to connect devices.
4.Increase productivity by making it easier to access data by the several users.
5.Another goal is to increase the systems performance, as the work load increases, by just adding more
processors.
6.Computer networks provide a powerful communication medium.
USE OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer networks have become invaluable to organizations as well as individuals.
Some of its main uses are as follows −

Information and Resource Sharing − Computer networks allow organizations having units
which are placed apart from each other, to share information in a very effective manner. Programs and
software in any computer can be accessed by other computers linked to the network. It also allows
sharing of hardware equipment,like printers and scanners among varied users.

Retrieving Remote Information − Through computer networks, users can retrieve remote
information on a variety of topics.The information is stored in remote databases to which the user
gains access through information systems like theWorldWideWeb.
Speedy Interpersonal Communication − Computer networks have increased the speed and
volume of communication like never before. Electronic Mail (email) is extensively used for
sending texts, documents, images, and videos across the globe. Online communications have
increased by manifold times through social networking services.

E-Commerce − Computer networks have paved way for a variety of business and commercial
transactions online, popularly called e-commerce. Users and organizations can pool funds, buy or
sell items, pay bills, manage bank accounts, pay taxes, transfer funds and handle investments
electronically.
Highly Reliable Systems − Computer networks allow systems to be distributed in nature, by the
virtue of which data is stored in multiple sources. This makes the system highly reliable. If a failure
occurs in one source, then the system will still continue to function and data will still be available from
the other sources.

Cost–Effective Systems − Computer networks have reduced the cost of establishment of computer
systems in organizations. Previously, it was imperative for organizations to set up expensive
mainframes for computation and storage. With the advent of networks, it is sufficient to set up
interconnected personal computers (PCs) for the same purpose.

VoIP − VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication

systems.Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols instead of the regular
analog phone lines.
 NETWORK HARDWARE (TRANSMISSION
TECHNOLOGIES)
Broadcast
Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared by all the
machines on the network. Short messages, called packets in certain contexts, sent by
any machine are received by all the others. (Address Checking required)

Point-to-point
A point-to-point connection provides a dedicated link between two devices.
The entire capacity of the link is reserved for transmission between those two devices.
Most point-to-point connections use an actual length of wire or cable to connect the
two ends, but other options, such as microwave or satellite links, are also possible.
When we change television channels by infrared remote control, we are establishing a
point-to-point connection between the remote control and the television's control
system.
Multipoint
A multipoint (also called multidrop) connection is one in which more than two specific
devices share a single link.

In a multipoint environment, the capacity of the channel is shared, either spatially or

temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously, it is a spatially shared
connection. If users must take turns, it is a timeshared connection.
Network Hardware (Scale Perspective)

personal area networks (1m)

LAN: local area networks (10m ~ 1km)

MAN: metropolitan areanetworks (10km)

WAN: wide area network (100km ~ 1000km)

Internet
Personal Area Network (PAN)
The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless modem, a
computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around one person in one
building.
These types of networks are typically found in small offices or residences and are managed
by one person or organization from a single device.
Eg : wireless computers ,keyboard &Mouse, Bluetooth ,embedded headphones
•
LAN: local area network
Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within a single
building or campus of up to afew kilometers in size.
LANs may use a transmission technology consisting of a cable to which all the machines are
attached.
Traditional LANs run atspeeds of 10 Mbps to 1000 Mbps, havelow delay (microseconds
or nanoseconds), and make very few errors.
Various topologies are
possible for broadcast
LANs.

(a) Bus (b) Ring

MAN: metropolitan areanetwork
MAN: metropolitan areanetwork
▪ A metropolitan area network, or MAN, covers a city. The best-known example of a MAN is
the cable television network available in many cities.
▪ This system grew from earlier community antenna systems used in areas with poor over-the-
air television reception. In these early systems, a large antenna was placed on top of a
nearby hill and signal was then piped to the subscribers' houses.
▪ At first, these were locally-designed, ad hoc systems. Then companies began jumping into
the business, getting contracts from city governments to wire up an entire city.
▪ The next step was television programming and even entire channels designed for cable only.
Often these channels were highly specialized, such as all news, all sports, all cooking, all
gardening, and so on.
▪ But from their inception until the late 1990s, they were intended for television reception
only.
▪ To a first approximation, a MAN might look something like the system shown in Fig.2. In
this figure both television signals and Internet are fed into the centralized head end for
subsequent distribution to people's homes.
▪ Cable television is not the only MAN. Recent developments in high-speed wireless Internet
access resulted in another MAN, which has been standardized as IEEE 802.16.
W A N and Internet

Hosts,The hosts are owned by the customers (e.g.,people's personal computers).

Subnet, typically owned and operated by atelephone company or Internet service provider (ISP).

The hosts are connected by subnets.

