VIRTUE PRINCIPLE

CHOICE

ETHICS
FAIRNESS

JUSTICE FREEDOM
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MODULE 4
WHAT IS CULTURE? HOW DOES IT DEFINE OUR MORAL BEHAVIOR?

Introduction

This module intends to discuss culture in different perspectives, the influence of culture in
moral development, and partly include as well the characteristics of Filipino culture and the
weaknesses of Filipino character.

Learning Objectives

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Demonstrate what culture is and how it influence moral develoment.

2. Apply the culture in a positive way and improve the Filipino character.
3. Discuss culture profoundly through analyzing the characteritics f Filipino culture.

Learning Content

4.0 WHAT IS CULTURE?

According to Kohak (1984), culture is at the root of human alienation from the environment.
It's not just a compilation of artifacts or reflection of people's preferences and appreciation of
beauty. He added that culture is derived from the Latin word, “cultus”, which means giving respect
to the sacredness of all. Originally, culture is not contrary to nature but is commonly accepted as
a human being's role in it.

Cole (2019) defined culture as a concept that refers to a broad and diverse collection of often
intangible areas of social life. According to sociologists, culture consists of ideals, beliefs,
language systems, communication, and behaviors that people have in common and that can be
used to describe them as a group. Culture also encompasses material objects which are special to
that community or society. Culture is distinct from the social structure and economic aspects of
society, but it is related to them both by educating and updating them on an ongoing basis.

Lederach, (1995) introduced culture as the collective knowledge and schemes generated by
a group of people to perceive, view, convey, and react to the social realities around them.
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Zimmerman explicated (2017) culture as the characteristics and awareness of a specific

community of people, including language, religion, food, social behavior, etiquette, fashion,
music, and the arts.

From the definitions above of culture, several characteristics were drawn:

1. Culture is an analects of items with cultural or historical interest.
2. Culture is a remark of peoples’ choices and admiration of beauty.
3. Culture is in harmony with the environment and an individual has a role to play on it.
4. Culture is wider in scope as it includes beliefs, ideals, communication, language systems,
behaviors, and commonality of people within a group.
5. Culture embraces material objects that are significant to a particular group or society.
6. Culture is related to the social structure and economic aspects of society.
7. Culture is a combination of the skills, talents, capacities, and artifices brought about by a
group of people to look at, relay messages, and respond to the realities of social life.
8. Culture is the attributes and observation of a particular group of people which includes
language, religion, social behavior, etiquette, fashion, music, and arts.

4.1 THE INFLUENCES OF CULTURE IN MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Leano & Gubia-on (2018), Baring ( shared five points in how culture influences the moral
development of the people and these are the following:

1. Culture is always social and communal by which the relationship of the people towards
one another and their experience as people are the culture’s meadow.

Culture is social and communal in character where the people established and develop their
relationships with each other and learned from their experiences with them in the community.
Laws, norms, values, and attitudes serve as a binding force to enhance their relationships. From
that perspective then culture influence the moral development of the members of the community.
Yes, culture passes from one generation to the other and probably maintains or changes the
systems, principles, and values due to transformation in society but still retains the traditional ways
that the community has.

2. The culture defines the normative principles and behaviors of society.

This refers to the definition of the principles and behaviors to be maintained, preserved, and
changed for the benefit and best interest of the members of the community. From the relationship
and experience of the members of the community where the community itself would be able to
form certain normative principles and behaviors to be relayed and to be taught to the members of
that community. This scenario influences the culture of that community in moral development.

3. A culture, as best exemplified in the experience of the people, develops restrictions

and sets boundaries and limitations as they live and relate with one another.

The restrictions and boundaries will serve as the protection and security of the members of
the community. Laws, rules, principles, and norms will be the guidelines for the members of the

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community to behave accordingly, and if not then they will be subject to the punishment or
sanction embedded in their culture. This shows that there will be an awareness of the moral
development of the members of the community.

4. As culture helps in generating the character and identity of its people, it also includes their
moral character.

Culture shapes the character and identity of the people in the community through the norms,
standards, rules, regulations, and laws. If the community is traditional or modern in character then
that is the way the members of the community will learn and experience but of course, not all have
good implications.

5. The culture identifies the authorities or the governing individuals or groups.

The authorities serve as the maker, interpreter, and implementer of the laws, rules, and
regulations that they have in the community. Whatever form, a system of governance that they
have the roles and duties to play in the community and their moral judgment is important in moral
issues in the community. In the family, the parents have the moral authority over their children
which is also essential for the moral development of the members of the family as the parents are
the first who have authority to their children, who have taught and learned from them.

Obviously, culture greatly influences the moral development of an individual. Based on the
discussions above, several points were given emphasis. As culture considered to be as social and
communal in nature, then the people within the community able to establish and develop their
relationships through learnings and experiences in the community. Their relationships are bound
by the rules, regulations, principles norms, laws, and standards that the community has. There are
defined principles and behaviors that need to be kept, promoted, and rejected for the best interest
of the members of the community. Restrictions and boundaries will serve as the security of the
people which will be passed to them so that are aware of them. Moreover, culture helps in
generating the identity and moral development of the members of the community through the
standards, norms, rules, principles, and laws. The maxims to be followed by them. The authorities
direct the community for the proper enforcement of the rules, regulations, and laws for the welfare
of everyone.

4.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF FILIPINO CULTURE

Dumaraos (2018) expounded some of the characteristics of the Filipinos that set them apart
from any other culture and society:

1. The Filipino people are very resilient.

Despite the negative experience of the Filipinos particularly during calamities and
catastrophes, Filipinos able to manage and handle a difficult situation lightly. They can still
smile and always manage to rise above the challenge.
2. Filipinos take pride in their families.
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Filipinos first and foremost priority is the family. Thus, whether you are part of the
immediate family or you belong to the third and fourth generation you are cherished as a
family member. Even the closest friends are regarded as a family too.

3. Filipinos are very religious.

There are so many religions in the Philippines, nowadays, different denominations

and yet they value their beliefs. For the Roman Catholics, they pay their respect to the
different cross, images of Sto. Nino, the Litte Christ, and other religious articles can be
found in the house. Every almost all religion, they go to Church every Sunday and
sometimes twice or three times a week.

4. Filipinos are very respectful.

Filipinos used po and opo, words that usually at the end of the sentences when
addressing the elders. They also pay respect to someone older than them through
pagmamano which means raising the backs of the hands of their elders to their forehands
as a sign of respect.
5. Filipinos help one another.

Filipinos are known to bayanihan or comunity spirit where everyone helps each other
to make the task easier without expecting in return.

6. Filipinos values traditions and culture.

Filipino traditions and culture are very important for Filipinos. They spent time on
celebrations such as birthday parties, reunions, festivals, etc. They dedicate every gathering
for continuing a good relationship with each other even over lavish food.
7. Filipinos have the longest Christmas celebration.
In the Philippines, Chrismas songs started to play in the malls, restaurants, respective
homes from September and last until the second week of January the next year. They hang
a parol and assembling the Chrismas tree with the decoration of balls in different colors,
toys, and others. Children and adults, any generation are excited to sing Christmas carols
to every house. They have misa de gallo and noche buena for the celebration of Christmas
with the family.
8. Filipinos love art and architecture.

The gigantic and tall buildings everywhere signify Filipinos creativity in art and
architecture. They love to design, think, and have a passion for aesthetic value which is
unique and different.

9. The Filipinos are hospitable people.

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The visitors whether foreigners or Filipinos are very much welcome for the Filipinos
during festivities and even no occasions that when they arrive at the place, the Filipinos
entertain them wholeheartedly. Offer the best food, utensils, and the place to stay. The
visitors will feel at home.
4.4 WEKNESSES OF FILIPINO CHARACTER
1. Extreme Personalism
The Filipinos always try to give an interpretation of the actions or they take things
personally. They say thank you with "but" (compliment-criticism-compliment)
2. Extreme Family Centeredness
The Filipinos have very high family protection whether in good or poor condition
and circumstance (consentidor) (overprotected)
3. Lack of Discipline

The Filipinos have a rather relaxed attitude, but bad time management (famous
Filipino time). They are impatient and unable to postpone incentives or rewards. They
want to take shortcuts or the 'palusot' scheme and careless.

4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative

They 're demanding someone's accomplishment, so they're not displaying the same
flag just because of race. They are rather complacent (relax) but they often have a sense of
urgency. The Filipinos have a positive personality, but a lack of self-confidence and a deep
desire to achieve their goals. They are strong at the beginning, but they have no sense of
consistency (sometimes no direction at all or no strategy at all). Besides, they are too patient
without any plan (matiisin) "Bahala na System"-no matter what, come what may, at least
we tried (paconsuelo) attitude. They may have questions and discussions or disagreement
first, rather than analyzing the situation before planning and action.
5. Colonial Mentality
Filipinos have what we call patriotism vs active awareness mentality. They
appreciate too much other nationality and foreign products than native ones (local vs
imported) They even lack love and appreciation for what they have. Furthermore, they have
Open outside but Side-open or Close inside character (it's ok and best to receive more than
to share)
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome

Filipinos have self-serving attitude that generates feeling of envy and

competitiveness towards others (status vs prestige).They have personal ambition but
insensitive to common will (people and own country). There is also a crab mentality
attitude (Hilahan and Inggitan System)instead of being happy to what are the
accomplishments of others they try to pull them down. Finally, they lack of appreciation
resulting unhealthy competition.
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7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection

Filipinos are superficial and dreamy. They lack self-evaluation and reflection of the
situation. (http://evotistavenue.weebly.com/asean-youth-org/strengths-and-weaknesses-
of-the-filipino-character, https://sites.google.com/site/philippinescomph/about)

Learning Activity

ACTIVITY 1
In your opinion, how your community influences your behavior? Compare notes with your
classmates.
ACTIVITY 2
Among the characteristics of Filipino culture which is the most significant? Why? Explain
further.

