FORENSIC SCIENCE.

OBJECTIVES.

1.Describe historical background of forensic science

2.Define terminologies used in forensic science

3.Describe he principles of forensic science, 

4.Discuss the applications of forensic science 

5.Explain the composition of crime scene investigations

INTRODUCTION TO FORENSCIC SCIENCE.

 Forensic science, also known as criminalistics, is the application of Science to criminal

and civil laws, mainly on the criminal side during criminal investigation, as governed by

the legal standards of admissible evidence and criminal procedure.

 Forensic scientists collect, preserve, and analyze scientific evidence during the course of

an investigation.

 While some forensic scientists travel to the scene of the crime to collect the evidence

themselves, others occupy a laboratory role, performing analysis on objects brought to

them by other individuals.

Historical Back Ground of Forensic Science.

 Mathieu Orfila (1787 – 1853): Considered as the Father of Toxicology.

 Alphonse Bertillon (1853 – 1914): Established the first scientific system of personal

identification by a series of bodily measurements. It was later replaced by fingerprints in

the early 1900s.

 Francis Galton (1833 – 1911): First to study fingerprints and classify them for filing.

 Leone Lattes (1887 – 1954): Discovered that blood can be categorized into four groups.

 Calvin Goddard (1891 – 1955): Determined the comparison of bullets in guns –

Ballistics.

 Albert S. Osborn (1858 – 1946): Developed principles of document examination.

 Walter C. McCrone (1916 – 2002): Developed advances in microscopic techniques to

solve crimes and analyze evidence.

 Hans Gross (1847 – 1915): Studied and developed principles of criminal investigation.

 Edmond Locard (1877 – 1966): Had a background in medicine and law, and was the first

one to use scientific methods for criminal investigation.

 To that end, Edmond Locard, a professor at the University of Lyons, set up the first

police crime laboratory in France in 1910. For his pioneering work in forensic

criminology, Locard became known as "the Sherlock Holmes of France."

 August Vollmer, chief of the Los Angeles Police, established the first American police

crime laboratory in 1924. When the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)) was first

founded in 1908, it didn't have its own forensic crime laboratory -- that wasn't set up until

1932.

 By the close of the 20th century, forensic scientists had a wealth of high-tech tools at

their disposal for analyzing evidence from polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for DNA

analysis, to digital fingerprinting techniques with component search capabilities.

  In Kenya ,25/01/2019- Director of Criminal Investigations George Kinoti says

Biological, Chemistry, Toxicological and DNA laboratories will be equipped.

Applications of Forensic Science

 Securing and recording the scene of the crime.

 Collection and preservation of potential pieces of evidence.

 Establishing the identity of the criminal and victim.

 Production of valid expert testimony to prove a crime has taken place.

Duties of a Forensic Laboratory Technologist.

 Analyze crime scenes to determine what evidence should be collected and how

 Take photographs of the crime scene and evidence

 Make sketches of the crime scene

 Record observations and findings, such as the location and position of evidence

 Collect evidence, including weapons, fingerprints, and bodily fluids

 Catalog and preserve evidence for transfer to crime labs

 Reconstruct crime scenes

Branches of Forensic Science

Toxiclogy

 Toxicology deals with the detection of toxic substances and drugs in body tissues and

fluids. 
  The toxicologist analyzes biological fluids and tissues from victims who are thought to

have been poisoned accidentally or purposely.

 The toxicologist, as distinct from the forensic chemist, primarily handles biological

materials and can detect poisons in blood, urine, spinal fluid, gastric contents, bile, and

tissues.

Anthrolopology

 Forensic anthropologists are experts in the identification of bones and skeletal remains.

Their studies provide information about sex, race, age, and time of death. 

 They may also lend support to investigations concerning living cases such as a mix-up of

children in a hospital nursery or skeletal identification of persons involved in immigration

problems. 

 The forensic anthropologist may be extremely helpful in mass disasters with considerable

skeletal remains or in cases of mass burials. 

 A recent application of this expertise was reconstructing the face of a skeletonized head.

Odontology

 The odontologist, or dentist, provides information through examination of teeth and

dental prostheses. Victims of a disaster or homicide may be identified by a comparison of

their dental charts and X-rays to the dental evidence from the victims. 

 Bitemarks in apples, cheese, chewing gum, and other media, as well as on a victim’s

body, may be studied by these scientists. 

 This form of expertise may also be used in living cases, as the examination of teeth is

helpful where there is a possibility of a hospital mix-up of children, as such examinations

may depend upon the presence on inherited characteristics in teeth.

Biology

 The examination of plant life, insects, soil, trees, dirt, seeds, and pollen, as well as blood

analysis, can be a means of developing new resources to a forensic investigation

Questioned Documents

 Questioned document (QD) examinations were reported as far back as Roman times,

when cases of forged documents were described. 

 The modern use of typewriters and computer printers has added significantly to the

activities of questioned document examiners. 

 The QD examiner’s work includes the examination of handwriting, ink, paper, typewriter

or printer impressions, or any other form of writing or printing that may have been used

in a case. 

 This expertise includes detection of counterfeiting and various types of fraud involving

government paper, checks, forms, money, and credit cards or the possible falsification of

entries in a ship’s log. 

 The investigation of computer fraud may also examine the validity of printout material 

Forensic  psychology

 It is the intersection between psychology and the justice system. It involves

understanding criminal law in the relevant jurisdictions in order to be able to interact

appropriately with judges, attorneys and other legal professionals.

 It is concerned with collecting, examining, and presenting evidence to help facilitate a

legal decision. Within the legal system, forensic psychology provides a means for being

able to enforce the law while taking human behavior into consideration. 
  A forensic psychologist may be called upon to differentiate between criminal behavior

and human behavior that may be caused by a psychological imbalance

Physics

 Types of evidences examined. The application of physics for purposes of civil or criminal

law.

 Indirectly, physics has contributed to forensic science via the invention of the

microscope, the electron microscope, the mass spectrometer, and optical spectrometers;

but directly, its role in forensic science has been minimal. 

 Forensic physics has traditionally involved the measurement of density (soil and glass

examination), index of refraction, and birefringence (fiber analysis, glass examination).  

Ballistics

 Ballistics is the science of mechanics that deals with the flight, behavior, and effects

of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs, rockets, or the like; the science or art of

designing and accelerating projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.

Principles of Forenscic Science

1. Law of individuality

2. Principle of exchange

3. Law of progressive change

4. Principle of comparison

5. Principle of analysis

6. Law of probability

7. Principle of presentation

8. Principle of recovery
Law of individuality

 Every object, natural or man-made, has an individuality which is not duplicated in any

other object. This principle, at first sight appears to be contrary to common beliefs and

observations.

 The grains of sand or common salt , seeds of plants or twins look exactly alike. Likewise,

man-made objects: coins of the same denomination made in the same mint, currency

notes printed with the same printing blocks one after the other (excluding serial number)

and typewriters of the same make, model and batch appear to be indistinguishable. Yet

the individuality is always there. It is due to small flaws in the materials, in the

arrangement of the crystals, imperfect stamping or due to inclusions of some extraneous

matter. The individuality has been verified in certain fields. 