The subnet consists of two distinct components: transmission lines and switching elements.
Transmission lines move bits between machines. Switching elements (routers) are specialized
computers that connect three or more transmission lines.
WA N and Internet

Simple WA N (Internet) illustrated Packets routing

Wireless Networks

Bluetooth: short range wireless network (<10m).

Wireless LANs: for moderate range, becomes more and more common today
(<100m).

network used for cellular telephones: distances involved are much greater and the bit rates
much lower (above 1km).
NETWORK SOFTWARE

Protocol Hierarchies
Design Issues for the Layers
Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Services
Service Primitives
The Relationship of Services to Protocols
 Protocol Hierarchies
To reduce their design complexity,most networks are organized as a stack of layers or
levels, each one built upon the one below it.

The purpose of each layer is to offer certain services to the higher layers, shielding those layers from
the details of how the offered services are actually implemented.

A protocol is an agreement between the communicating parties on how

communication is to proceed.
The philosophers analogy The layered computer network
THE KEY TERMS

Layers; Protocol;

Interface: Between each pair of adjacent layers is an interface.

Network architecture: A set of layers and protocols is called a network architecture.

Protocol stack: A list of protocols used by a certain system, one protocol per layer, is called a
protocol stack.
An example network protocol stack
Message is generated by the application of the source machine.

Message will be sent from the source to the destination.

Message “M” is transferred from layer 5 to layer 4, with a header containing control information, such
as sequence numbers, which helps layer4 maintainthe message order.

Layer 3 break the message from layer4 into two pieces to fitthe transmission
restrictions, while adding another header to tell layer 2 where the dest. is.

Layer 2 adds the messages from layer 3 with another header, telling the actual (physical) address of the
dest, and atrailer, which is the checksum of the message for correction assertion.

At the receiving machine the message moves upward, from layer to layer, with
headers being stripped off as it progresses. Message is sent to the dest. machine.
DESIGN ISSUES FOR THE LAYERS

Every layer needs a mechanism for identifying senders and receivers. (who to talk with)

The protocol must also determine how many logical channels the connection corresponds to
and what their priorities are. (simplex or duplex? single or multiple channel?)

Error control is an important issue because physical communication circuits are not perfect.

Message ordering is important ‘cause Not all communication channels preserve the order of
messages sent on them.

An issue that occurs at every level is how to keep a fast sender from swamping a slow receiver
with data.

Inability of all processes to accept arbitrarily long messages. (fragmentation and reassembling the
messages)
CONNECTION-ORIENTED A N D CONNECTIONLESS
SERVICES?

Connection-Oriented Service: the service user first establishes a connection, uses the
connection, and then releases the connection. (e.g.,the telephone, tube)

Connectionless Service: Each message carries the full destination address, and each one is routed
through the system independent of all the others. (e.g., the postal system) Usually, connectionless
service can not guarantee the order of messages.

In order to enhance the reliability of transmission of connection-oriented service,

acknowledge each received message is helpful. For example, the file transfer.

However, some applications prefer fast speed than the reliability. For example, the digitized
voice traffic, video conference.
Six different types of service

both reliable and unreliable connection-oriented and connectionless

communication coexist
Service Primitives

Common Primitives

Packets sent in a simple client-server interaction on a

connection-oriented network
Services to Protocols Relationship
The relationship between a service and a protocol.
Network topologies:
Network topology defined as the logical connection of various computers in the network.
The six basic network topologies are: bus, ring, star, tree, mesh and hybrid.
1. Bus Topology:

➢ In bus topology all the computers are connected to a long cable called a bus.
➢ A node that wants to send data puts the data on the bus which carries it to the destination node.
➢ In this topology any computer can data over the bus at any time. Since, the bus is shared among all
the computers.
➢ When two or more computers to send data at the same time, an arbitration mechanism is needed to
prevent simultaneous access to the bus.
 2. Ring Topology:
In ring topology, the computers are connected in the form of a ring.
Each node has exactly two adjacent neighbors. To send data to a
distant node on a ring it passes through many intermediate nodes to
reach to its ultimate destination.

A frame travels around the ring, stopping at each node. If a node

wants to transmit data, it adds the data as well as the destination
address to the frame.

The frame then continues around the ring until it finds the
destination node, which takes the data out of the frame.

Single ring – All the devices on the network share a single

cable

Dual ring – The dual ring topology allows data to be sent in

both directions.
3. Star Topology:
In star topology all the nodes are connected to a central node called a hub. A node that wants
to send some six data to some other node on the network, send data to a hub which in turn
sends it the destination node. A hub plays a major role in such networks.

The star topology is the most commonly used architecture in

Ethernet LANs.

When installed, the star topology resembles spokes in a

bicycle wheel.