Learning Assessment

ESSAY: QUESTIONS TO PONDER:

5. Define culture according to different authors.
6. Discuss at least two influences of culture in moral development.
7. Specify at least three characteristics of Filipino culture. Cite an example to each
characteristic.
8. Explain two weaknesses of Filipino character.

Essay Rubrics

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Criteria Excellent Good Fair Poor Score

Focus and There is one specific, There is one clear, well- There is one topic, but The topic and main
Details well-focused topi c. focused topic. Main ideas main ideas ideas are not clear.
Main ideas are clear are clear but are not are not especially clear.
and are well s upported supported by detai led
by detailed and accurate informat on or facts.
informations.
Organization The introduction is The introducti on states The introduction s tates There is no clear
inviting, states the the main topic and the main introduction, structure, or
main topic, and provides provides an overview of topic. A conclusion is conclusion.
an overview of the the paper. A conclusion is included, but
argument. Information included, but does not is not especially
is relevant and strengthen the relevant/supportive.
presented in logical argument/position.
order. The conclusion is
strong.
Voice The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of
writing is very clear, writing is somewhat clear, writing is somewhat clear, writing is unclear.
and there is strong and there is some and there is
evidence of attention to evdence of attention to evidence of
audience. The author’s audience. The author’s attention to audience. The
knowledge of and/or knowledge of and/or author’s knowledge of the
experience with the experience with the topic topic seems limited.
topic is evident. is evident.
Word Choice The author uses vivid The author uses vivid The author uses words The writer uses a
words and phrases . words and that limited vocabulary.
The choice and phrases . The choice and communicate Jargon or clichés are not
placement of words placement of words is clearl y, but the used properly and detract
seems accurate, natural , inaccurate at times and/or writing lacks from the meaning.
and appropriate. seems overdone or variety and seems
inappropriate for the i nappropriate to the
subject matter. subject matter.
Sentence Al l sentences are well- Most sentences are well Mos t sentences are well Sentences sound
Structure, constructed and have constructed and have constructed, but they have awkward, are distractingly
Grammar, varied structure and varied structure and length. a similar structure and/or repetitive, or are difficu t to
Mechanics, length. The author The author makes a few length. The author makes understand. The author
&Spelling makes very few errors in grammar, several errors makes numerous errors
errors in grammar, mechanics, and/or spelling, in grammar, mechanics, in grammar, mechanics ,
mechanics, and/or but these mistakes do not and/or spelling that and/or spelling that interfere
spelling. interfere with understandi interfere with with understanding.
ng. understanding.
Scoring 4 3 2 1

Learning References
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Cole, Nickie Lisa (2019). So What is Cultur Exactly?. Updated August 2, 2019

Dumarao, Gelyka. (2018). 11 Things You Should Know About Filipino Culture. Updated April
18, 2018

Kohak, Erazim (1984) A Heaven’s Place in Nature. In Between teh Embers and the Stars.
Chicago: Chicago University Press

Lederach, John.Paul (1995). Preparing for peace: Conflict transformation across cultures.
Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.

Zimmerman, Kim-Ann (2017) What is Culture

Internet sites:

https://www.academia.edu/11007189/The_Influence_of_Culture_in_Moral_Development

https:culturetrip.com

https://evotistavenue.weebly.com/asean-youth-org/strengths-and-weaknesses-of-the-filipino-
character

https://sites.google.com/site/philippinescomph/about

https://www.thoughtco.com/culture-definition-4135409

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MODULE 5
CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Introduction

This module aims to discuss cultural relativism in different aspects, its definition, advantages
and disadvantages.

Learning Objectives

After studying this module, you should be able to:

1. Explain cultural relativism in different views.

2. Discuss profoundly the advantages and disadvantages of cultural relativism.

Learning Content

5.0 DEFINITION OD CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Below are the definitions of cultural relativism of the various authors:

Cultural relativism means that we do not judge a society by our own criteria of what is right
or wrong, odd or natural. Rather, we will make an effort to understand the cultural traditions of
other communities in their own cultural context. (https://www.khanacademy.org/test-
prep/mcat/society-and-culture/culture/a/cultural-relativism- article)

Cultural relativism is the desire to consider a culture on its own terms and not to make
conclusions based on the norms of one's own community. The goal of this is to foster the awareness
of the cultural traditions that are not usually part of one's own culture. (Philosophy Home, 2009.
http://www.cultural-relativism.com/, Lorber, Judith. “Night to His Day”: The Social Construction
of Gender.” From Inquiry to Academic Writing: A text and Reader. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin’s,
2008. 617-)

The concept of cultural relativism also means that any opinion on ethics is subject to the
perspective of each person within their particular culture. In a holistic understanding of the term
cultural relativism, it tries to promote the understanding of cultural practices that are unfamiliar to
other cultures such as eating insects, genocides or genital cutting.
(https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/cultural-relativism/)

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Cultural relativism (CR) is a moral theory that contends that there are no objective
universal moral rules, and the moral rules that do exist are culturally bound. In other words, there
is a negative claim that there are no moral claims such as that killing is wrong that would apply to
every culture, and there is a positive claim that there are moral rules, but they vary depending on
culture, society, and context.
(http://davidagler.com/teaching/bioethics/ethicaltheories/Handout2_CulturalRelativism.pdf)

Generally, CR is an attitude towards the meaning and role of values in various cultures.
CR means that the beliefs in terms of norms and behaviors in a particular culture are specific to
that society. (https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/51330/9/09.chapter%202.pdf)

The definitions of cultural relativism stated above are summarized to the following:

1. In cultural relativism, no one can judge a society by their standards in the principle of
right or wrong, eccentric or natural.
2. People must understand other societies’ cultures.
3. In cultural relativism, the aim is to strengthen our knowledge and interpretation of the
practices and cultural traditions that are not part of our culture and that not uncommon
to other cultures.
4. Cultural relativism is a moral theory that claims the idea of no objective universal moral
rules that would apply to every culture and it varies depending on the culture of the
society.

In the case of Islam, for instance, to marry five times are allowed as long as the man is
capable to support them while in Christianity, it is punishable by the law if any man or woman are
married twice as it is bigamous as stated in Article 349 of the Revised Penal Code and the second
marriage will be void from the very beginning if the first marriage is valid under Article 35 of the
Family Code. The moral standards of every society differ from the other and for that reason, any
culture should be respected by anyone. We cannot say that it is right or wrong because that culture
permits them to do so and the other societies' cultures would view the same that is right or wrong
or vice versa. What is moral to other societies may not be moral to our societies and what is moral
to our societies may not be moral to them. It is indeed hard to reconcile the conflicting cultures of
the societies with their respective moral standards. The boundaries would be the understanding
and acceptance of the cultures of the societies.

4.1PROS OR ADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Below are the advantages of cultural relativism:

1. It creates learning opportunities that could make humanity stronger.

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The cultural difference allows people to learn as they can compare their respective
cultures and from those differences, they can improve their lives.

2. It eliminates the concept of separate, but equal.

Across culture, there are groups of people who have common beliefs and values,
but who face prejudice, injustice, and differences depending on the classes they belong to.
This will eliminate the idea of being different yet equal by cultural relativism.

3. It creates a system of niche expertise.

People will concentrate on the things they do better when cultural relativism is
stressed. There will no longer be a need to strengthen the points of weakness since the
weakness of one individual is the strength of another. Individuals will have to reflect on
their strengths instead of their weaknesses.

4. It encourages respect.

Different cultures have different backgrounds and perspectives to support

civilization. With cultural relativism, these interactions and viewpoints contribute to the
common good, as it helps us to benefit and learn from each particular viewpoint in their
way.

4.2 THE CONS OR DISADVANTAGES OF CULTURAL RELATIVISM

Below are the disadadvantages of cultural relativism

1. There will be actions taken that would be defined by some as “violent,” “unsafe,” or
“wrong.”

Since each person can set his or her moral code of conduct, there will be those who
choose to perform acts that the majority of people will interpret as wrong. Murder, robbery,
child abuse, all of these will become legally viable acts if that person's morality described
them as being good.

2. It is based on a concept that people are perfect.

We may all like to think that we're perfect but the fact is that we're all far from it.
The theory of cultural relativism is based on the premise that society can be perfect. Perhaps
we're going to be one day, but that day is certainly not today.

3. It creates a personal bias.

Cultural relativism is a worthy goal. Societies have a natural prejudice against them,
which pushes certain people down to lift people. All cultural relativism does move

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accountability from a group perspective to an individualistic perspective. Promoting a

particular set of morals is the focal point rather than the promotion of a collective set of
morals.

4. It eliminates the idea that reform or change can be a good thing.

Any of the greatest thinkers and teachers to be followed in history will all be
deemed wrong in a system of cultural relativism. Then there is no need to change hearts
and minds, as they are all held to their standards. Extend that in the workplace, and
suddenly unsafe working conditions, low to no pay, and sexual slavery all become
reasonable choices.

The benefit of cultural relativism is that it teaches acceptance to individuals. The

drawbacks are that this is a philosophy that is based on the belief that humans eventually
do the best thing to do. Perhaps in the future, such a method would work. Before society
can grow up and learn from each other, there is a great deal of potential for harm in this
idea. (Lombardo, (2015) https://visionlaunch.com/cultural-relativism-pros-and-cons/)

Knowing the advantages or pros and disadvantages or cons of cultural relativism, we able
to balance the cultures of the societies despite the differences. From the very beginning there is
already a conflict of cultures in societies because it varies from each other, However from that
differences, we can adjust, change our perspectives and learn from the strengths and weaknesses
of each culture to improve ourselves. Moreso, to better understand the people as what and who
they are, their roots, their moral standards, acceptable and unacceptable or permissible or
prohibited in their societies then we need to embrace their cultures to determine the trends or
situations to develop. To that end, these make the relationships of the people of the societies strong
and unified, do the actions that will not be offended to them, respect and acknowledge every
society's beliefs, traditions, and customs to live peacefully and happy.

Learning Activity

ACTIVITY 1

Bassed on your experience, how does your family differs from other families in your place.
List down these differences and compare it with your own.