 The law of individuality is of fundamental importance in forensic science. Anything and

everything involved in a crime, has an individuality. If the sane is established , it connects

the crime and the criminal.

Principle of exchange

 Contact exchanges traces is the principle of exchange. It was first enunciated by the

French scientist, Edmond Locard.

 According to the principal, when a criminal or his instruments of crime come in contact

with the victim or the objects surrounding him, they leave traces. Likewise, the criminal

or his instruments pick up traces from the same contact. Thus, a mutual exchange of

traces like takes place between the criminal, the victim and the objects involved in the

crime If these traces are identified to the original source, viz., the criminal or his

instrument (or vice versa), they establish the contact and pin the crime on to the criminal.
 The principal of exchange is aptly demonstrated in hit and run cases and in offences

against person.

 If the investigating officer is able to establish the points of contact , he is likely to gather

physical clues:

 If a criminal enters the premises through a ventilator , he leaves his foot prints in dust on

the sill.

 If he breaks a window or a door, the jimmy leaves its marks on the wooden frame.

Law of progressive change

Everything changes with the passage of time. The rate of change varies tremendously with

different objects. 

1. The criminal undergoes rapid changes. If he is not apprehended in time, he becomes

unrecognizable except perhaps through his fingerprints, bone fractures or other

characteristics of  permanent nature which are not always available.

2. The scene of occurrence undergoes rapid changes. The weather, the vegetable growth,

and the living beings (especially human-beings) make extensive changes in

comparatively short periods. Longer the delay in examining the scene, greater will be the

changes. After some time ,the scene may become unrecognizable.

3. The objects involved in crime change gradually, the firearm barrels loosen , metal objects

rust, the shoes suffer additional wear and tear and the tools acquire new surface patterns.

In course of time the objects may loose all practical identity vis-à-vis a particular crime. 

    The principle, therefore, demands prompt action in all aspects of criminal investigation.

Principle of comparison
Only the like can be compared is the principle of comparison. It emphasizes the necessity of

providing like samples and specimens for comparison with the questioned items:

1. In a murder case, a bullet is recovered from the deceased. The expert opines that the

bullet has been fired from a firearm firing high velocity projectiles like a service rifle. It

is futile to send shotguns, pistols or revolvers as the possible suspect firearm.

2. A bunch of hair is recovered from the hands of a deceased. The expert opines that the

hair  belong to a Negroid person. Hair from persons of white races for comparison will

not be of any use.

3. The questioned writing is found to have been writing with a ball pen. To send fountain

pen as a likely instrument of writing is futile.

Principle of analysis

 Improper sampling and contamination render the best analysis useless. The principle

emphasizes the necessity of correct sampling and correct packing for effective use of

experts.

    For example:-

    A small amount of dust is recovered from a small sticky patch of the shoe of a culprit. The

investigating officer collects about two kilograms of soil from the scene packs it in tin and sends

it as a control sample. The results of comparison are inconclusive. Why?

Law of probability
  All identifications, definite or indefinite, are made, consciously or unconsciously, on the

basis of probability. 

 Probability is the mathematical concept. 

 It determines the chances of occurrence of a particular event in a particular way out of a

number of ways in which the event can take place or fail to take place with equal facility.

    If P= represents probability 

    Ns = the number of ways in which the event can successfully occur (with equal facility) and 

    Nf = the number of ways in which it can fail(with equal facility), 

    Then the probability of success is given by the formula:

    P= Ns / Ns+ N2.

Principle of presentation

 Working within an ethical framework, a forensic scientist should fully disclose and

present impartial evidence which is readily understandable and neither overstated nor

understated. 

 Full disclosure of all facts, assumptions, data, conclusions and interpretations should be

made.

 Lab report: Complete & retained.

 He or she should not be an advocate for either side of the case at hand; it is, however, to

be expected that a forensic scientist will be an advocate for his or her opinion.

 However, the forensic scientist should be prepared to change an opinion whenever

background circumstances or assumptions change, or new information becomes

available.

Principle of recovery
  Do not harm (evidence)

 Nothing should be added, damaged or obliterated in the recovery process

 Particular attention should be paid to avoiding contamination, a concern that gains

increasing importance with each advance in analytical sensitivity.

 Where there is risk of losing or damaging evidence, appropriate experts should be called

in. 

 Exhibit items should be safely and securely packaged as soon as possible.

 If an object is portable, transfer to the lab for evidence recovery under controlled

conditions. 

 Do no harm to yourself! Crime scenes and recovered evidence may pose biological or

chemical hazards.

CRIME SCENE INVESTIGATION.

Principles of crime investigation.

The following are major principles and steps taken during crime scene investigation

 Identify Scene Dimensions

 Establish Security
 Create a Plan & Communicate
 Conduct Primary Survey
 Conduct Primary Survey
 Document and Process Scene
 Record and Preserve Evidence
  Conduct Secondary Survey
Identify Scene Dimensions
 Locate the focal point of the scene

 Establish a perimeter large enough to contain relevant evidence

 It’s better to establish a larger scene than needed

Establish Security

 Tape around the perimeter

 Depending on the number of people, consider security guards

Create a Plan & Communicate

 Determine the type of crime that occurred

 Identify any threats to evidence, such as weather

 Consider if additional resources are necessary

 Communicate with your team about how to proceed

Conduct Primary Survey

 Identify potential evidence

 Capture photographs and take good notes

Document and Process Scene

 Using the plan from step three, begin processing the scene

 Collect all evidence and keep detailed documentation

Conduct Secondary Survey

 Conduct another walkthrough to ensure everything has been processed and recorded

Record and Preserve Evidence

 Use an inventory log to account for all evidence

 Create thorough descriptions that match photographs taken at the scene

  Follow a clear chain of custody throughout the investigation

Composition of crime investigation.

Judicial officer

 A judicial officer is a person with the responsibilities and powers to facilitate, arbitrate,

preside over, and make decisions and directions in regard to the application of the law.

 Judicial officers are typically categorized as judges, magistrates, puisne judicial officers

such as justices of the peace or officers of courts of limited jurisdiction; and notaries

public and commissioners of oaths. 

 The powers of judicial officers vary and are usually limited to a certain jurisdiction.

Police

 Securing the scene

 Questioning

 Assisting in evidence collection

 Documenting

 Arresting/taking into custody

Medico legal expert

 Necessary to determine the cause of death.

Forensic Science laboratory

 Processing of the scene of crime, collection, handling, preservation, packaging of the

physical evidence.

 Sample collection
  Quick spot-test kits

 Scanning devices: UV, IR scanning devices

 Items: Gloves, Bags, cotton, cardboard boxes, labeling tools 

 Photography

Forensic Science expert

 Observe a problem or questioned evidence.

 Consider a hypothesis to know the way of crime.

 Examine, test and analyze those evidence.

 Determine the significance of the evidence.

 Formulate a theory based on evaluation of the significance of the evidence.