Larger networks use the extended star topology also called

tree topology. When used with network devices that filter
frames or packets, like bridges, switches, and routers, this
topology significantly reduces the traffic on the wires by
sending packets only to the wires of the destination host.
4. Tree Topology:

• Tree topology is a hierarchy of various hubs. The entire nodes are connected to one hub or
the other.
• There is a central hub to which only a few nodes are connected directly.

• The central hub, also called active hub, looks at the incoming bits and regenerates them
so that they can traverse over longer distances.
• The secondary hubs in tree topology may be active hubs or passive hubs. The failure of a
transmission line separates a node from the network.
 5. Mesh Topology:
A mesh topology is also called complete topology. In this topology, each node is connected
directly to every oilier node in the network. That is if there are n nodes then there would be n(n
— 1)/2 physical links in the network.

The topology does not have congestion problems. Further it does not need a special Media
Access Control (MAC) protocol to prevent simultaneous access to the transmission media since
links are dedicated, not shared. The topology also provides data security.
The network can continue to function even in the failure of one of the links. Fault identification
is also easy. The main disadvantage of mesh topology is the complexity of the network and the
cost associated with the cable length. The mesh topology is not useful for medium to large
networks.
6. Hybrid Topology:
Hybrid topology is formed by connecting two or more topologies together. For example,
hybrid topology can be created by using the bus, star and ring topologies,
PROTOCOL LAYERING
In data communication and networking, a protocol defines the rules that both the sender and
receiver and all intermediate devices need to follow to be able to communicate effectively.
When communication is simple, we may need only one simple protocol; when the
communication is complex, we may need to divide the task between different layers, in which
case we need a protocol at each layer, or protocol layering.
Scenarios
Let us develop two simple scenarios to better understand the need for protocol layering.
First Scenario
In the first scenario, communication is so simple that it can occur in only one layer. Assume
Maria and Ann are neighbors with a lot of common ideas. Communication between Maria and
Ann takes place in one layer, face to face, in the same language
Second Scenario
In the second scenario, we assume that Ann is offered a higher-level position in her company,
but needs to move to another branch located in a city very far from Maria. The two friends still
want to continue their communication and exchange ideas because they have come up with an
innovative project to start a new business when they both retire. They decide to continue their
conversation using regular mail through the post office.

They agree on an encryption/decryption technique. The sender of the letter encrypts it to

make it unreadable by an intruder; the receiver of the letter decrypts it to get the original
letter.
Principles of Protocol Layering

Two principles of protocol layering.

First Principle
The first principle dictates that if we want bidirectional communication, we need to make
each layer so that it is able to perform two opposite tasks, one in each direction. For example,
the third layer task is to listen (in one direction) and talk (in the other direction). The second
layer needs to be able to encrypt and decrypt. The first layer needs to send and receive mail.
Second Principle
The second principle that we need to follow in protocol layering is that the two objects under
each layer at both sites should be identical. For example, the object under layer 3 at both sites
should be a plaintext letter. both sites should be a cipher text letter. The object under layer 1
at both sites should be a piece of mail.
Logical Connections

After following the above two principles, we can think about logical connection between each
layer as shown in below figure. This means that we have layer-to-layer communication. Maria
and Ann can think that there is a logical (imaginary) connection at each layer through which
they can send the object created from that layer. We will see that the concept of logical
connection will help us better understand the task of layering. We encounter in data
communication and networking.
REFERENCE MODELS
OSI reference model

developed by the International Standards Organization (ISO)

OSI means Open Systems Interconnection

It is rarely used today, while it is actually quite general and still valid, and the features discussed at each layer are
still very important.

OSI model itself is not anetwork architecture because it does not specify the exact services
and protocols to be used in each layer.

TCP/IP reference model.

developed byARPANET

Used to construct the Internet today

However, the model itself is not of much use

OSI Reference model
The TCP/IP Reference Model
Reference Models
OSI Model
ISO is the organization. OSI is the model
Interaction between layers in the OSI model
Layer and interface
An exchange using the OSI model
Encapsulation with header and possibly trailer
The Physical Layer
The physical layer is concerned with transmitting raw bits over acommunication channel.