ACTIVITY 2

Research another country’s culture and compare it to the Philippines. Identify the
similarities and dissimilarities. Compare.
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Learning Assessment

ESSAY: QUESTIONS TO PONDER:

1. Define cultural relativism based on the different definitions given by the authors.
2. Discuss at least two advantages and disadvantages of cultural relativism.
3. In your opinion, how can you reconcile the conlicts of culture?

Essay Rubrics

Criteria Excellent Good Fair Poor Score

Focus and There is one specific, There is one clear, well- There is one topic, but The topic and main
Details well-focused topi c. focused topic. Main ideas main ideas ideas are not clear.
Main ideas are clear are clear but are not are not especially clear.
and are well s upported supported by detai led
by detailed and accurate informat on or facts.
informations.
Organization The introduction is The introducti on states The introduction s tates There is no clear
inviting, states the the main topic and the main introduction, structure, or
main topic, and provides provides an overview of topic. A conclusion is conclusion.
an overview of the the paper. A conclusion is included, but
argument. Information included, but does not is not especially
is relevant and strengthen the relevant/supportive.
presented in logical argument/position.
order. The conclusion is
strong.
Voice The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of
writing is very clear, writing is somewhat clear, writing is somewhat clear, writing is unclear.
and there is strong and there is some and there is
evidence of attention to evdence of attention to evidence of
audience. The author’s audience. The author’s attention to audience. The
knowledge of and/or knowledge of and/or author’s knowledge of the
experience with the experience with the topic topic seems limited.
topic is evident. is evident.
Word Choice The author uses vivid The author uses vivid The author uses words The writer uses a
words and phrases . words and that limited vocabulary.
The choice and phrases . The choice and communicate Jargon or clichés are not
placement of words placement of words is clearl y, but the used properly and detract
seems accurate, natural , inaccurate at times and/or writing lacks from the meaning.
and appropriate. seems overdone or variety and seems
inappropriate for the i nappropriate to the
subject matter. subject matter.
Sentence Al l sentences are well- Most sentences are well Mos t sentences are well Sentences sound
Structure, constructed and have constructed and have constructed, but they have awkward, are distractingly
Grammar, varied structure and varied structure and length. a similar structure and/or repetitive, or are difficu t to
Mechanics, length. The author The author makes a few length. The author makes understand. The author
&Spelling makes very few errors in grammar, several errors makes numerous errors
errors in grammar, mechanics, and/or spelling, in grammar, mechanics, in grammar, mechanics ,
mechanics, and/or but these mistakes do not and/or spelling that and/or spelling that interfere
spelling. interfere with understandi interfere with with understanding.
ng. understanding.
Scoring 4 3 2 1

Learning References
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Agler, David W. Handout 2 Cultural Relativism

Family Code of the Philippines, Article 349

Revised Penal Code, Article 35

Lombardo, Krystal (2015). Cultural relativism Pros and Cons. Vision Launch Media. Updated
May 31, 2015

Internet sites:

(https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/society-and-culture/culture/a/cultural-relativism-
article)

http://www.cultural-relativism.com/

https://courses.lumenlearning.com/culturalanthropology/chapter/cultural-relativism

http://davidagler.com/teaching/bioethics/ethicaltheories/Handout2_CulturalRelativism.pdf

http://davidagler.com/teaching/bioethics/ethicaltheories/Handout2_CulturalRelativism.pdf

https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/51330/9/09.chapter%202.pdf

https://visionlaunch.com/cultural-relativism-pros-and-cons/
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UNIVERSAL
VALUES

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Module #6 Universal Values Lesson #6

Week 8: UNIVERSAL VALUES

Introduction

This module seeks to analyze the concept of universal values in several aspects such as
power, achievement, benevolence, tradition, universalism, etc. It includes as well the basic
universal human values and the universal values under the United Nations Charter. Moreover,
human dignity will be tackled for a better understanding of having it.

Learning Objectives

After studying this module, you should be able to:

7. Explain universal values

8. Identify the different universal values
9. Discuss the diffrent concepts of universal values.
10. Explain human dignity and its importance.

Learning Content

6.0 WHAT IS UNIVERSAL VALUE?

The word "value" means something that a person or a group believes has a value that merits
being sought, promoted, or privileged. This can be a thing (money, food, art), a state of mind
(peace, protection, certainty), or a behavior that results from those things or states of mind
(protecting innocent people, telling the truth, being creative). (https://teachinglegalethics.org)

Universal values, however, can be be unerstood in two ways. First, it could be that
something has universal value because everyone finds it important. Second, it could have universal
value when all people have reason to believe it has value.
(https://www.slideshare.net/SAFNAKV/universal-values)

According to the Didactic Encyclopedia (2015), universal value is a concept that it is not
obvious to define because a principle is connected with morality or ethics. It is difficult to transpose
or apply to the level of the group. In other words, all people have certain values that come from
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within them and direct their actions. Because human beings do not think in the same way, values
can differ from person to person. Universal values, however, need to be socially expressed.

UNIVERSAL VALUES

HAS VALUE

HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE IT HAS VALUE

CONNECTED WITH MORALITY OR ETHICS

HAVE REASON TO BELIEVE IT HAS VALUE

NEED TO BE SOCIALLY EXPRESSED

Figure 1. DESCRIPTION OF UNIVERSAL VALUES

6.1 SCHWARTS CONCEPT OF UNIVERSAL VALUES

S. H. Schwartz, along with several colleagues in the field of psychology, carried out
empiricalresearch analyzing whether there are universal values and what those values are.
Schwartz described 'values' as 'conceptions of what is important that affect the way people choose
action and evaluate events.' (Sen, 1999)

Schwartz's results from a series of studies that included surveys of more than 25,000
people in 44 countries with a wide range of different cultural types suggest that there are fifty-six
specific universal values and ten types of universal value. Schwartz's ten types of universal value
are: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence,
tradition, conformity, and security.

Below are each of the value types, with the specific related values alongside:

1. Power: authority; leadership; dominance, social power, wealth

2. Achievement: success; capability; ambition; influence; intelligence; self-respet.

3. Hedonism: pleasure; enjoying life

4. Stimulation: daring activities; varied life; exciting life

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5. Self-direction: creativity; freedom; independence; curiosity; choosing your own goals

6. Universalism: broadmindedness; wisdom; social justice; equality; a world at peace; a

world of beauty; unity with nature; protecting the environment; inner harmony

7. Benevolence: helpfulness; honesty; forgiveness; loyalty; responsibility; friendship

8. Tradition: accepting one's portion in life; humility; devoutness; respect for tradition;
moderation

9. Conformity: self-discipline; obedience

10. Security: cleanliness; family security; national security; stability of social order;
reciprocation of favours; health; sense of belonging

Schwartz also tested an eleventh possible universal value, 'spirituality', or 'the goal of
finding meaning in life', but found that it does not seem to be recognised in all cultures

POWER UNIVERSALISM

ACHIEVEMENT BENEVOLENCE

HEDONISM TRADITION

STIMULATION CONFORMITY

SELF-DIRECTION SECURITY

Figure 2. Schwarts’ Types of Universal Values

6.2 UN CHARTER OF UNIVERSAL VALUES

In the lecture by Secretary-General Kofi Annan on Global Ethics, entitled “Do We Still
Have Universal Values?”, delivered at Tübingen University, Germany, he stressed this quotation,
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“The values of peace, freedom, social progress, equal rights and human dignity, enshrined in the
Charter of the United Nations and in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, are no less valid
today than when, over half a century ago, those documents were drafted by representatives of many
different nations and cultures.” Progress, equal ritghts, human dignity are accutely needed in this
age of globalization. In the Millenium Declaration according ot Annan, “all states reaffirmed
certain fundamental values as being essentials to international relations in the twenty-first
century”: freedpm, equality, solidarity, tolerance, respect for nature and shared responsibility.”

Looking at the fundamental values mentioned above and the provisions under the Charter
of the United Nations, countries of all nations and cultures must apply these principles to maintain
peace and security in the world. Rich, poor, developed, underdeveloped, advanced, or not and
highly technological or not countries must not only adapt but implement these values seriously. In
reality, the presence of discrimination, double standards, injustice, partiality, oppression, etc., can
be seen in an international setting. It is admittable that the nations, which are advanced are
powerful than those states in poverty considered as weaker states. If all nations in the world despite
differences in races, colors, international standings, cultures, religions, customs, traditions, set
aside their respective self-interests, peace and security in the whole world will evidently possible.
It can be described as, unified, cooperative, promoter of mutual understanding, and peace-loving
nations. A better future for all the countries in the world.

6.3 BASIC UNIVERSAL HUMAN VALUES

Hereunder are some of the basic univeral human values:

(1) Happiness – it refers to good fortune; pleasure; contentment; joy. (6) Under the
notes on Aristtle’s Nicomachean Ethics, “happiness or flourishing or living well is a
complete and sufficient good. This implies that it is desired for itself, that it is not
desired for the sake of anything else, that it satisfies all desire and has no evil mixed
in with it, and that it is stable. (https://www.dictionary.com,
(https://www3.nd.edu/~afreddos/courses/180/nicomach.htm

Under the notes on Aristtle’s Nicomachean Ethics, “happiness or flourishing or living

well is a complete and sufficient good. This implies that it is desired for itself, that it
is not desired for the sake of anything else, that it satisfies all desire and has no evil
mixed in with it, and that it is stable.
(https://www3.nd.edu/~afreddos/courses/180/nicomach.htm)

(2) Peace – is a freedom from disturbance; tranquility. It is a state or period in which there
is no war or a war has ended. A state of mutual harmony between people or groups,

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especially in personal relations: Example: Llive in peace with your neighbors.

(https://www.dictionary.com)
(3) Freedom – is the state of being free or at liberty, freedom from control, interference,
obligation, restriction, hampering conditions, etc.; power or right of doing, thinking,
speaking, etc., according to choice.

(4) Safety - is the state of being safe; freedom from the occurrence or risk of injury, danger,
or loss.

(5) Intelligence – is a capacity for learning, reasoning, understanding, and similar forms of
mental activity; aptitude in grasping truths, relationships, facts, meanings, etc.