Ethics of forensic science

1. Accurately represent his/her education, training, experience, and areas of expertise.

2. Pursue professional competency through training, proficiency testing, certification, and?

presentation and publication of research findings.

3. Commit to continuous learning in the forensic disciplines and stay abreast of new

findings, equipment and techniques.

4. Promote validation and incorporation of new technologies, guarding against the use of

non-valid methods in casework and the misapplication of validated methods.

5. Avoid tampering, adulteration, loss, or unnecessary consumption of evidentiary

materials.

6. Avoid participation in any case where there are personal, financial, employment- related

or other conflicts of interest.

7. Conduct full, fair and unbiased examinations, leading to independent, impartial,and

objective opinions and conclusions.

8. Make and retain full, contemporaneous, clear and accurate written records of all

examinations and tests conducted and conclusions drawn, in sufficient detail to allow

meaningful review and assessment by an independent person competent in the field.

9. Base conclusions on generally-accepted procedures supported by sufficient data,

standards and controls, not on political pressure or other outside influence.

10. Do not render conclusions that are outside one’s expertise.

11. Prepare reports in unambiguous terms, clearly distinguishing data from interpretations

and opinions, and disclosing all known associated limitations that prevent invalid

inferences or mislead the judge or jury.

12. Do not alter reports or other records, or withhold information from reports for strategic or

tactical litigation advantage.

13. Present accurate and complete data in reports, oral and written presentations and

testimony based on good scientific practices and validated methods.

14. Communicate honestly and fully, once a report is issued, with all parties (investigators,

prosecutors, defense attorneys, and other expert witnesses), unless prohibited by law.

15. Document and notify management or quality assurance personnel of adverse events, such

as an unintended mistake or a breach of ethical, legal, scientific standards, or

questionable conduct.

16. Ensure reporting, through proper management channels, to all impacted scientific and

legal parties of any adverse event that affects a previously issued report or testimony.
Terminologies used in crime scene investigation.

 Alternate light source - Special lighting device that produces visible and invisible light at

various wavelengths to help investigators locate and visually enhance items of evidence

(e.g., fluids, fingerprints, clothing fibers).

 Associative evidence - any evidence that can link a person or an item to the scene of the

crime.

 Biological evidence - physical evidence such as bodily fluids that originated from a

human, plant or animal.

 Chain of custody - The process used to maintain and document the chronological history

of the evidence. Documents record the individual who collects the evidence and each

person or agency that subsequently takes custody of it. This chain of custody verifies that

the evidence being analyzed is the same evidence found at the scene and helps ensure

there was no opportunity for the evidence to be tampered with.

 Contamination - The unwanted transfer of material from another source to a placee of

physical evidence. The inadvertent touching of a weapon, thereby adding fingerprints to

it is an example of evidence contamination.

 Control sample - material of a known source that presumably was uncontaminated during

the commission of the crime.

 Cross-contamination - The unwanted transfer of material between two or more sources of

physical evidence. For example, improperly collecting biological evidence such as blood

could lead to one sample mixing with another sample and contaminating both.

 Elimination sample - material of a known source taken from a person who had lawful

access to the scene.

 First responders - The initial responding law enforcement officer(s) and/or other public

safety official(s) or service provider(s) arriving at the scene prior to the arrival of the

investigator(s) in charge.

 Fluorescent powders - Powder containing fluorescent chemicals that is applied to a

surface to reveal latent prints; used in conjunction with an alternate light source.

 Impression evidence - Objects or materials that have retained the characteristics of other

objects that have been physically pressed against them.

 Latent print - A fingerprint, palm print or footprint that is not readily visible under normal

lighting.

 Locard’s Exchange Principle - the theory that every person who enters or exits an area

will deposit or remove physical material from the scene.

 Other responders - Individuals who are involved in an aspect of the crime scene, such as

perimeter security, traffic control, media management, scene processing, and technical

support, as well as prosecutors, medical personnel,medical examiners, coroners, forensic

examiners, evidence technicians, and fire and rescue officers.

 Presumptive test - a test that is typically conducted at a crime scene that provides

investigators with basic information regarding the compound in question. Presumptive

tests can typically reveal the class of evidence, but are unable to confirm the specific

compounds of which it is comprised.

 Probative - possessing the potential to provide details that are valuable to an

investigation.
  Reconstructive evidence - reconstructive evidence allows investigators to gain an

understanding of the actions that took place at the scene; a broken window, a blood

spatter pattern, bullet paths and shoe prints.

 Reference sample - material from a verifiable/documented source which,when compared

with evidence of an unknown source, shows an association or linkage between an

offender, crime scene, and/or victim.

 Trace evidence - Physical evidence that results from the transfer of small quantities of

materials (e.g., hair, textile fibers, paint chips, glass fragments,gunshot residue particles).

 Transient evidence - Evidence which by its very nature or the conditions at the scene will

lose its evidentiary value if not preserved and protected (e.g.,blood in the rain).

 Unknown/questioned sample - evidence of unknown origin; these samples could be

found at a crime scene, transferred to an offender during commission of a crime, or

recovered from more than one crime scene.

HUMAN FORM AND FUNCTIONS.

Types of death ,cause, mechanism, and manner of death .

Type of death ;

 Clinical

 Biological death

Clinical Death:

 Stoppage of heart beat, pulse and breathing is called clinical death.

 Most organs (eye, kidney) remain alive after clinical death.

  These organs are used for transplantation.

Biological Death:

 The death caused by degeneration of tissues in brain and other part is called biological

death.

 Most organs become dead after biological death.

The cause of death.

 The cause of death is the disease or injury that produces the physiological disruption

inside the body resulting in death, for example, a gunshot wound to the chest.

The mechanism of death.

 The mechanism of death is the physiological derangement that results in the death.

 An example of a mechanism of death due to the gunshot wound described above is

exsanguination (extreme blood loss).

The manner of death.

 The manner of death is how the death came about.

 Manner of death can be classified in six ways:

1) Natural

2) Accident

3) Suicide

4) Homicide

5) Undetermined

6) Pending
  A natural death occurs as a result of aging, illness, or disease.

 An accidental death occurs when an injury or poisoning causes death, but it is

unintentional. In this case, there can be no evidence supporting the idea that the poisoning

or injury occurred with an intent to harm or cause death.

 A suicide results from an injury or poisoning occurring from a deliberate, self-inflicted

act committed to harm or cause death to oneself.

 A homicide occurs when death is caused by another person.

 Undetermined is used as a classification when the information pointing toward one

manner of death is no more compelling than any others.

 A pending death is one that is waiting on more evidence or analysis before the examiner

can determination.

These characteristics of deaths are helpful for various reasons.

 The families of the deceased will have peace of mind if they know exactly what caused

their loved one’s death.

 Insurance claims may not be accepted if the manner of death was a suicide.

 Many legal proceedings focus their attention to these characteristics during the trial and

prosecution of murderers.

 This information is necessary to compile statistics for monitoring health and crime in the

population.
  As you can see, characteristics of death are very important details to be aware of under

several different circumstances.