Typical questions here are how many volts should be used to represent a 1 and how many
for a 0, how many nanoseconds a bit lasts, whether transmission may proceed
simultaneously in both directions, how the initial connection is established and how it is
torn down when both sides are finished, and how many pins the network connector has
and what each pin is used for.
Physical Layer: Duties
The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit stream over a physical
medium.
Representation of bits—To be transmitted, bits must be encoded into signals, electrical or
optical. The physical layer defines the type of encoding.
Data rate—It defines the transmission rate (number of bits sent per second).
Line configuration—The physical layer is concerned with the connection of devices to the
media (point-to-point or multipoint configuration).
Physical topology—It defines how devices are connected (mesh, star, ring, bus or hybrid) to
make a network.
Transmission mode—The physical layer also defines the direction of transmission between
two devices: simplex, half-duplex, or full-duplex
The Data Link Layer
The main task of the data link layer is to transform a raw transmission facility into a line that
appears free of undetected transmission errors to the network layer.

having the sender break up the input data into data frames and transmit the frames
sequentially

The data link layer is responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next

Transform the physical layer to a reliable (error-free) link

 Data Link Layer: Duties

The data link layer transforms a raw transmission facility to a reliable link.
Framing—The data link layer divides the stream of bits received into manageable data units
called frames.
Physical addressing—The data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender
and/or receiver of the frame.
Flow control—If the receiving rate is less than the transmission rate, the data link layer
imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
Error control—The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by adding a trailer to
detect and retransmit damaged/lost frames and to recognize duplicate frames.
Access control—When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data link layer
protocols determines which device has control over the link at any given time.
The Network Layer
The network layercontrols the operation of the subnet (routing).
Congestion control, QOS (quality of service)
The network layer is responsible for the delivery of packets from the source host to the
destination host
The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination delivery of a data unit called
packet.
Logical addressing—The packet is identified across the network using the logical addressing
system provided by network layer and is used to identify the end systems.
Routing—The connecting devices (routers or switches) prepare routing table to send packets
to their destination.
Network Layer: Duties
• Logical addressing and routing
The TransportLayer
The transport layer is responsible for delivery of a message from one process to
another

The basic function of the transport layer is to accept data from above, split it up into smaller units
if need be, pass these to the network layer, and ensure that the pieces all arrive correctly at the other
end.

The transport layer is atrue end-to-end layer,allthe way from the source to the destination.

layers 1 through 3 are chained, and layers 4 through 7 are end-to-end,

Transport Layer: Duties
The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process delivery of the entire message.
Service-point addressing—It includes a service-point address or port address so that a
process from one computer communicates to a specific process on the other computer.
Segmentation and reassembly—A message is divided into transmittable segments, each
containing a sequence number. These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble
the message correctly at the destination and to identify/replace packets that were lost.
Connection control—The transport layer can be either connectionless or
connection oriented.
Flow control—The flow control at this layer is performed end to end.
Error control—The error control at this layer is performed process-to-process.
Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
Reliable Process-to-Process Delivery of a Message
Session Layer
The session layer is the network dialog controller. It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes
the interaction among communicating systems.
• Session layer is responsible for dialog control and synchronization
Dialog control—It allows two systems to enter into a dialog and communication between
two processes to take place in either half-duplex / full-duplex mode.
Synchronization—The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data. For example, when checkpoints are inserted for
every 100 pages and if a crash happens during transmission of page 523, then only pages
501 to 523 need to be present.
Binding—binds together the different streams that are part of a single application. For
example, audio and video stream are combined in a teleconferencing application.
Presentation Layer
The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and semantics of the information exchanged between
peers.
Presentation layer is responsible for translation, compression, and encryption
Translation—Because different computers use different encoding systems, the presentation layer is
responsible for interoperability between these encoding methods.
Encryption—To carry sensitive information, a system ensures privacy by encrypting the message before
sending and decrypting at the receiver end.
Compression—Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the information. It is
particularly important in multimedia transmission
Application Layer
The application layer enables the user, whether human or software, to access the network. It provides user
interface and support for services such as electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared database
management and several types of distributed information services.
Network virtual terminal—A network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical terminal, and it
allows a user to log on to a remote host.
File transfer, access, and management—This application allows a user to access/retrieve files in a
remote host, and to manage or control files in a remote computer locally.
Mail services—This application provides the basis for e-mail forwarding and storage.
Directory services—This application provides distributed database sources and access for global
information about various objects and services.
Summary of Layers
TCP/IP and OSI Model
TCP/IP Protocol Suite

• Host-to-network : Physical and data link layer

– No specific protocol
• Network layer
– IP(Internet Protocol), ARP(Address Resolution Protocol), RARP(Reverse ARP),
ICMP(Internet Control Message Protocol), IGMP(Internet Group Message Protocol)
• Transport layer
– TCP(Transmission Control Protocol), UDP(User Datagram Protocl), SCTP(Stream Control
Transmission Protocol),
• Application Layer
– Combined session, presentation, and application layers
Addressing:
Four levels of addresses in TCP/IP protocols
• Physical (link), logical (IP, network), port, and specific addresses
Relationship of Layers and Addresses
Physical Address
A node with physical address 10 sends a frame to a node with physical address 87. The two
nodes are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the figure shows, the computer with
physical address 10 is the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is the receiver.