(6) Respect - os a formal expression or gesture of greeting, esteem, or friendship:

deference to a right, privilege, privileged position, or someone or something considered
to have certain rights or privileges; proper acceptance or courtesy; acknowledgment:
respect for a suspect's right to counsel; to show respect for the flag; respect for the
elderly.

(7) Equality – is the state or quality of being equal; correspondence in quantity, degree,
value, rank, or ability: promoting equality of opportunity in the workplace.

(8) Justice – is the quality of being just; righteousness, equitableness, or moral rightness:
to uphold the justice of a cause.

(9) Nature – is the material world, especially as surrounding humankind and existing
independently of human activities.

(10) Health – is the general condition of the body or mind with reference to soundness
and vigor: good health; poor health. soundness of body or mind; freedom from disease
or
ailment to have one's health; to lose one's health. (https://www.dictionary.com)

6.4 THE HUMAN DIGNITY

Dignity is the state or quality of being worthy of honor or respect. "A man of dignity and
unbending principle" is an example. It refers to bearing, conduct, or speech indicative of self-
respect or appreciation of the formality or gravity of an occasion or situation. It is the importance
and value that a person has, that makes other people respect them or makes them respect
themselves. Dignity is earned and cannot be taken away from anyone. It must be preserved so that
the respect of others is maintained. Any act or action to be done by an individual will be reflected
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in his or her personality. Only one big mistake can ruin a good reputation for anyone. People must
be very careful of his or her action and words to be said.

The 1987 Philippine Constitution Article 2 Section 11 provides, “The state recognizes the
dignity of every human person and guaranteed full respect for human right.” This implies that any
person in whatever capacity, economic and social status, rich or poor, educated or uneducated
deserve to be respected by anyone. There are instances that a simple individual is respectful more
than professionals. The status in life is not a guarantee that an individual has dignity and honor. It
is in the inner self of a person, an innate character built and developed day by day of anyone.
Whatever action to be done will reflect on whom and who you are.

Learning Activity

ACTIVITY 1

Identify five universal human values. Expalin each.

ACTIVITY 2

In your opinion, why human dignity is important?

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Learning Assessment

ESSAY: QUESTIONS TO PONDER:

1. Discuss universal values based on Kofi Annan.

2. Summarize the various definitions of universal values.
3. Explain dignity in your own perspective.

ESSAY RUBRICS

Criteria Excellent Good Fair Poor Score

Focus and There is one specific, There is one clear, well- There is one topic, but The topic and main
Details well-focused topi c. focused topic. Main ideas main ideas ideas are not clear.
Main ideas are clear are clear but are not are not especially clear.
and are well s upported supported by detai led
by detailed and accurate informat on or facts.
informations.
Organization The introduction is The introducti on states The introduction s tates There is no clear
inviting, states the the main topic and the main introduction, structure, or
main topic, and provides provides an overview of topic. A conclusion is conclusion.
an overview of the the paper. A conclusion is included, but
argument. Information included, but does not is not especially
is relevant and strengthen the relevant/supportive.
presented in logical argument/position.
order. The conclusion is
strong.
Voice The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of The author’s purpose of
writing is very clear, writing is somewhat clear, writing is somewhat clear, writing is unclear.
and there is strong and there is some and there is
evidence of attention to evdence of attention to evidence of
audience. The author’s audience. The author’s attention to audience. The
knowledge of and/or knowledge of and/or author’s knowledge of the
experience with the experience with the topic topic seems limited.
topic is evident. is evident.
Word Choice The author uses vivid The author uses vivid The author uses words The writer uses a
words and phrases . words and that limited vocabulary.
The choice and phrases . The choice and communicate Jargon or clichés are not
placement of words placement of words is clearl y, but the used properly and detract
seems accurate, natural , inaccurate at times and/or writing lacks from the meaning.
and appropriate. seems overdone or variety and seems
inappropriate for the i nappropriate to the
subject matter. subject matter.
Sentence Al l sentences are well- Most sentences are well Mos t sentences are well Sentences sound
Structure, constructed and have constructed and have constructed, but they have awkward, are distractingly
Grammar, varied structure and varied structure and length. a similar structure and/or repetitive, or are difficu t to
Mechanics, length. The author The author makes a few length. The author makes understand. The author
&Spelling makes very few errors in grammar, several errors makes numerous errors
errors in grammar, mechanics, and/or spelling, in grammar, mechanics, in grammar, mechanics ,
mechanics, and/or but these mistakes do not and/or spelling that and/or spelling that interfere
spelling. interfere with understandi interfere with with understanding.
ng. understanding.
Scoring 4 3 2 1

Learning References
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1987 Philippine Constitution. Article 2 Section 11

Sen, Amaya. (1999). Democracy as a Universal Value. Journal of Democrcay, 10 (3)

Internet sites:

https://teachinglegalethics.org

https://www.slideshare.net/SAFNAKV/universal-value

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_value

https://www3.nd.edu/~afreddos/courses/180/nicomach.htm

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MODULE 7
THE FILIPINO WAY

Introduction
This module discusses the different Filipino values and traits which could explain the moral
characters of Filipinos. It also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of each values and traits and
to what circumstances these are sometimes applied by individuals to attain smooth interpersonal
relationship with other people.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
a) Differentiate Filipino values and Filipino traits.
b) Determine the strengths and weaknesses of Filipino moral characters.
c) Apply more the positive implications of each values and traits and lessen.
d) Appraise oneself and determine how to lessen the influence of negative implications of
Filipino characters.

Learning Content

Filipino Moral Characters: Strengths and Weaknesses

Filipino cultural morality especially that which concerns social ethics, centers on ideally having a
“smooth interpersonal relationship (SIR) with others (De Guzman et al. 2017). The definition of
“smooth interpersonal relationship” in Philippine culture is principally supported by and anchored
on the following Filipino values and Filipino traits and values (De Guzman et al. 2017 and Arcega
et al., 2018).

Filipino Values
Values are those aspects in life that include customs, traditions, etc., which the people regard
as necessary and important in their dealings with one another (Agoncillo et al., 2010). One of the
Filipino values is ‘pakikisama’ or sense or togetherness. It refers to doing somebody a good deed,
such as helping a relative or neighbor build a house without asking for compensation, or helping
someone looking for a job and so on (Agoncillo et al., 2010). It is not only practiced in
neighborhood but also at work and school. Helping other people even in small little way may show
‘pakikisama.’ Like offering help if someone cannot carry a bunch of documents or buy goods that
an office-mate or classmate sells to support his/her relative in medication or education (Arcega et
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al., 2018). According to De Guzman et al. 2017, ‘pakikisama’ is having and maintaining ‘good
public relations.’ This is usually being practiced to avoid clash with other people or a certain group.
Just like other Filipino values, ‘pakikisama’ can work either positively or destructively. To elude
open displays of conflicts, clashes, and confrontations, Filipinos, because of ‘pakikisama,’ may
submit to group opinion, overgenerous praise one another, using metaphorical language rather than
candid terms, concealing negative feelinsg or unhappy spirits underneath a pleasant demeanor,
smiling even when things go wrong, avoiding to say ‘no,’ and refraining from venting anger or
losing temper (De Guzman et al. 2017).

‘Utang na loob’ or dept or gratitude is very important to Filipinos. It is recognizing and

returning the favor to that person in the same measure who help them in times of need (Agoncillo
et al., 2010). According to Arcega et al., (2018), Filipinos may have ‘utang na loob’ if other people
help them during sickness, medication, sending their children to school, finding a job, or they were
saved in a life threatening situation. Once Filipinos surpass those challenges in life, they will return
to the person whom they have debt of gratitude to give back the favor they received or they will
help that person in times of need. However ‘utang na loob’ may not be good if the person is forced
to do somethings even against his/ her will or against the law just to pay the debt of gratitude. The
person will do this to avoid being reproved or having confrontations, clashes and conflicts with
the person whom they have ‘utang na loob.’

‘Hiya’ or ‘kahihiyan’ or sense of shame is another Filipino values (Agoncillo et al., 2010).
‘Hiya’ may be observed to Filipinos in accepting the food that are offered to them. Even though
they are hungry, they will feel sense of shame accepting the food given to them or they will say
that they are not yet hungry. They also feel ‘hiya’ in approaching higher authorities like school
principal, teachers/ professors, deans, and executives. They will look someone whom they think
have the courage to approach higher authorities (Arcega et al., 2018). On the other hand,
‘kahihiyan’ maybe observed in the Filipino families. They try to avoid doing things that may
dishonor their family’s name and reputation. If problems arise in the family, as much as they could,
they will hide it within the family because for them, the stink of a member will be the stink of the
whole family (Arcega et al., 2018). Sense of shame maybe observed also during family’s occasion
like wedding, baptism and feast (Agoncillo et al., 2010). Others will borrow money from relatives
or other people offering 5/6 or with higher interest rates just to be used in the occasion. They will
spend so much not to receive bad comments from other people that they cannot afford to spend
money for the event. At the end, they need to settle their obligations or else the interests will get
higher (Arcega et al., 2018).

Like ‘hiya,’ the Filipino value of ‘amor propio’ is derived from the concept of ‘face.’ Although
commonly translated as self-respect or self-esteem, ‘amor propio’ has been characterized as the
high degree of sensitivity that makes a person intolerant to criticism and causes him to have an
easily wounded pride (“Amor Propio.” n.d). Concerning this Filipino value, some observe that
Filipinos learn to withstand a loss of face in some situations, particulalrly when they perceive
themselves to be a fault, but it is devastating to be publicly criticized, insulted, belittled, or

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humiliated or to lose one’s self-respect (“Amor Propio.” n.d). According to De Guzman et al.,
(2017), ‘amor propio’ comes from the person’s tendency to protect is or her dignity and honor.
Because of pride or amor proprio, for instance, a person may refuse offers even if he/she wants to
accept them.