Post mortem changes.

Introduction.

 The body undergoes complex and intricate changes after death.

 These post mortem changes depend on a diverse range of variables. 

 Factors such as the ambient temperature, season, and geographical location at which the

body is found, the fat content of the body, sepsis/injuries, intoxication, presence of

clothes/insulation over the body, etc. determine the rate at which post-mortem changes

occur in a cadaver. 

 Understanding the post mortem changes is imperative to estimate the time since death

(TSD) or the post mortem interval (PMI). 

 Changes that occur to a body after death are a result of complex physicochemical and

environmental processes. 

 They are affected by factors within the cadaver and outside it. 

 These factors affect the onset and either increase the rate of post-mortem changes or

retard it. 

 Factors that hasten the rate of post mortem changes include hot and humid climate,

presence of body fat, open injuries on the body, sepsis or infection, and the location of

the cadaver in the open.

 Inadequately dressed persons, cold weather, and storage of the cadaver in a cold storage

unit retard the rate of the post mortem changes.

Classification of post mortem changes

1. Based on the order of their appearance, the post mortem changes classify as :

1. Immediate changes

 Loss of voluntary power

 Cessation of respiration and circulation

2. Early changes

 Pallor and loss of skin elasticity.

 Eyes changes (Tache noire).

 Primary flaccidity.

 Rigor mortis.

 Hypostatis

 Cooling of the body.

3.  Late changes.

 Putrefaction
 Adipocere
 Mummification
Primary flaccidity
Preservation Of the dead.

1. Preservation is defined as an action to keep something ‘safe from harm, destruction or

decomposition’,.
2. Conservation is defined as the process of ‘a careful preservation and protection of
something’, 
3. Embalmment is defined as the ‘treatment (of a dead body) with special chemicals so as
to protect from decay’. 

Preservation can be achieved through:

1. Natural means.
2. Artificial means.

Natural means of preservation

Freezing

 Use of dry ice (carbon dioxide ice)

This is the common, traditional technique for preservation at home. It gives perfect

results in 95% of the cases. Dry ice is applied on different parts of the body, which freeze

on contact (- 960C). The ice must be changed every 24 hours.

 Use of refrigeration equipment (refrigerated lockers, beds or technical ramps)

Refrigerated lockers are used in mortuaries and funerary chambers.

Beds and refrigerated ramps may be suggested if the body will remain in the home.

Dessication /exsiccation

 Desiccation is the state of extreme dryness, or the process of extreme drying. A

desiccant is a hygroscopic (attracts and holds water) substance that induces or sustains

such a state in its local vicinity in a moderately sealed container. Desiccation/exsiccation

can either by dry cold or by dry heat, and the nature of the soil.

Artificial means of preservation

Embalming
 This  is the art and science of preserving human or animal remains by treating them (in its
modern form with chemicals) to forestall decomposition . 
 The intention is usually to make the deceased suitable for public or private viewing as
part of the funeral ceremony, or keep them preserved for medical purposes in an
anatomical laboratory. 
 The goals of embalming are:
 Sanitization, 
 Presentation, 
 Preservation
 Restoration being an important additional factor in some instances.
Disposal of a dead body.

Considerations made before body disposal.

a) Give priority to the living over the dead.

b) Promote the identification and tagging of corpses.

c) Provide accurate information concerning the risks associated with corpses.

d) Do not promote mass cremation of bodies.

e) Do not support mass burial of unidentified bodies in large graves.

f) Conserve fuel and resources.

g) Respect the wishes and social customs of the families

Methods of human body disposal

Ground burial

 A burial is usually accomplished by excavating a pit or trench, placing the deceased and

objects in it, and covering it over. 

 Burial is often seen as indicating respect for the dead. 

 It has been used to prevent the odor of decay, to give family members closure and

prevent them from witnessing the decomposition of their loved ones.

 Today, most burials are presided over by a religious figure, and in many cultures they are

conducted with great respect. In some cultures, exactly how one is buried may make all

the difference

 Some reasons why people are buried:

1. Respect for the physical remains. If left lying on top of the ground, scavengers may

eat the corpse, considered disrespectful to the deceased in many (but not all) cultures.
 2. Burial can be seen as an attempt to bring closure to the deceased's family and friends.

3. Many cultures believe in an after life. Burial is sometimes believed to be a necessary

step for an individual to reach the afterlife.

4. Many religions prescribe a particular way to live, which includes customs relating to

disposal of the dead.

5. A decomposing body releases unpleasant gas related to decomposition. As such,

burial is seen as a means of preventing smells from expanding into open air.

Entombment

 Entombment is another form of disposing off a dead body. 

 It is the act of placing human remains in a structurally enclosed space, or burial chamber. 

 This differs from burial in that the body is not consigned directly to the earth, but rather is

kept within a specially designed sealed chamber. 

 There are many different forms of tombs, from mausoleums (specifically built for this

purpose), to elaborate (and often decorative) family crypts, to a simple cave with a sealed

entrance.

Cremation

 Cremation is also another form of disposing a dead body. 

 It is the process of reducing dead bodies to basic chemical compounds in the form of

gases and bone fragments. 

 This is most often performed in a crematorium, though some cultures, such as India, do

practice open-air cremation. 

  Hindus cremate their dead, believing that the burning of a dead body signifies the release

of the spirit and that the flames represent Brahma, the creator.

Compositing

 Composting turns organic matter into soil conditioner.

 For human corpses, it can be performed by placing the body in a mix of wood chips,

allowing thermophile microbes to decompose the body.

 In the United States, this method is only legal in Washington state.

 The first such composting facility, based Kent, Washington, accepted bodies in

December 2020.

Dissolution

 Dissolution involves the breaking down of the body by solvation, e.g. in acid or a

solution of lye, followed by disposal as liquid.

 A specific method is alkaline hydrolysis (also called Resomation).

 Advocates claim the process is more environmentally friendly than both cremation and

burial, due to Carbon dioxide emissions and embalming fluids respectively.

 On the other hand, many find the idea of being "poured down the drain" to be undignified
Burial at sea

 "Burial at sea" in past generations has meant the deliberate disposal of a corpse into the

ocean, wrapped and tied with weights to make sure it sinks.

 It has been a common practice in navies and seafaring nations; in the Church of England,

special forms of funeral service were added to the Book of Common Prayer to cover it.

 In today's parlance, "burial at sea" may also refer to the scattering of ashes in the ocean,

while "whole body burial at sea" refers to the entire uncremated body being placed in the

ocean at great depths.

 Laws vary by jurisdictions.

 The concept may also include ship burial, a form of burial at sea in which the corpse is

set adrift on a boat

Other uncommon methods of disposal.

1. Donation for study: This is most done for study or research purposes in medical schools’

donation to a medical school or similar after embalming and several years of study and

dissection the body is usually eventually cremated. 

2. Space burial 

3. In cases of war , genocide, , or natural disasters including disease epidemic, large groups

of people have been buried in mass graves or plaque pits.