07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
Logical (IP) Address

The physical addresses will change from hop to hop, but the logical addresses usually
remain the same
Port Address
The physical addresses change from host to host, but the logical and port addresses usually
remain the same
Specific Address
Some application have user-friendly addresses that are designed for that specific address
• Example 1: e-mail address: [email protected]
– Defines the recipient of an e-mail
• Example 2: URL (Universal Resource Locator, now it is renamed as Uniform Resource
Locator) : www.nitj.ac.in
– Used to find a document on the WWW
Comparison of the OSI and TCP/IP ReferenceModels

Similarities
Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols.
Both of them have transport layer to provide an end-to-end, network-independent transport
service
Differences
In OSI, a layer's service definition tells what the layer does, and a layer's interface tells the
processes above it how to access it,without explaining how the layers works inside.
The TCP/IP model did not clearly distinguish between service, interface of the layers.
As a consequence, the protocols in the OSI model are better hidden than in the TCP/IP model
and can
be replaced relatively easily as the technology changes.
OSI model strives to describe the general model of network protocols, while TCP/IP model is
specific as it is defined after the real implementations. So TCP/IP model is not useful to describe
other protocols.
The hybrid reference model to be used in this book.
EXAMPLE NETWORKS — THE INTERNET 1

(a) Structure of the telephone system.

(b) Baran's proposed distributed switching system.
EXAMPLE NETWORKS — — THE INTERNET 2

The original ARPANET design (IMP means Interface Message Processors)

EXAMPLE NETWORKS — — THE INTERNET 3

The NSFNET backbone in 1988

EXAMPLE NETWORKS — — THE INTERNET 4

Architecture of the Internet today

NETWORK STANDARDIZATION

The IEEE 802 series standards.

The important ones are marked
with *. The ones marked with ↓
are hibernating. The one marked
with t gave up and disbanded itself.
METRIC UNITS

Take care of “B” and “b”,“B” means byte, while “b” stands bit.
E.g.,1 KB/s = 8 Kb/s.B/s = Bps, b/s = bps.

1K = 210 ≠ 103 ≈ 1,000

1K = 210; 1M = 220; 1G = 230 …
 The physical layer
The purpose of the physical layer is to transport a raw bit stream from one machine to another.
Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission.
Transmission Media:
Media are grouped into guided media and unguided media.
Guided media means waves are guided along solid medium.
Ex: copper wire, fiber optics.
Unguided media is a media doesn't use any physical connectors between the two devices
communicating.
Usually the transmission is send through the atmosphere.
Ex: radio waves, micro waves, Infrared waves
The physical layer and transmission Medium
Classes of transmission media
 Guided Transmission Data

• Magnetic Media

• Twisted Pair
• Coaxial Cable
• Fiber Optics
Magnetic Media

• One of the common way to transport data from one computer to another is to write them
on to magnetic tape or removable media (DVD) physically transport the tape or DVD to
the destination machine and read them.
• The tape densities are increasing.
• It is not suitable in applications, where on-line connection is needed
Twisted Pair
• Oldest transmission media
• A twisted pair consists of two insulated copper wires typically about 1mm thick. The wires
are twisted together in a helical form.
• Twisting reduces interference (two parallel wires constitute a simple antenna; a twisted pair
does not.)
• Cheap medium
• Commonly used for communications within buildings and in telephone networks
• For longer distance repeaters are needed.
• Twisted pairs can be used for transmitting either analog or digital signals.
• Produced in unshielded (UTP) and shielded (STP) forms, and in different performance
categories.
• Cables may hold hundreds of pairs. Neighbor pairs typically have different twist lengths to
reduce crosstalk.
• Category 5 has more twists per centimeter.
Twisted Pair

(a) Category 3 UTP.

(b) Category 5 UTP.
Advantages of Twisted pair cable:
•Installation is easy
•Lightweight cable
•High speed
•Can carry both analog and digital data
•Cheaper than other transmission media
•If some part of twisted pair cable is damaged, it does not affect the entire network
Disadvantages of Twisted pair cable:
•Poor security
•Not durable, easy to break
•Attenuation is high
•Supports only lower bandwidth.
Applications of Twisted Pair Cables:
•In telephone lines.
•Local area networks such as small office and data centres.