Filipino Traits
Trait is a distinguishing feature or character of a person or a group of people (Agoncillo et al.,
2010). One of the common traits among Filipino is hospitality or keeping the strangers feel warm
and welcome. Filipinos are known by other nations through this trait because they really make an
effort to welcome their guests. It is not only applied to foreigners but it also applied to everybody.
New kitchen utensils, bed sheets and pillow covers, bath towels etc., are used by their guests. They
also cook delicious foods for them. They want their guests happy, contented and comfortable
(Arcega et al., 2018). This trait however, makes Filipinos prone to being abused or maltreated (De
Guzman et al., 2017).

Family is the unit of society and consists, at least very recent times, of the parent, grandparents,
and the children (Agoncillo et al., 2010). Filipinos are also known for having close family ties. As
much as possible, they want to live in a house together with their grandparents, parents, children
and grandchildren. Father is the head and the provider of the family. All of his salary will be given
to his wife to budget all the expenses and needs of the family. He will fix anything that are damaged
in their house. On the other hand, mother is the light of their home. She will guide their children
in their assignment and school activities. She will do the house chores like going to market,
cleaning the house, cooking dishes, washing and ironing the clothes and etc (Arcega et al., 2018).
On the other hand, this Filipino trait may not be good sometimes if daughters and sons who have
their own family still live under their parents’ custody. Their aging parents who should be enjoying
their retirement age, still support their children and grandchildren in many ways such as providing
them basic needs, shoulder the payment of utilities, or even support grandchildren in their studies
because the former either have no capacity to support their family, have no stable job, are immature
parents or used to be dependent to parents even they have their own family.

Respect for the elders is also observed to the Filipinos. They obey elderly and consider their
suggestions in major life decisions like choosing a course in college, marriage, burial, changed of
residents and others. Saying po and opo as well as mano po are taught to children as sign of respect
to elders. Children are also taught not to interrupt or mingle with the elders while they are having
conversations. Calling kuya or ate the person who is older in age even they are not biologically
related is also a a way f showing respect (Arcega et al., 2018). When excessive, nonetheless,
respect to elders make one dependent or irrationally obedient to parents or elders (De Guzman et
al. 2017).
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These Filipino social values are important to maintain harmony in Filipino relationships in
social institutions such as famly, school, and community. The ‘smooth interpersonal relationship,’
together with Filipino ‘pakikipagkapwa-tao,’ has been deemed as a central core of essential
cultural traits that form and define an almost stereotypic Filipino character and mora behavior (De
Guzman et al. 2017).

Learning Activity

Directions: Read the article entitled A Moral Recovery Program: Building a People--
Building a Nation by Patricia Licuanan (https://ourhappyschool.com/esp-values-
education/moral-recovery-program-building-people-building-nation-patricia-licuanan)
and answer the following questions:

1. Identify which among the strengths and weakness of the Filipino character do you
possess? Why?

2. Choose only one among the nine roots of the Filipino character which you believe might
explain the strengths and weaknesses of Filipinos especially during pandemic. Write a
position letter.

Learning Assessment
Directions: Answer the following test items. Choose the best answer
1. Buying online products of your classmates because you want to be part of the group and
avoid being labeled as divergent is an example of ________.
A. Amor propio
B. Utang na loob
C. Pakikisama
D. Hospitality

2. The family hide the eldest grandchildren because he was born out of wedlock. Which
among of the following choices best describes the situation?
A. Hiya
B. Kahihiyan
C. Amor propio
D. Respect to elders

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3. The couple rescheduled their wedding next year due to suggestions of their elders that
being married next year will give them prosperous and comfortable lives in the succeeding
years. This is an example of ________.
A. Respect to elders
B. Hospitality
C. Utang na loob
D. Close family ties
4. Lola Wilma, a 75-year old vendor, is selling sampaguita flowers outside the church. She
needs to do it every day to support her son and his family who are living with her in slum
area. Which of the following may explain her act?
A. Kahihiyan
B. Hospitality
C. Pakikisama
D. Close family ties

5. Mang Ruben is very ill and was left by his mistress. He does not want to seek help from
his first wife because he knows that his wife will not forgive him of what he did. Which of
the following explains his act?
A. Kahihiyan
B. Amor propio
C. Hiya
D. Sentimental

6. Doing good deeds to person who saved your life, granted you a scholarship, or helped you
to achieve your job position is an example of ________.
A. Pakikisama
B. Hospitality
C. Utang na loob
D. Close family ties

7. Keeping the incestuous relationship secret between a parent and a child in a family is
practiced by few because this will protect the family’s reputation. Which of the following
explains the act?
A. Utang na loob
B. Hiya
C. Kahihiyan
D. Pakikisama

8. Asking help from authority sometimes hinder us because of fear of losing face. This is
called ________.
A. Kahihiyan
B. Hiya
C. Amor propio
D. Respect to elders
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9. Selecting parents’ choice over personal choice on what program we are going to enroll in
college to make their dreams come true is an example of ________.
A. Respect to elders
B. Hospitality
C. Pakikisama
D. Close family ties

10. You are the new comer in your section. You are obliged to join cheer dance even though
you are not a graceful dancer because this is the only way you will win your classmates.
This act can be explained by what Filipino character?
A. Hiya
B. Pakikisama
C. Hospitality
D. Sentimental

Learning References
1. Agoncillo, T. A. & Mangahas F.B. (2010). Philippine History. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing Inc
2. Arcega, A. M., Cullar, D. S., Evangelista, L. D. & Falculan, L. M. (2018). Understanding
the Self. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
3. De Guzman, J. M., Tesico, M. D., & Paras, W. D. (2017). Ethics Principles of Ethical
Behavior in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

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MODULE 8
HOW IS MORAL CHARACTER DEVELOPED?

Introduction
This module discusses how our moral character is developed. This was further explained
using three approaches such as virtuous, dispositions, and circular relations of acts and character.
This module teaches students to be virtuous, to have relatively stable, fixed and reliable
dispositions of action, and to practice moderation. Lastly, it teaches students to know one’s
intention and to know the effect of action on their character and to be morally responsible of their
deeds.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
e) Compare and contrast the three approaches of development of moral character such as
virtues, dispositions and, circular relations of acts and character.
f) Identify instances in their life where they applied those approaches.
g) Analyze which approaches is commonly used by Filipinos and explain why.

Learning Content

Moral Character and its Development

Moral character refers to the existence or lack of virtues such as integrity, courage,
fortitude, honesty, and loyalty. To say that a certain person has a good moral character means that
he/she is a good person and a good citizen with a sound moral compass (De Guzman et al., 2017).
It can be conceptualized as an individual’s disposition to think, feel, and behave in an ethical versus
unethical manner, or as the subset of individual differences relevant to morality (Cohen &
Carnegie, 2014). Development of moral character can be explained by the following approaches:
virtues, disposition, and circular relations of acts and character, and theoretical perspectives (De
Guzman et al., 2017 and philonotes.com).

Moral Character and Virtues

Etymologically, the term “character” comes from the ancient Greek term charaktêr, which
initially referred to the mark impressed upon a coin. The term charaktêr later came to refer more
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generally to any distinctive feature by which one thing is distinguished from others. Along this
general line, in contemporary usage character often refers to a set of qualities or characteristics
that can be used to differentiate between persons. It is used this way, for example, commonly in
literature. In philosophy, however, the term character is typically used to refer to the particularly
moral dimension of a person. For example, Aristotle most often used the term ēthē for character,
which is etymologically linked to “ethics” and “morality” (via the Latin equivalent mores) (Timpe,
2002).
One way to explain character development is through the virtue ethics approach. Virtue
ethics represents the concept that individual’s actions are based upon inner moral virtue where
Aristotle was the leading figure of it (philonotes.com). Virtue is a central concept in
his Nicomachean Ethics wherein there are two distinct of human excellences, (1) excellences of
thoughts and (2) excellences of character (De Guzman et al., 2017). Now, in virtue ethics, one
does not ask the question, “what morally ought we to do?”; rather, virtue ethics posits that the basic
function of morality is the moral character of persons (Beauchamp, 2001). In relation to this,
Beauchamp suggests that virtue should not be thought of as a moral requirement, because this
confuses with a principle or rule. Rather, virtue is a character trait that is socially valued
(philonotes.com).
Aristotle considered goodness of character as a product of the practice of virtuous behavior.
This means that for Aristotle, virtuous acts are not the end results of a good character. In fact,
according to Aristotle, virtues are tendencies to act, to feel, and judge, tendencies which are
developed from natural capacity through proper training and exercise (Yarza, 1994). He believed,
therefore, that practice creates a habit of acting in a virtuous way. Again, it is for this reason that
virtue is something that can be learned and improved (Yarza, 1994). It is important to note that for
Aristotle, virtue depends on “clear judgment, self-control, symmetry of desire, and artistry of
means” (Durant, 1926, 75). Hence, virtue can be viewed as a fruit of intelligent pursuit. The virtue
of excellence, for example, can be achieved by training and habituation, and that a virtuous
character is created by repeatedly acting in a virtuous manner (philonotes.com).
But how can a person be virtuous? It is important to note that a virtuous behavior for
Aristotle means practicing moderation, that is, avoiding both excess and deficiency (Temporal,
Notes, 2016. See also the chapter on Aristotle’s virtue ethics). Aristotle calls this the doctrine of
the mean. This “doctrine of the mean” is a principle that suggests that a moral behavior is one that
is in the middle of two extremes. For example, between gain and disadvantage is justice, and
between shameless and touchiness is modesty (Temporal). Indeed, moral virtue can be defined
simply as the just mean (philonotes.com).