4.  Dismemberment, in which the body is divided and different body parts are dealt with

separately.
 5. A body farm involves a similar method of disposal as an object of scientific study.

6. In some traditions, for example that practiced by the Spanish royal family, the soft tissues

are permitted to rot over a period of decades, after which the bones are entombed.

FORENSCIS SAMPLES

Identification of dead remains

 Forensic examination of human remains is crucial to establish the person’s identity, and

cause and manner of death. 

 This way they can have a proper burial, families can get answers, death certificates can

be issued and justice can be served.

 It is essential for identifying missing persons, disaster victims and casualties of war.

 When human remains are recovered, three primary scientific methods are traditionally

used to identify who they belong to:

1. Fingerprint analysis which looks at the skin patterns on the tips of fingers

2. Dental analysis which looks at the teeth and any dental work, such as crowns and

fillings

3. DNA analysis, which looks at DNA profiles recovered from soft or hard body tissues.

This information can then be compared to a database of fingerprint, dental or DNA records.

Purpose of forensic specimens

1. The objective of forensic evidence is to prove or exclude a physical connection between

individuals and objects or places.

 2.  Such evidence comprises a wide variety of substances or objects, the analysis of which

requires specific, often specialized scientific skills.

3. The close encounter of assailant, victim and crime scene may result in an interchange of

traces of evidence (Lockard’s principle). 

4. Biological traces (i.e. Hair, blood, semen, skin fragments) may be found on both the

victim and assailant; for instance, the victim’s blood could get onto the assailant’s

clothes.

5. Fragments from the scene (e.g. mud, vegetation) may link a victim and assailant to a

particular location, or they may each have left traces of clothing or biological traces at the

scene.

6. On the basis of the facts available and information provided by the patient and

investigators, the health worker must decide which specimens to collect from the

individuals involved. 

7. When faced with such decisions, it is important to be mindful of what purpose the

specimen will serve, what link is potentially going to be established and whether such a

link may assist the investigation of the case. 

Principles in forensic specimen 

1. Avoid contamination. Ensure that specimens are not contaminated by other materials.

Wear gloves at all times. Modern DNA assay systems are very sensitive and may detect

small amounts of extraneous material.

2. Collect early. Try to collect forensic specimens as soon as possible. The likelihood of

collecting evidentiary material decreases with the passing of time. 

3. Handle appropriately. Ensure that specimens are packed, stored and transported correctly.
 4. Label accurately. All specimens must be clearly labelled with the patient’s name and date

of birth, the health worker’s name, the type of specimen, and the date and time of

collection.

5. Ensure security. Specimens should be packed to ensure that they are secure and tamper

proof. Only authorized people should be entrusted with specimens.

6. Maintain continuity. Once a specimen has been collected, its subsequent handling should

be recorded. 

7. Details of the transfer of the specimen between individuals should also be recorded. It is

advisable to check with local authorities regarding the protocols for the recording of such

information.

8. Document collection. It is good practice to compile an itemized list in the patient’s

medical notes or reports of all specimens collected and details of when, and to whom,

they were transferred.

Specimen for forensic investigations.

1. In case of injected poison, injection site skin, subcutaneous tissues along with needle tract

weighing 100 grams should be collected. Similar materials from opposite area is also

taken as a control in separate container.

2. In case of inhaled poison like carbon monoxide, coal gas, hydrocyanic acid, chloroform

or other anesthetic drugs etc. lung tissues, brain and blood from the cavity should be

preserved.

3. Bile should be taken in the case of narcotic drugs, cocaine and paracetamol poisoning.

4. Shaft or long bones (8-10cms of femur), a tuft of head hair, finger and toe nails and some

muscles should be taken in suspected by heavy metals like arsenic, lead , antitomy etc.
5. In fatal cases of suspected criminal abortion, the genital organs together with the bladder

and rectum and foreign bodies should be preserved.

6. Blood from the peripheral vein , lung tissue and a cerebrospinal fluid should be preserved

in as suspected case of poisoning by alcohol.

7. The heart, portion of the brain and spinal cord should be preserved if poisoning by nux

vomica or strynine is suspected.

8. Brain and urine should be preserved in suspected cases of poisoning by barbiturates,

opium or anesthetic.

9. Farces may sometimes be useful especially if porphyria is suspected

10. Urine should be collected for catecholamine’s estimation in a suspected case of

hypothermia.

11. In putrefied bodies, larvae, maggots, pupa and other entomological samples should be

preserved.

12. Soil samples from above, beneath and sides of the dead body and control soil samples

from some distance away should be taken in cases of exhumed skeletonized dead bodies.

13. Fatty tissues from abdominal wall or perinephric region in the cases of pesticides.

14. About 2.5 cm square from the affected skin area and similar portion from opposite area as

control in cases of corrosive poisons.

15. Bone marrow from long bones in skeletonized bodies may also serve the excellent

purpose of toxicological analysis.

16. In embalmed bodies , the vitreous humor usually remains uncontaminated by the process

and may serve the purpose of analyzing urea, creatinine, and ethyl alcohol.
 17. For toxicological analysis, skeletal muscles and bone marrow are the only materials

available in such cases.

18. In cases of deaths by drowning where then study of diatoms is required,  then the spleen ,

rather than the bone marrow may be the most useful material to preserve. Control sample

of the water in which the body was recovered should also be taken in separate container.

The spleen tissue can be very useful for DNA analysis.

Specimen collection techniques for forensic analysis

1. Blood samples are best obtained from the femoral artery or vein. Try to collect 50 ml

of blood by at least 10ml.

2. Urine in the dead may be collected by direct puncture with needle and syringe of the

exposed bladder after the abdomen has been opened.

3. CSF can be taken from the cerebral cisterns after the skull has been opened in such a

method that the leptomeninges are relatively intact and the CSF has run out. Draw as

much as possible.

4. Bone and bone marrow should be taken 8-10 cm portion of the shaft of femur.

5. Hair if available should be obtained. About 10grams or less will be usefull. The head

and pubic hair should be plucked out along with the roots and not by shaving.

6. Muscles about 10 grams. Wedge of thigh or chest muscles are collected before the

abdomen is opened .100 to 200 milligrams of muscles can be ideal tissue for DNA

extraction.

7. Nails should be removed entirely and collected in separate clean envelops.

8. Bile is aspirated by a needle after the abdomen is opened and before the organs are

removed.
 9. The liver from the right lobe are preferred from the left lobe to avoid spuriously high

concentration from diffusion from the stomach.

10. Vitreous of averagely 2-3 mls from one or both eyes are gently aspirated from the

lateral angle of the eyes with a 5 ml syringe.

Blood pattern analysis.

Introduction.

 Because blood behaves according to certain scientific principles, trained bloodstain

pattern analysts can examine the blood evidence left behind and draw conclusions as to

how the blood may have been shed. 

 From what may appear to be a random distribution of bloodstains at a crime scene,

analysts can categorize the stains by gathering information from spatter patterns,

transfers, voids and other marks that assist investigators in recreating the sequence of

events that occurred after bloodshed. 