Types of twisted pair cable

There are two types of twisted pair cables:
1.Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
2.Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
Unshielded Twisted-pair cable
Unshielded twisted pair cable is widely used in telecommunications. Unshielded Twisted pair (UTP)
cable is categorized as follows:
Category 1 UTP: Mostly used in telephone lines as it supports only low-speed data.
Category 2 UTP: It supports upto 4Mbps.
Category 3 UTP: It supports upto 16Mbps.
Category 4 UTP: It supports upto 20Mbps. It can also be used for long-distance communications
Category 5 UTP: It supports upto 200Mbps.
Advantages of Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
1.It can supports high data speed, which can be used in high speed LAN implementation.
2.Very easy to setup and install
3.It is flexible and cheap option for physical transmission media
Disadvantages of Unshielded Twisted-Pair Cable
1.Bandwidth is limited.
2.Noise reduction is not possible
3.Not ideal for longer distance communications due to the attenuation .
Shielded Twisted-pair cable
Shielded twisted pair cable contains the metal foil surrounding the twisted copper wires to
avoid external interference.
Advantages of Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
1.Better performance than unshielded twisted pair cable.
2.Installation is easy.
3.Supports higher bandwidth and high speed because it’s shielded.
Disadvantages of Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable
1.Expensive. It is more expensive than Unshielded twisted pair cable.
2.Difficult to manufacture and heavy weight.
UTP and STP cables
 Coaxial Cable
Pair of conductors separated by insulation
• It has better shielding than twisted pair
• Offers longer distances and better speeds than twisted pair, due to better shielding.
• Used for cable TV and local-area networks. Had been widely used in telephone systems,
but optical fiber is now assuming this task.
• Baseband Coaxial Cable 50-ohm cable, commonly used for digital transmission.
• Broadband Coaxial Cable 75-ohm cable, commonly used for analog transmission.
• A coaxial cable consists of a stiff copper wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating
material. The insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often as a closely woven braided
mesh. The outer conductor is covered in a protective plastic sheath.
• Good combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise immunity.
• It is widely used for cable television and metropolitan networks.
Coaxial cable
Advantages Of Coaxial cable:
1.High speed data transmission.
2.Better noise reduction compared to twisted pair cable.
3.High bandwidth.
Disadvantages Of Coaxial cable:
1.It is more expensive than twisted pair cable.
2.The whole network consists of a a single cable so any fault can cause the failure of entire
network.
Categories of coaxial cables
 Fiber Optics
Optical Fiber
• Three key components: light source, transmission system, and a detector
• The detector generates an electric pulse when hit by light
• 1-a pulse of light; 0-missing pulse of light.
• optical rays travel in ultra-thin fiber of glass
• By attaching a light source to one end of an optical fiber and a detector to the other, we
have a unidirectional data transmission system
• accepts an electrical signal converts to light at sending side transmits light pulses and then
reconverts the light pulses to an electrical signal at the receiving end.
• A light ray incident at or above the critical angle is trapped inside the fiber.
Bending of light ray
Optical fiber
 Fiber optic cable
• Fiber optic cables are similar to coax, except without the braid.
• At the center is the glass core through which the light propagates.
• Multimode fiber, the core is typically 50 microns
• Single mode fiber, the core is 8 to 10 microns.
• The core is surrounded by a glass cladding, to keep all the light in the core.
• Next comes a thin plastic jacket to protect the cladding.
• Fibers are typically grouped in bundles, protected by an outer sheath.
• Fibers can be connected in three different ways.
1. plugged in to fiber Sockets.
2. Mechanical splices: clamp the two ends of fiber
3. fusion splice: two pieces of fiber can be fused(melted) to form a solid connection
 Fiber optic cable contd…

Two kinds of light sources are typically used to do the signaling. Electrical signals are
converted into light.
• LED ( Light Emitting Diode)
• semiconductor lasers Light Detector
• Photo diode: it gives an electrical pulse when struck by light.
Fiber optics can be used for LANs as well as for long transmission.
Two types of interfaces are used.
1) passive interface 2) active interface
Fiber Cables

(a) Side view of a single fiber.

(b) End view of a sheath with three fibers
 Fiber Optics contd..
• Many different rays will be bouncing internally around at different angles. Each ray is said
to have a different mode, so a fiber having this property is called a multimode fiber.
• If the fiber’s diameter is reduced to a few wavelengths of light, the light can propagate only
in a straight line, without bouncing, this property is called a single mode fiber.
• Single mode fiber are more expensive but are widely used for longer distances. Transmit
data at 50 Gbps for 100Km without amplification.
Advantages of fiber optic cable:
1.High bandwidth: The fiber optic cable supports high bandwidth compared to the copper
cables. Thus, it transfers more data compared to the copper cables.
2.High speed: Since the data is transmitted in form of light, the transmission speed is very
high.
3.Longer range: unlike copper wires cable, the fiber optic cable can be used for larger
distance data transmission.
4.Reliable: It is more reliable than copper cables as the core is protected against the
temperature and electromagnetic disturbances.
5.Durable
6.Light weight
Propagation modes
Modes
Fiber Optic Networks

A fiber optic ring with active repeaters.