Moral Character as Dispositions

Dispositions are particular kinds of properties or characteristics that objects can possess.
Examples of dispositions include the solubility of a sugar-cube in water, the fragility of porcelain,
the elasticity of a rubber band, and the magnetism of a lodestone (Timpe, 2002).
Moral character traits are those dispositions of character for which it is appropriate to hold
agents morally responsible. A trait for which the agent is deserving of a positive reactive attitude,
such as praise or gratitude, is a virtue, and a vice is a trait for which the agent is deserving of a
negative reactive attitude, such as resentment or blame. Moral character traits are relatively stable,
fixed and reliable dispositions of action and affect that ought to be rationally informed. The
subsequent sub-sections will further elucidate these various aspects of moral character traits
(Timpe, 2002). Moral character affects one’s moral decision. This character is a personality trait

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or disposition that has become habituated in the individual moral agent. Indeed, it is something
that is developed, nurtured and cultivated (philonotes.com).
Moral character traits are not just dispositions to engage in certain outward behaviors; they
can also be dispositions to have certain emotions or affections. For example, justice is the
disposition to treat others as they deserve to be treated, while courageousness is the disposition to
feel the appropriate amount of fear called for by a situation. Additionally, as mentioned above with
regard to dispositions in general, an individual can have a particular moral character trait and not
currently be manifesting trait-relevant behavior or affect. An individual may be generous in her
giving to charity, even if she is not engaged presently in any charitable action (Timpe, 2002).
It is important to consider that moral character is not something that is imposed from the
outside, but something that springs from the will of the moral agent. Hence, a moral character
develops as he/she grows into maturity. We may view moral character as a disposition or tendency
to act or think in a specific way for which a person can be held morally responsible
philonotes.com).

The Circular Relation of Acts and Character

The other side of the relation between moral character and action is the effect of action on
character. Three aspects of action relevant to this are repetition of action and its effect on the
person, the type of action, and intention and responsibility (Mitchell, 2015).

A. Repetition of Action and its Effect on the Person

Actions can be repetitive or automatic in (at least) three different ways: by habit, by
education, and by habitus (Mitchell, 2015). When an action is constantly repeated, over time it can
become a habit. For example, the physician who automatically writes a prescription for
contraception for patients who ask and no longer thinks it through has acquired a habit. Another
type of automatic action is a skill (education). Actions become skills through repetition and
experience. For example, the baker automatically stops kneading the bread dough when it reaches
a certain elasticity. These actions are done without consciously thinking through all the steps and
reasoning and judgments. A third way actions become automatic is through what Aquinas
calls habitus, that is, inclination or disposition, an inclination, a willingness, to respond charitably
to anyone in need as the situation arises. For example, I see a person without a coat shivering in
the middle of winter and give them my coat, and on and on (Mitchell, 2015).
While this example is about charity, there is nothing about habitus that requires it to be
good. One may also will to be miserly and act in a miserly way and therefore develop a bad
disposition or habitus of miserliness. The morality of the action also determines the morality of
the habitus. But not all acts can be cataloged as moral or immoral. There are different types or
categories of actions (Mitchell, 2015).

B. The Type of Action

Because human beings are body/soul unities, actions of the body are actions of the
self. Digestion of food is certainly an action, as is jumping when startled or yawning when tired.
Aquinas calls these acts of a human being (actus humanus) and distinguishes them from human
acts (actus humanis) (Mitchell, 2015). Human acts are rational acts and are more closely associated
with character than are acts of human beings, because the former actions come from the whole
person. Laughing at funny things is a moral act, in contrast to laughing because one is being tickled,
Ethics- BatStateU

which is an act of a human being. In the former, there is choice. One can choose to laugh or not.
Laughing that is ridicule is a bad moral act. Laughing at oneself can be good (e.g., humbling). In
fact, training oneself to not laugh at racist jokes or sexual innuendos is considered by many to be
a moral responsibility (Mitchell, 2015).

C. Intention and Responsibility

Two important aspects of the revelatory nature of action are responsibility and
intention. Human beings own their actions and the consequences of them. This even applies to
actions that are accidental rather than willed and chosen. The will is the rational power of human
beings to act. It is the ability to choose what is good (or what one thinks is good) directed by reason
(Aquinas, 1948 and Wojtyla, 1979).
Responsibility and intention are rooted in the will, which is the source of the self-
possession and self-governance of human beings. Self-possession is different from possession of
an object. One can own or hold an object, such as a rock, and therefore have possession of it. But
one owns and holds oneself internally in a way one cannot with a rock. We are conscious of the
rock as something that is external, but we are conscious of ourselves from the inside. We are both
the object of our consciousness and the subject (Wrathall, 2005).
One can be prevented from doing something by external forces, but carrying through with
an action has an element of the voluntary, of willing to do it and therefore cannot be forced. For
example, a physician may feel forced to write prescriptions for contraception through fear of
ostracism or losing his job, but at the point at which he actually writes the prescription, he is no
longer forced but actually willing the writing of the prescription (Aristotle, n.d. and Aquinas,
1993).
Another way the will can be hindered is by lack of knowledge. One may attempt to drive
across a flooded bridge thinking the water is low enough to get through but then get stuck, because
it was really two feet above the bridge. But if one knows that the water is that high, one would not
drive across it or will to drive across it, because one knows the car will stall in the middle (Aristotle,
n.d., Aquinas, 1993 and Joh Paul I Pope, 1993).
According to Mitchell (2015), the human being is self-governing in that he can carry out a
human action or not carry it out as he wills. He can choose to write a prescription or chose not to
write it. Because of self-possession and self-governance, human beings both intend their actions
and have responsibility for their actions.

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Learning Activity

The following are the suggested activities:

1. Each group will analyze the lives of Nelson Mandela and Adolf Hitler. Make a presentation
using Google slides.

2. Make a timeline graphic organizer based on personal experiences. Apply the three
approaches of moral character development by indicating instances in their life and what
they had learned from it.

GRAPHIC ORGANIZER RUBRIC

DIRECTIONS: Using the following criteria, choose the appropriate number from the
following scale that reflects your assessment of the student’s work.

1 = Weak 2 = Moderately Weak 3 = Average 4 = Moderately Strong 5 = Strong

1. The graphic organizer has an appropriate title and labels.

2. The graphic organizer’s lines, boxes, and text are neat and legible.
3. The information in the graphic organizer is accurate.
4. The spelling, grammar, and punctuation of the text on the graphic
organizer are accurate.
5. The graphic organizer presents the information in a manner that is easy
to follow.
6. The relationships presented in the graphic organizer are correct and
clear.
7. The form in which the graphic organizer portrays the information is
appropriate to the relationships being represented.
8. The graphic organizer demonstrates an understanding of the topic,
its relationships & related concepts.
9. The graphic organizer fulfills all the requirements of the
assignment.
10. Overall, the graphic organizer represents the student’s full
potential.

TOTAL:

Comments:_________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________
Ethics- BatStateU

Learning Assessment
Essay: Answer the following question:

11. Analyze which among the three approaches is commonly used by Filipinos during
pandemic. Explain your answer by citing examples.

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Essay Rubric

Points
5 4 3 2 1
Earned

The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay
fully focused consistently sufficiently minimally shows little
IDEAS and contains focused and focused and focused. The or no focus
a wealth of contains contains provided and the
• Controlling
ideas and ample ideas some ideas examples are ideas are
idea
• Supporting examples. and and vague or unclear,
ideas The writer examples. examples. general and irrelevant,
• Use of details uses The writer The response the response or
• Awareness of rhetorical may employ is generally demonstrates repetitive.
purpose strategies and rhetorical appropriate to minimal The
• Sense of addresses strategies or the awareness. response is
completeness address

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Ethics- BatStateU

counterargum counterargum persuasive incomplete

ents. ents. purpose. or too brief.

The The The The The essay

organization organization organization organization shows little
ORGANIZATION of ideas is appropriate is generally is formulaic evidence of
supports the and the appropriate or organizatio
• Introduction/bo
writer’s sequencing of and the ideas inappropriate. n or
dy/conclusion
• Sequence of focus. Ideas ideas is are clearly The response sequencing.
ideas are grouped logical. sequenced, may lack a Transitions
• Grouping of in a logical Varied but may be clear are not
ideas manner. transitions repetitive. introduction used. The
• Effective Effective and are used. Transitions or response is
transitions varied are used conclusion. incomplete
• Awareness of transitions Transitions or too brief.
purpose
are used. are rare.

The writer The language The language The language The

utilizes and tone of and tone are and tone are language
STYLE carefully the essay appropriate. uneven. and tone
crafted enhance the Word choice Word choice are
• Sentence
phrases to persuasive is adequate, is simple, inappropria
variety
• Word choice create a purpose. but may be ordinary, or te. Word
• Audience sustained Word choice simple or repetitive. choice is
awareness tone and an is ordinary. There is incorrect or
• Personal voice authoritative appropriate. Some minimal confusing.
voice. Word Sentences are sentence variation in The
choice varied. variety is sentence response is
reflects an evident. length and incomplete
advanced structure. or too brief.
vocabulary.

The writer The writer The writer The writer The writer
demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates lacks
CONVENTIONS full command knowledge of sufficient minimal understandi
of the the control of the control of the ng of the
• Sentence
conventions conventions conventions conventions convention
formation
• Subject-verb of written of written of written of written s of written
agreement English English. English. English. English.
• Standard word language. No Errors are Errors may Errors are Errors are
forms errors are minor and do interfere with frequent and pervasive.
• Punctuation, evident. not interfere meaning, but interfere with The
spelling, and with are not meaning. response is
capitalization meaning. distracting.
Ethics- BatStateU

incomplete
or too brief.