 This form of physical evidence requires the analyst to recognize and interpret patterns to

determine how those patterns were created.

 Bloodstain pattern analysis (BPA) is the interpretation of bloodstains at a crime scene in

order to recreate the actions that caused the bloodshed. 

 Analysts examine the size, shape, distribution and location of the bloodstains to form

opinions about what did or did not happen.

 BPA uses principles of biology (behavior of blood), physics (cohesion, capillary action

and velocity) and mathematics (geometry, distance, and angle) to assist investigators in

answering questions such as:

1. Where did the blood come from?

 2. What caused the wounds?

3. From what direction was the victim wounded?

4. How were the victim(s) and perpetrator(s) positioned?

5. What movements were made after the bloodshed?

6. How many potential perpetrators were present?

7. Does the bloodstain evidence support or refute witness statements?

Principles of Bloodstain Pattern Analysis.

1. Blood contains both liquid (plasma and serum) and solids (red blood cells, white blood

cells, platelets and proteins). 

2. Blood is in a liquid state when inside the body, and when it exits the body, it forms a

clot. 

3. But as anyone who has had a cut or a scrape knows, it doesn’t remain a liquid for long.

Except for people with hemophilia, blood will begin to clot within a few minutes,

forming a dark, shiny gel-‐like substance that grows more solid as time progresses. 

4. The presence of blood clots in bloodstains can indicate that the attack was prolonged, or

that the victim was bleeding for some time after the injury occurred.

5. Blood can leave the body in many different ways, depending on the type of injury

inflicted. It can flow, drip, spray, spurt, gush or just ooze from wounds.

Types of Stains

Bloodstains are classified into three basic types: 

1. Passive stains include drops, flows and pools, and typically result from gravity acting on

an injured body. 
 2. Transfer stains result from objects coming into contact with existing bloodstains and

leaving wipes, swipes or pattern transfers behind such as a bloody shoe print or a smear

from a body being dragged. 

3. Impact stains result from blood projecting through the air and are usually seen as spatter,

but may also include gushes, splashes and arterial spurts.

Blood stain analysis evidence collection.

Bloodstain samples can be collected for BPA by:

 Cutting away stained surfaces or materials. 

 Photographing the stains.

 Drying and packaging stained objects. 

 The tools for collecting bloodstain evidence usually include high quality cameras (still

and video), sketching materials, cutting instruments and evidence packaging

Blood Pattern Analysis.

Bloodstain pattern analysis is performed in two phases: 

1. Pattern Analysis: Looks at the physical characteristics of the stain patterns including

size, shape, distribution, overall appearance, location and surface texture where the stains

are found. Analysts interpret what pattern types are present and what mechanisms may

have caused them.

1. Reconstruction: Uses the analysis data to put contextual explanations to the stain

patterns: What type of crime has occurred? Where is the person bleeding from? Did the
 stain patterns come from the victim or someone else? Are there other scene factors (e.g.

emergency medical intervention, first responder activities) that affected the stain pattern?

Forensic Toxicology

 Toxicology is the study of poisons. 

 More specifically, toxicology is concerned with the chemical and physical properties of

toxic substances and their physiological effects on living organisms, qualitative and

quantitative methods for their analysis in biological and non-biological materials, and the

development of procedures for the treatment of poisoning. 

 A poison may be regarded as any substance which, when taken in sufficient quantity, will

cause ill health or death. 

 The key phrase in this definition is “sufficient quantity”. The ingestion of large amounts

of water over an extended period of time has been known to cause fatal electrolyte

imbalance. 

 This seemingly bizarre behavior of ingestion of massive amounts of water is known as

psychogenic polydipsia and occurs in certain forms of schizophrenia. 

 Conversely, minute quantities of arsenic, cyanide, and other poisons may be ingested,

causing no apparent toxicity. 

Specimen Recommended for Toxicology Studies 

Suspected type of death Recommended Specimen

Suicides, motor vehicle crashes, and Blood, urine, vitreous humor, liver
industrial accidents
Homicides and/or suspicious Blood, urine, vitreous humor, gastric contents,
bile, liver, hair
Drug-related Blood, urine, vitreous humor, gastric contents,
bile, liver, hair
Volatile substance abuse Blood, urine, vitreous humor, lung fluid or tied-
 off lung, liver
Heavy metal poisoning and exposure to Blood, urine, vitreous humor, liver, hair, kidney
other poisons

Testing toxicology specimens 

 The testing of biological fluids and/or tissues for drugs and other substances is a complex

process requiring sophisticated instrumentation and specially trained analysts. 

 In the typical autopsy, fluids and tissue samples are collected specifically for toxicology

testing. 

 The types of samples collected from the body, and the testing targets in these biological

fluids and tissues, are determined by circumstances of the case and the condition of the

body.

 Once at the laboratory, a series of tests will be conducted, usually on blood, for a large

range of over-the-counter, prescription and illicit drugs as well as alcohol and other

toxicants; e.g., metals, inhalants, environmental (pesticides, insecticides), carbon

monoxide, cyanide and many other possible toxins depending on investigative clues or

specific tests requested. 

 The biological evidence from autopsies are needed to support both “common” lab tests

and help investigate some very specific potential causes of death.

 The biological evidence from autopsies is needed to support both “common” lab tests and

help investigate some very specific potential causes of death.

.
Examining a victim of sexual violence: forensic considerations

The main features of a forensic examination of sexual assault victims are as follows:
 A consent form may be required. Information gained under informed consent may need

to be provided to other parties, in particular, law enforcement authorities (i.e. the police)

and the criminal justice system if the patient pursues legal action on the case.

 It takes time to conduct a thorough forensic examination; the examination usually

involves a “top to-toe” inspection of the skin and a genito-anal examination.

 Detailed documentation is required; information so recorded may be used in criminal

proceedings.

 Certain areas of the body (e.g. the axilla, behind the ears, in the mouth, the soles of feet)

not usually examined as part of a routine medical examination are of forensic interest and

must be inspected.

 Unusual specimens, such as clothing, drop sheets and hair, are collected as part of a

forensic examination.

 The chain of custody of specimens must be documented.

 Opportunities for follow-up examinations may not arise; it is thus vital to make full use

of this single patient contact.

Forensic specimens for a sexual assault case.

Specimen Collection instructions.

Anus Use swab and slides to collect and plate material; lubricate instruments
(Rectum) with water, not lubricant.
Blood Collect 10 ml of venous blood.
Clothing Clothing should be placed in a paper. 
Collect paper sheet or drop.
Wet items should be bagged separately.
Genitalia Use separate swabs and slides to collect and plate material collected from the
external genitalia, vaginal vault and cervix; lubricate speculum with water not
lubricant or collect a blind vaginal swab.
Hair Cut approximately 20 hairs and place  in a sterile container.
Mouth Swab multiple sites in mouth with one or more swabs . To obtain a
(for oral washings) sample of oral washings, rinse mouth with
10 ml water and collect in sterile container.
Nail Use the toothpick to collect material fibres, etc. under the nails or the nail(s) can
be cut and the clippings collected in a sterile container.
Sanitary Collect if used during or after vaginal oral penetration.
pads 
Skin Swab sites where semen may be present
Dry swab after collection
Place material in sterile container
Urine Collect 100 ml of urine.