 Comparison between Fiber Optics and Copper Wire
Fiber optic
1) It can handle higher bandwidth than copper
2) Due to low attenuation repeaters are needed only about every 50 km long line, whereas copper wire
every 5 km
3) Cost saving as less repeaters are needed
4) Not being affected by electromagnetic interference or power failures. It is not affected by corrosive
chemicals
5) Fibers do not leak light and are quite difficult to tap, excellent security against potentially wire tappers
6) Thin and light weight
7) Lower installation cost
8) Few skilled engineers having fiber technology are available
9) Fibers can be damaged easily by being bent too much.
10) Two way communication requires two fibers
11) Fiber interfaces are costly
12) Long distance fiber is good choice
Unguided Media
Unguided media does not use physical medium to transmit the data from source to
destination. We already know that the Guided media uses physical medium such as cables
and wires to transfer the data from source to destination. However unlike guided media, the
Unguide media uses air as a transmission medium to transfer the data. Thus, it is
called wireless transmission media.
The unguided media uses an antenna for transmitting and receiving the data in form
of electromagnetic waves.
Why we need Unguided media?
There are certain areas where it is very difficult or not possible to install the cables and wires
such as hill areas, in these areas wireless data transfer is very much required.
 Wireless Transmission
• The Electromagnetic Spectrum
• Radio Transmission
• Microwave Transmission
• Infrared and Millimeter Waves
• Lightwave Transmission
Wireless transmission waves
 Wireless transmission
1. Radio Transmission
• Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long advances, and can penetrate buildings
easily, so they are widely used for communication.
• Radio waves are omnidirectional, meaning that they travel in all directions from the source.
• At low frequencies, radio waves power falls off with distance from the source
• In the VLF,LF and MF bands, radio waves follow the ground.
• In the HF and VHF bands, the ground waves tend to be absorbed by the earth. The waves
reach the ionosphere, a layer of charged particles circling the earth at a height of 100 to 500
km, are refracted by it and sent back to earth.
• The military also communicate in the HF and VHF bands.
Advantages of Radio Transmission:
1.Radio waves are mainly used for Wide Area Networks (WAN) for example: Mobile
networks.
2.Suitable for longer distance communications.
3.Signals can penetrate walls.
4.Higher data transmission rate compared to other transmission mediums.
Disadvantages of Radio Transmission:
1.Waves are omnidirectional so faces interference from other signals of same frequency
so disturbance can be there.
2.Not possible to isolate the communication inside the building.
Propagation methods
Bands
 Radio Transmission

(a) In the VLF, LF, and MF bands, radio waves follow the curvature of the earth.
(b) In the HF band, they bounce off the ionosphere.
 Wireless transmission
• Radio waves are used for multicast communications, such as radio and television, and
paging systems.
• Microwaves are used for uni-cast communication such as cellular telephones, satellite
networks and wireless LANs.
• Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed area using line-of
sight propagation.
2. Microwave transmission
In microwave transmission, the range of frequency of electromagnetic waves lies somewhere between 1-
300GHz. Microwave transmission is of two types:
•Terrestrial Type Microwave Transmission
•Satellite Type Microwave Transmission
Terrestrial Type Microwave Transmission
In this type of microwave transmission, both the sender and receiver antennas are in direct sight with
each other.
1.Frequency range: The frequency range of terrestrial microwave ranges from 4 to 6GHz.
2.Bandwidth: It supports the bandwidth from 1 to 10 Mbps.
3.Cost: If used in short distance communication, the implementation cost is cheap as we do not need
relay towers. However when terrestrial type microwave transmission is used for long distances, the
implementation cost goes high as we need relay towers to extend the signals.
4.Attenuation: Attenuation means loss of signal. In terrestrial type microwave transmission, attenuation
mainly depends on frequency and signal strength.
5.Implementation: Implementation is difficult as the tower needs to be line of sight and the signal
requirement makes it even more difficult to implement.
Advantages of Terrestrial type microwave transmission:
1.It is cheaper than cable transmission
2.Possible to implement in areas where cable transmission is difficult to implement such as
hill areas.
Disadvantages of Terrestrial type microwave transmission:
1.Not secure, susceptible to eavesdropping.
2.Weather condition can affect the transmission.
3.Limited bandwidth.
Satellite type microwave transmission
This type of communication uses the satellite antenna for communication. The sender antenna
sends the signal to the satellite antenna which is revolving around the earth at a known height.
The satellite antenna then amplifies the received signal and sends it to the receiver antenna.
Advantages of Satellite type transmission:
1.The transmission can be done to the longer distances.
2.Unlike terrestrial transmission where the implementation cost goes higher based on the
transmission distance, the satellite communication is unaffected by the distance of the data
transmission.
3.Easy to install compared to terrestrial type.
Disadvantages of Satellite type transmission:
1.Installation of satellite is extremely tough.
2.Installation cost is high and development requires more time.
3. Infrared Transmission
1.Infrared waves are highest frequency waves, frequency ranges from 300GHz to 400 THz.
2.Suitable for short distance communication.
3.Bandwidth is high so data transmit rate is high compared to other mediums.
4.These waves cannot penetrate walls, thus they are ideal for isolated communications.
Advantages of Infrared Transmission:
1.Secure
2.High speed
3.High frequency signals
4.High data transfer rate
5.low interference
Disadvantages of Infrared Transmission:
1.Sun rays interfere with the infrared rays so not ideal for outdoor communication.
2.Suitable for short distance communication only.
3.Cannot penetrate walls so difficult to establish a communication between two different rooms.
Multiplexing in Computer Network
Multiplexing is a technique used to combine multiple signals and transmit the combined
signal over a transmission medium.
Multiplexer and Demultiplexer
Multiplexer (MUX): Multiplexer is a combinational circuit that has 2n input signal lines and
a single output line. For example 4 X 1 multiplexer has 4 input data lines and 1 output line
and 8 X 1 multiplexer has 8 input data lines and 1 output line. Multiplexer is used for
multiplexing technique as it is combining multiple signals and producing single output
signal.
Demultiplexer (DEMUX): Demultiplexer does exactly opposite of Multiplexing, it receives
a single input signal and generates 2n output signals. Multiplexer is used at the source to
combine the multiple input signals while Demultiplexer is used at the receiving side to
generate the multiple signals from the received signal. For example 1 X 4 Demultiplexer is
used to generate 4 output signals from a single signal.
Why we use multiplexing?
1.Multiplexing reduces the number of physical connections or wireless channels to transmit
the multiple signals as it combines the signals and send it over a single transmission medium.
2.Reduces the cost of transmission services.
3.Bandwidth is utilized in effective manner.
Real world example of multiplexing are: Cable tv receives all the channels using a single
cable only because of multiplexing only.