Learning References
4. De Guzman, J. M., Tesico, M. D., & Paras, W. D. (2017). Ethics Principles of Ethical Behavior
in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc
5. Cohen, T. R, & Carnegie, L. M. (2014). Moral Character: What it is and what is does.
Accessed July 30, 2020
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264000952_Moral_character_What_it_is_and_wh
at_it_does
6. Philonotes. Moral Development and the Moral Agents. Accessed August 5, 2020
https://philonotes.com/index.php/moral-development/
7. Timpe, K. (2002). Moral Character. Accessed August 5, 2020 https://iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/
8. Beauchamp, T. L. (2001). Philosophical Ethics (3rd ed). Boston: McGraw Hill.
9. Yarza, Ignatius (1994). History of Ancient Philosophy. Manila: Sinag-Tala Publishers.
10. Durant, W. (1926). The story of philosophy. New York: Washington Square Press.
11. Temporal, D. (2016). Notes on Ethics Training. Ateneo De Manila University.
12. Mitchell, L. A. (2015). Integrity and Virtue: The Forming of Good Character. Accessed
August 5, 2020 doi: 10.1179/2050854915Y.0000000001
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4434789/
13. Aquinas T. (1948). Summa theologiae. New York: Benziger Brothers.
14. Wojtyla K. (1979). The acting person, trans. Potocki Andrzej. 1969.Dordrecht: D. Reidel
Publishing Company.
15. Wrathall M. A. (2005). Motives, reasons, and causes. In The Cambridge companion to
Merleau-Ponty, ed. Carman Taylor, and Hansen Mark B.N.. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
16. Aristotle n.d.Nicomachean ethics, trans. Ross W.D. Accessed August 5, 2020
http://people.bu.edu/wwildman/WeirdWildWeb/courses/wphil/readings/wphil_rdg09_nicho
macheanethics_entire.htm.
17. Aquinas T. (1993). Commentary on Aristotle's Nicomachean ethics, translated by Litzinger
C.I., O.P. 1964.Notre Dame, IN: Dumb Ox Books.
18. John Paul II Pope. 1993. Veritatis splendor. Accessed August 5, 2020
http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/encyclicals/documents/hf_jpii_enc_060819
93_veritatis-splendor_en.html.

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MODULE 9
STAGES OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Introduction
This module aims to discuss comprehensively the six stages of moral development. This
lesson will develop the critical thinking and problem solving skills of students on real life
scenarios. Further, this lesson will help them to identify which stage of moral development they
reasoning may fall. This will also help them to develop a sense of morality and accountability.
Lastly, this lesson will teach them analyze things and to be selfless.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
h) Explain each stage of moral development.
i) Determine in which stage of moral development they are now.
j) Apply the stages of moral development.
k) Create chart of their life’s journey.

Learning Content

The Six Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg, (born October 25, 1927, Bronxville, New York, U.S.—died January
17, 1987, Boston, Massachusetts), American psychologist and educator known for his theory
of moral development. Kohlberg was the youngest of four children of Alfred Kohlberg, a
successful silk merchant of Jewish ancestry, and Charlotte Albrecht Kohlberg, a Protestant and a
skilled amateur chemist. When the couple divorced in 1932 after 11 years of marriage, each of the
children was required by a court order to choose which parent he or she would live with. The two
younger children chose their father and the older ones chose their mother (Doorey, 2020).

Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral development, a comprehensive stage theory

of moral development based on Jean Piaget’s theory of moral judgment for children (1932) and
developed by Lawrence Kohlberg in 1958. Cognitive in nature, Kohlberg’s theory focuses on the
thinking process that occurs when one decides whether a behaviour is right or wrong. Thus, the
theoretical emphasis is on how one decides to respond to a moral dilemma, not what one decides
Ethics- BatStateU

or what one actually does (Sanders, n.d.). Piaget described a two-stage process of moral
development (Scott, & Cogburn, 2020). Kohlberg extended Piaget's theory, proposing that moral
development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan. His theory outlines six
stages of moral development within three different levels.

The Heinz Dilemma

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects.
Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each
scenario (American Psychological Association, 2018).
One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her
doctors believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist
and he was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband,
Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower
price or to be extended credit to pay for it over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any
less or to accept partial payments. Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the
drug to save his wife. Kohlberg asked, "Should the husband have done that?"
Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right but
in the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then classified their reasoning into the stages
of his theory of moral development (American Psychological Association, 2018).

Theoretical Framework
The framework of Kohlberg’s theory consists of six stages arranged sequentially in
successive tiers of complexity. He organized his six stages into three general levels of moral
development (Sanders, n.d.).

Level 1: Preconventional level

At the preconventional level, morality is externally controlled. Rules imposed by authority figures
are conformed to in order to avoid punishment or receive rewards. This perspective involves the
idea that what is right is what one can get away with or what is personally satisfying. Level 1 has
two stages.

Stage 1: Punishment/obedience orientation

Behaviour is determined by consequences. The individual will obey in order to avoid
punishment.

Stage 2: Instrumental purpose orientation

Behaviour is determined again by consequences. The individual focuses on receiving
rewards or satisfying personal needs.

Level 2: Conventional level

At the conventional level, conformity to social rules remains important to the individual. However,
the emphasis shifts from self-interest to relationships with other people and social systems. The
individual strives to support rules that are set forth by others such as parents, peers, and the
government in order to win their approval or to maintain social order.

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Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl orientation

Behaviour is determined by social approval. The individual wants to maintain or win the
affection and approval of others by being a “good person.”
Stage 4: Law and order orientation
Social rules and laws determine behaviour. The individual now takes into consideration a
larger perspective, that of societal laws. Moral decision making becomes more than
consideration of close ties to others. The individual believes that rules and laws maintain
social order that is worth preserving.

Level 3: Postconventional or principled level

At the postconventional level, the individual moves beyond the perspective of his or her
own society. Morality is defined in terms of abstract principles and values that apply to all
situations and societies. The individual attempts to take the perspective of all individuals.

Stage 5: Social contract orientation

Individual rights determine behaviour. The individual views laws and rules as flexible tools
for improving human purposes. That is, given the right situation, there are exceptions to
rules. When laws are not consistent with individual rights and the interests of the majority,
they do not bring about good for people and alternatives should be considered.

Stage 6: Universal ethical principle orientation

According to Kohlberg, this is the highest stage of functioning. However, he claimed that
some individuals will never reach this level. At this stage, the appropriate action is
determined by one’s self-chosen ethical principles of conscience. These principles are
abstract and universal in application. This type of reasoning involves taking the perspective
of every person or group that could potentially be affected by the decision.

Kohlberg’s theory was highly influential, especially in psychology and education. No other
account had provided such a detailed explanation of children’s moral development. Moreover,
during a time when most psychologists were behaviorists, Kohlberg’s work broke new ground by
concentrating on cognitive phenomena. His theory also received much criticism, however, most
notably from the American psychologist Carol Gilligan, who argued that it ignored the distinct
patterns of moral development exhibited by girls (Doorey, 2020).
Ethics- BatStateU

Learning Activity
Directions: Draw a chart of their life’s journey using Manila paper or power point presentation
or any computer applications applicable in this activity. The output will show moments of your
life and where you are now based on moral development.

Learning Assessment
Directions: Each group will identify the stages of the agents in each case and justify their answer.

12. There are people suggesting that the Local Government Units shall disclose the personal
details of patients with covid-19 so that they know if they had contacted that person days
before the result of RT-PCR Test and also to protect their family’s health. However, there
is a law which protects each covid-19 patient from discrimination. Analyze the act of those
people and which stage of moral development their moral reasoning may fall.

13. A mother of two wrote a letter to the Elementary Principal. She requested that junk foods
and soda should be banned in their school canteen. Her youngest son was hospitalized for
several months due to kidney failure and needed to file leave of absence for early recovery.
Her reason of writing a letter was not only for the welfare of his son but also for the welfare
of all students in the school. However, the canteen was cooperative store where all teachers
and some parents have shares and receive dividend every year. Part of their dividend is
allotted to feeding program of the school where majority of the students benefitted. Which
do you think needs to be addressed and why?

14. A scientist was alarmed on the continuous destruction of mother earth. Bodies of water are
polluted, there are massive destruction of forests and there are animals which are now
extinct. There are numerous natural disasters happening all over the world in a year and
many lives are already gone. To save the mother earth, he made a virus that will control
population. For him, controlling population will save the earth. Which moral reasoning a
scientist’s behavior may fall? Do you think his action is morally right? Justify it using
moral stages of development.

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Learning References
19. Doorey, M. (2020). Lawrence Kohlberg. Accessed August 8, 2020
https://www.britannica.com/biography/Lawrence-Kohlberg
20. Scott H, & Cogburn M. Piaget. In: StatPearls [Internet]. StatPearls Publishing, updated May
24, 2020.
21. American Psychological Association. Heinz dilemma. Published 2018.
22. American Psychological Association. Kohlberg's theory of moral development. Published
2018.
23. Sanders, C. E. Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development. Accessed July 28, 2020
thttps://www.britannica.com/science/Lawrence-Kohlbergs-stages-of-moral-development
Ethics- BatStateU

MODULE 10
REASON AND IMPARTIALITY AS REQUIREMENTS FOR ETHICS

Introduction
In this module, students will learn the concepts of reason, morality, and impartiality. It will
help them to think rationally what is good and what is bad; and to be just and fair to benefit not
themselves but to benefit the majority. This module gives emphasis on the principle that every
person is equally important and to give equal consideration to the interests of majority. Lastly, it
will help students to develop their logical, rational and analytical thinking.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
l) Discuss the ethical requirement of reason and impartiality.
m) Discover different occupations where reasons, impartiality, and morality are part of their
professions
n) Apply reason and impartiality on the different societal issues.
o) Develop possible solutions on the current situation of the country.

Learning Content

Reason and Impartiality

Humans have not only feelings but also reason, and reason plays a vital role in Ethics. In
fact, moral truths are truths of reason; that is, a moral judgement is true if it is espoused by better
reasons than the alternatives (De Guzman et al. 2017).

Reason is the ability of the mid to think, understand, and form judgments y a process of
logic. It is an innate and exclusive human ability that utilizes new or existing information as bases
to consciously make sense out of thing while applying logic. It is also associated with thinking,
cognition, and intellect (“Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for Morality”). In the
article “Kant and Hume on Morality,” Reason and experience are required for determining the
likely effects of a given motive or character trait, so reason does play an important role in
moral judgment.

According to De Guzman et al. (2017), reason spells the difference of moral judgments
from the mere expressions of personal preference. If after eating someone says, “I like a sweet
cake,” he is not required to support it with good reasons for that is a statement about his/her
personal taste and nothing more. But in the case of moral judgments, they require backing by
reasons. In the absence of sensible rationale, they are merely capricious and ignorable. Moral
deliberation is a matter of weighing reasons and being guided by them. In understanding the

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nature of morality, considering reasons is indispensable. Truth in Ethics entails being justified
by good reasons. That is, the rightful moral decision involves selecting the option that has the
power of reason on its side.