 
FORENSCIC LABORATORY.

The Role of a Forensic Laboratory

1. Defining the element of the crime

This is the proof that a crime has been committed, such as the identification and

quantitation of a drug or controlled substance or the determination of the quantity of

alcohol in the blood of a person suspected of driving while intoxicated.

2. Providing investigative leads for a case

An example of this would be the identification of a vehicle type in a hit-and-run case

through automotive paint and glass analysis.

3. Linking a crime scene or a victim to a suspect

This link may be provided through analysis of various types of physical evidence such as

hair, blood, semen, and fingerprints.

4. Corroborating or refuting a suspect’s statement

In a fatal gunshot case, the examination of bloodstain patterns at the scene and on a

suspect’s, clothing may establish whether a victim was struggling with an assailant as

may be claimed or conversely show that the victim was in a totally different position or

location when the shot was fired.

Forensic Laboratory Design

  Design requirements for forensic laboratories are unique and unlike those for other

laboratory types. 

 While forensic labs share certain features with academic, research, and other laboratories,

the composition of these elements and the addition of other characteristics make these

facilities an uncommon challenge. 

 Six general criteria underscore how different forensic facilities are from other

laboratories:

1. Lab section organizational structure

2. Interaction/collaboration requirements

3. Five-in-one laboratory structure

4. Unique laboratory sections

5. Unique mission

6. Chain of custody requirements

Lab section organizational structure

 A forensic laboratory consists of a number of separate and distinct laboratories, each with

its own specific function, spaces, and equipment. 

 For accreditation purposes, each laboratory section must be designed as a separate and

secure entity. 

 Although different crime labs will likely not have identical organizational structures,

some typical forensic laboratory sections include:

 1. Biology section

This is made for the examination of biological evidence and the development of DNA profiles.

This section must be designed as a biological sciences laboratory and is also responsible for

assisting in the maintenance of an international DNA database.

2. Chemistry section

This is usually for the examination of narcotics, narcotics paraphernalia, and other forensic

examinations involving wet chemistry procedures.

3. Toxicology section

This is for the examination of blood and urine for the presence of drugs, alcohol, or other foreign

substances. This section frequently provides laboratory support for medical examiners by

examining tissue samples from decedents in order to determine cause of death, and it must be

designed to include features of wet chemistry and biological sciences laboratories.

4. Latent fingerprint section 

This is for the examination of evidence for the presence of fingerprints, using various chemical

and nonchemical procedures. Responsibilities also include fingerprint input and searches in a

fingerprint database.

5. Firearms section
This is for the examination of any evidence pertaining to firearms, including weapons, bullets,

bullet projectiles, and bullet casings. This is primarily a physical properties analysis laboratory,

but does include some elements of a wet chemistry lab. This section also includes instruments

designed to access an international database of bullet components.

6. Trace evidence section 

This for the identification of any substances that cannot be identified in the chemistry section.

Typical substances include microscopic particles known as trace evidence and can include, but

are not limited to paints, glass, food products, and building products. This section relies heavily

on instrumentation and microscopy, including scanning electron microscopes, FTIR

microscopes, and comparison microscopes.

Interaction/collaboration requirements

 Most laboratories encourage interaction and collaboration among their scientists,

analysts, and technicians; however, in a forensic laboratory, it is essential that the

forensic staff have dedicated spaces for interactive activities. 

 It is not uncommon that an item of evidence must be examined in two or more laboratory

sections. A pistol submitted as evidence, for example, might contain blood stains, which

immediately necessitates the examination of this pistol in three laboratory sections:

firearms, biology, and latent fingerprints. 

 Inviting and comfortable interaction spaces should be provided to encourage forensic

scientists to engage in informal conversations to discuss cases and explore strategies.

Five-in-one laboratory structure

There are five basic laboratory types in terms of their architectural and engineering design

requirements which include: 

1. Wet chemistry.

2. Biological sciences.

3. Instrumentation. 

4. Microscopy. 

5. Physical properties analysis. 

Most laboratories contain two to four of these laboratory types; however, forensic laboratories

are unique in that they consistently employ all five of these laboratory types within the same

facility.

Unique laboratory sections

 While forensic laboratories have several sections in common with laboratories in general,

what really set these facilities apart are their unique sections. 

 Examples include sections for firearms examinations, which include a firing range and

bullet recovery tank; questioned documents, with specialized equipment designed for

document examination, such as electrostatic detection apparatus and visual spectral

comparators; latent prints, which includes unique procedures and equipment using
 cyanoacrylate (superglue), powder dusting, alternate light sources, and volatile chemical

processing; and vehicle examination, or a forensic garage, for the processing of

impounded vehicles for fingerprints and trace evidence

Unique Mission

 At its essence, the forensic laboratory is dedicated to diagnostic analysis. 

 No other laboratory type is consigned to discovering the who, what, when, where, why,

and how of forensic evidence. 

 From humble beginnings and limited resources, the field of forensic science has ascended

to become an indispensable tool internationally in the fight against crime. 

 The unique steps that comprise the forensic mission include crime scene processing,

collecting of forensic evidence, providing scientific examination of forensic evidence,

and providing testimony in a court of law regarding the findings

Chain of custody requirements

 An important component of ensuring the validity of test results is the proper handling of

forensic evidence throughout the investigation process. 

 From the time that evidence is collected at the crime scene until it is presented in a court

of law, it is crucial that the sometimes rigorous, court-mandated requirements for chain of

custody of evidence are met. 

 For the forensic laboratory this means that evidence must be accurately accounted for as

to its location, who has handled the evidence, and which individual has custody of the

evidence through each step in its journey. 

  The facility must be able to not only accommodate a means of continuous document

tracking, but also must provide an accepted secure means of housing evidence at proper

environmental conditions at all times. 

 If a defense attorney can prove that a continuous chain of custody of evidence has been

broken, that evidence will be inadmissible in court.

Forensic laboratory equipment’s.

The forensic lab is used for examining the bodies of the deceased individuals to determine the

possibilities of their death. Forensic lab services are also used during crime investigation where

the pathologists use different forensic lab equipment to perform post-mortems.

Enterotome

The enterotome is a pair of large scissors used for opening the intestines without puncturing the

organs from inside. The autopsy needs accuracy and cautious efforts while performing. Thus,

this instrument uses a blunt bulb-shaped blade which is inserted into the lumen.

Skull Chisel

It is usually used to cut open the skull with the handsaw. The skull chisel is used from the bottom

of the skull to uncover the brain for forensic examination.

Scalpel

Scalpels are used for conducting surgeries on live subjects, they are mainly applied to cut open

and pierce through the flesh to get access to the organs. But, forensic scalpels have longer
handled, which enable them to go deep inside the cracks. The forensic pathologists only use

disposable blades while performing medical examinations.