Types of Multiplexing Techniques

Multiplexing techniques are divided in three major categories:
1.Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
2.Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM)
3.Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) – It is further divided in two types: Synchronous
TDM and Asynchronous TDM.
Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
In frequency division multiplexing technique, the total bandwidth of transmission medium is
divided into non overlapping frequency ranges to carry separate signals. This technique
allows a single transmission medium to carry multiple signals.

Advantages of Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)

1.It doesn’t require synchronization between sender and receiver.
2.It is simple, easy to implement and less expensive technique.
3.FDM is a reliable system compared to other multiplexing systems.
4.This technique is mainly used for analog signals.
5.This technique allows large number of signals to be transmitted simultaneously over a
single transmission medium.
Disadvantages of Frequency division multiplexing (FDM)
1.FDM suffers from interference caused by electromagnetic signals, generally referred as
cross talk.
2.FDM provides less throughput (throughput is the rate of successful message delivery over
a communication channel)
3.FDM doesn’t utilize the full bandwidth of the transmission medium.
4.FDM requires significantly large number of modulator and filter to transmit multiple
signals.
5.Unlike TDM, FDM needs a carrier signal to transmit multiple signals.
Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
Wavelength division multiplexing, commonly referred a WDM is mainly used for fiber optic
communications. In this technology, multiple signals are transmitted over a single fiber optic
cable by using different wavelengths of laser light.
Advantages of Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
1.Easy to implement.
2.full duplex transmission is possible in WDM.
3.Provides better security of data.
4.WDM provides higher bandiwidth.
Disadvantages of Wavelength Division Multiplexing (WDM)
1.Transmitted signals cannot be very close to each other.
2.WDM is more expensive compared to FDM.
3.It is difficulty to fine tune wavelength in WDM technique.
Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)
Unlike frequency division multiplexing where signals are transmitted over a different
frequency ranges at the same time, In TDM multiple signals are transmitted at the
same frequency but different time intervals. In TDM signals appear on the line only a
fraction of time in an alternating pattern.
Types of time division multiplexing
1.Synchronous TDM
2.Asynchronous TDM
Synchronous TDM
1.In synchronous TDM, a time slot is assigned to each device irrespective of whether
it is sending signal or not.
2.If the connected device is not sending any signal, the time slot assigned to that
device will remain empty and cannot be re-assigned to the other devices on the
network.
3.In synchronous TDM, signals are sent in form of frames.
Drawbacks of synchronous TDM:
The full capacity of the transmission medium is not utilized as the time slot remains empty
in case there is no signals from the assigned devices.
Asynchronous TDM
1.In Asynchronous TDM, the time slots are not preassigned. Time slots are assigned to
only those devices which have data to be sent.
2.The time slots are dynamically assigned to the devices.
3.Unlike synchronous TDM, the Asynchronous TDM technique fully utilized the capacity
of transmission medium.
4.Since slots are not preassigned, to identify the source of the data, an address part is
associated with the slots.
 Thank you
The content in this material are from the textbooks and reference books given
in the syllabus.