Rib Cutters

As the name implies, it is used to cut the rib cage to open the chest opening for examination. It

resembles a pair of cutting scissors, which are used by forensic pathologists for performing the

examination.

Toothed Forceps

This tool is used to remove big organs from the body and they are only used in high-end forensic

labs, as the teeth need to be put kept separately from other forceps to avoid cross-contamination

between samples.

Examination Video Camera

This is an important instrument in the forensic lab, which is used for recording the condition of

the dead body. Particular video cameras are used to perform autopsies; the camera is smaller,

flexible and can magnify images up to 40x, which are useful to show minute details in the post-

mortem.

Digital Scanners

These are mainly used for full body scanning for low-level radiology that has already replaced

the traditional X-ray machine. It is considered to analyze better in cases of victims that are shot
by a gun. This tool can be adjusted for lateral, frontal and oblique views by performing all the

tasks in less than a minute.

Containers

Containers are mainly used to store mixtures and substances or for observing chemical reactions.

These are either made of glass or plastic, some of the commonly used are beakers, flasks, and

test tubes. The use of beakers is excellent to make observations in chemical reactions or storing

solid and liquid samples. A conical flask is also used in apparatus, its tapered neck helps in easy

holding of liquid samples. Test tubes also an excellent form of containers, which are used in

smaller experiments and the stoppers on the openings of the flasks and test tubes avoid the risk

of spillage. There are many other containers that are used in lab apparatus, which include,

crucibles, glass desiccators, plastic wash bottles, etc.

Measure and Transfer

Lab experiments require a high level of precision in measurements such as volume, mass, and

temperature. Electronic and beam balances are commonly used in conducting experiments on

volume measurements. Volumetric flasks graduated cylinders and Burets add precision while

measuring volumes of various substances. Funnels, glass rods, and spatulas enable safe transfer

of substances. Other measuring instruments used in labs are thermometers, pH meters,

colorimeters, and spectrometers.

Heating
Labs also perform experiments that require a heating process, so most researchers commonly use

the Bunsen burners. Hot plates are also used in labs as heat sources when open flames are not

suggested.

Forensic Laboratory Safety.

Laboratory safety covers precautions taken to protect persons and the environment from

laboratory hazards through control of:

 Work environment and  facilities.

 Work practices and  procedures

 Equipment

Laboratory hazards 

Biological Hazards

 Biological hazards encompass microbes, recombinant organisms, and viral vectors. 

 They also include biological agents introduced into experimental animals. 

 Health and safety issues such as containment, the ability for replication, and potential

biological effect are all important. 

 When working with biological hazards, ensure that procedures can be conducted safely. 

 The most prevalent biological hazards, in terms of frequency of occurrence, are simple

allergens associated with the use and care of laboratory animals. 

Physical hazards
 Research facilities inherently have significant physical hazards present. 

 Included here are electrical safety hazards, ergonomic hazards associated with manual

material handling and equipment use, handling sharps, and basic housekeeping issues.

 Many operations in the lab can result in lab workers assuming sustained or repetitive

awkward postures. Examples are eluting a column in a fume hood, working for extended

periods in a biosafety cabinet, or looking at slides on a microscope for extended periods.

What is found acceptable for brief or occasional use may become problematic if

performed for long durations or very frequently. 

 Pain is a good indicator that something is wrong. Conduct work with a neutral, balanced

posture. 

 Magnetic assist or programmable pipettes can reduce frequency of hand force required to

prevent worker injury.

 Sharps containers are ubiquitous in research labs and following a few safety rules can

help prevent getting stuck with accident reports. Use only puncture-proof and leak proof

containers that are clearly labeled. Train employees never to remove the covers or

attempt to transfer the contents. 

 Make sure these containers are only used for “sharps” and that they get replaced when

three-fourths full to prevent overfilling.

 Many injuries stem from poor housekeeping. Slips, trips, and falls are very common but

easily avoided. Start with safe and organized storage areas. 

 Material storage should not create hazards. Bags, containers, bundles, etc., stored in tiers

should be stacked, blocked, interlocked, and limited in height so that they are stable and
 secure against sliding or collapse. Keep storage areas free from an accumulation of

materials that could cause tripping, fire, explosion, or pest harborage.

Electrical hazards

 Electrical hazards are potentially life threatening and found much too frequently. 

 First, equip all electrical power outlets in wet locations with ground-fault circuit

interrupters, to prevent accidental electrocutions. 

 GFCIs are designed to “trip” and break the circuit when a small amount of current begins

flowing to ground. 

 Wet locations usually include outlets within six feet of a sink, faucet, or other water

source and outlets located outdoors or in areas that get washed down routinely. 

 Specific GFCI outlets can be used individually, or GFCIs can be installed in the electrical

panel to protect entire circuits.

 Another very common electrical hazard is improper use of flexible extension cords. 

 Do not use these as a substitute for permanent wiring. 

 The cord insulation should be in good condition and continue into the plug ends. Never

repair cracks, breaks, cuts, or tears with tape. 

 Either discard the extension cord or shorten it by installing a new plug end. Take care not

to run extension cords through doors or windows where they can become pinched or cut. 

 Always be aware of potential tripping hazards when using them. Use only grounded

equipment and tools and never remove the grounding pin from the plug ends. Also, do

not use extension cords in a series—just get the right length of cord for the job.

Laboratory Design that reduces hazards

  Laboratory room should have adequate size

 Laboratory floor should be well polished and carpeted

 Proper lighting and ventilation

 Benches should be standard height and width

 Sink should be free flowing water

 Drawers and lockable cupboards

Current Trends in Forensic Science.

Critical advances continue to be made in the field of forensics. Some current trends and

techniques being investigated include: 

 DNA phenotyping: This new use of DNA focuses on compiling an actual composite of a

suspect without knowing who exactly the suspect is. DNA phenotyping focuses on the

genetic profile that is extracted from DNA and uses this profile to compile a visual image

of what a suspect might look like. This technique is still in its infancy, but it is predicted

to be a useful tool in the future. 

 Steam thermography: This technique is expected to improve upon the current technique

of spraying a chemical called luminol to reveal blood stains not visible to the naked eyes.

Utilizing steam thermography, forensic investigators use a hand-held steamer in

combination with heat-related imaging to reveal even minute amounts of blood. 

 Frontal x-rays: Taking x-rays of the frontal sinus cavity can help investigators determine

the age of juvenile remains or juveniles that are found and need to be identified. 
 Bacterial oral decomposition: By taking the bacteria present in the mouth of a deceased

subject, forensic investigators are able to establish a more accurate time of death. 

 3-D fingerprinting is a new, cost-effective technique that scans a 3-D fingerprint image

rather than relying on the old-fashioned ink print on paper. Investigators believe that

creating a 3-D fingerprint database will facilitate the identification and matching of

fingerprints in the future and make the process more reliable. 

 Omnichrome photography: Using alternative light sources, this type of photography

allows forensic examiners to locate bruising on the body before it is visible to the human

eye.

 Video comparator which allows forensic examiner to detect writing on a paper that

might not be immediately visible upon inspection