Being defined by good reasons, moral truths are objectives in the sense that they true
no matter what we might want or think. We cannot make an act moral or immoral just by
wishing it to be so, because we cannot merely will that the weight of reason be on its side or
against it. And this also explains why morality is not arbitrary. Reason commends what it
commends, regardless of our feelings, attitudes, opinions, and desires. Since the connection
between moral judgments and reasons is necessary important, then a proposed theory on the
nature of moral judgment should be able to give an account for the relation. In focusing on
attitudes and feelings, both Emotivism and Subjectivism fail to accomplish this important thing
De Guzman et al. 2017).

As stated in the article “Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for Morality,”
impartiality is manifesting objectivity. It is the quality of being unbiased and objective in creating
moral decision – underscoring that a (morally) impartial person makes moral decisions relative to
the welfare of the majority and not for specific people alone. According to De Guzman et al.
(2017), impartiality involves the idea that each individual’s interest and point of view are equally
important. Also called evenhandedness or fair-mindedness, impartiality is a principle of justice
holding that decisions ought to be based on objective criteria, rather than on the basis of bias,
prejudice, or preferring the benefits to one person over another for improper reasons.

Impartiality in morality requires that we give equal and/or adequate consideration to the
interests of all concerned parties. The principles of impartiality assumes that every person,
generally speaking, is equally important; that is, no one is seen as intrinsically more significant
than anyone else. Other ethicists however, suggest that some clarifications is required. From the
impartial standpoint, to say that no one is seen as intrinsically more significant than anyone else,
is not to say that there is no reason whatsoever for which an individual might demand more moral
attention or better treatment than others. Many ethicists supposed that from the impartial point of
view, properly conceived, some persons count as more significant, at least in certain ways. A
virtous and respectable religious leader maybe supposed to be more significant than a mere maid;
so an emergency (say, a building on fire) the decent religious leader ought to be rescued first. The
reason, nonetheless, is not that the religious leader is intrinsically more significant; rather, it is that
he makes greater contribution to the society (De Guzman et al. 2017).

Why are Reason and Impartiality the Minimum Requirements for Morality?
Is someone tells us that a certain action is immoral, we may ask why it is so, and if there is
reasonable answer, we may discard the proposition as absurd. Also if somebody utters that a
particular act is wrong and explains that it is because it does not happen to fits his taste, then we
also do not count his claim as legitimate ethical judgment. Clearly, thus reason is a necessary
requirement for morality (De Guzman et al. 2017).

In the article “Impartiality,” it was stated that the only respect in which morality requires
impartiality is with respect to violating moral rules—for example, those rules prohibiting killing,
Ethics- BatStateU

causing pain, deceiving, and breaking promises. It is only with regard to these kinds of moral
rules—those that can be formulated as prohibitions—that it is humanly possible to act impartially
with regard to a group large enough to be an appropriate group.

As stated in the article “Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for Morality,”
Reason and impartiality become the basic prerequisite for morality as one is excepted to be able
to deliver clear, concise, rightful, and appropriate judgments made out of logic and understanding
in an unbiased and unprejudiced manner while considering the general welfare to accurately
concoct moral decisions.

Learning Activity
Directions: Each group will think 2 occupations or professionals. Using what they had learned
from reason, impartiality, and morality, each group will create a persuasion map and write down
all the facts, examples, and information to back up their reasoning. End your persuasion map with
a conclusion.

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GRAPHIC ORGANIZER RUBRIC

DIRECTIONS: Using the following criteria, choose the appropriate number from the
following scale that reflects your assessment of the student’s work.

1 = Weak 2 = Moderately Weak 3 = Average 4 = Moderately Strong 5 = Strong

11. The graphic organizer has an appropriate title and labels.

12. The graphic organizer’s lines, boxes, and text are neat and legible.
13. The information in the graphic organizer is accurate.
14. The spelling, grammar, and punctuation of the text on the graphic
organizer are accurate.
15. The graphic organizer presents the information in a manner that is easy
to follow.
16. The relationships presented in the graphic organizer are correct and
clear.
17. The form in which the graphic organizer portrays the information is
appropriate to the relationships being represented.
18. The graphic organizer demonstrates an understanding of the
topic, its relationships & related concepts.
19. The graphic organizer fulfills all the requirements of the
assignment.
20. Overall, the graphic organizer represents the student’s full
potential.

TOTAL:

Comments:_________________________________________________________________

______________________________________________________________________________

Learning Assessment
Directions: Make a reaction paper on the following topics based on the principle of reason,
impartiality, and morality. Provide pieces of evidence that will support your viewpoint and develop
possible solutions on the following issues.

1. Covid-19 response of Department of Health.

 Ethics- BatStateU

2. Alleged corruption and anomalies at PhilHeallth.

3. Passage of Anti-Terrorism Law
4. ABS-CBN franchise renewal
5. NCR and CALABARZON was under Modified ECQ again

[Type the document title]

Skills 5 4 3 2 1
Content and Analysis: -insightful clear ideas that Some ideas are The paper contains Ideas are not
the extent to which and/or sophisticated fully clearer than others an attempt to developed. Little to
the response conveys ideas that fully address address the and address the address the no textual evidence
complex ideas and the prompt and are prompt and are prompt. Ideas are prompt, but the is used.
fully supported by supported by supported by some writer provides little Mostly personal
information clearly relevant, accurate and relevant, accurate relevant clear, relevant
and responses.
specific evidence from and sufficient evidence. evidence.
accurately in order to appropriate sources. evidence.
respond to the task Evidence used is Evidence used is
and justified and clearly justified and
support an analysis of developed. developed
the text
Organization The paper follows a The paper follows The paper follows The paper does not The paper does not
clear and logical a logical train of a somewhat follow a train of follow a train of
train of thought. thought. confused train of thought. The paper thought. The paper
The introduction and The paper’s thought. is missing is missing
conclusion are introduction and The paper has an introduction or an introduction and
effective conclusion an introduction conclusion and the conclusion and the
and the writer always are functional and conclusion writer uses few writer fails to use
uses topic sentences and the writer and the writer topic sentences topic sentences
and effective always uses some and/or transitions. and/or transitions.
transitions uses topic topic sentences
sentences but less and adequate
effective transitions.
transitions.
Command of Quotations are Effectively Evidence is Evidence chosen Little or no
Evidence smoothly blended in. utilizes present, but does not support evidence is used.
Evidence is highly quotations, Superficial. Quotes ideas/claims. Quotes
persuasive and Evidence is are used, but not are irrelevant.
effective. believable and well blended.
convincing.
Reflections Conscious and Thoughtful Basic Ideas lack Does not address
thorough understanding of understanding of development; the prompt or gives
understanding of the the writing the writing misunderstanding of a basic plot
writing prompt and prompt. Analysis prompt and the prompt or text; little summary without
the subject matter. is believable subject matter. No to no reflection on commentary
Creative/original and convincing, a in-depth the text.
ideas and insights; few reflection.
extensive, insightful assertions may
commentary. lack
specific examples,
but
are still logical.
Mechanics and Demonstrates a Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrates Demonstrate a lack
Conventions mastery of writing control of the control of the emerging control of of control of
conventions conventions conventions conventions with conventions with
Language use includes a variety of that do not with infrequent some errors that frequent errors that
sentences marked by hinder errors, includes hinder make
varying opening comprehension, minimal variety in comprehension, lacks

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words and structure; includes some sentence structure variety in sentence comprehension
effective syntax and variety in and transitions. structure and difficult.
grammar. transitions and transitions.
sentence
structure.

Learning References
24. Kant and Hume on Morality (2018) Accessed August 9, 2020
https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-hume-morality/#ReasEmotMora
25. Reason and Impartiality as Minimum Requirement for Morality. Accessed August 9, 2020
https://www.coursehero.com/file/44441436/Gr-5-Ethicspptx/
26. De Guzman, J. M., Tesico, M. D., & Paras, W. D. (2017). Ethics Principles of Ethical
Behavior in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
27. Impartiality (2020). Accessed August 9, 2020
https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-
maps/impartiality
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MODULE 11
FEELINGS AND REASON

Introduction
This module discusses the role of feelings and emotions in decision-making. Reason and
emotions are jointly at work and tightly intertwined. This means that feelings are used as instinctive
response to moral dilemmas. Feelings may sometimes prohibit us to make right decisions but it
can also be used in making the right one. This concept will be explained by two theories of ethics
which discuss the role of feeling on morality. Lastly, student shall be mindful of their own feelings,
thoughts, and values as an indication of moral development.

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
p) Appraise and analyze their feelings in personal experiences
q) Compare reasonable and emotional responses.
r) Compare and contrast Ethical Subjectivism and Emotivism
s) Apply the principles of Ethical Subjectivism and Emotivism

Learning Content

Feeling and Moral Decision-Making

According to Ells (2014), emotion is a response to stimuli based on past experiences which
is made instinctively while reason is a form of personal justification which changes from person
to person based on their own ethical and moral code, as well as prior experience. Some ethicists
believe that ethics is also a matter of emotion. They hold the moral judgment as thet are even
deemed by some as instinctive and trained response to moral dilemmas (De Guzman et al. 2017).
Emotions is the result of logical analysis through which we first analyze someone’s behavior, make
an appropriate judgment, and then feel whichever is called for, respect or contempt (Pillemer &
Wheeler, 2010).

Researchers (and some philosophers) now see emotion and reason as tightly intertwined.
Emotion and reason are jointly at work when we judge the conduct of others or make choices
ourselves. A cognitive deficit of either type can impair our decision making capacity about all
manner of things, including moral judgments. People who suffer certain kinds of brain injuries or

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lesions, for example, retain the intellectual ability to understand alternative courses of action,
nevertheless are unable to make up their own minds, both literally and figuratively. Reading a
menu apparently is one thing, but choosing among items involves weighing likes, dislikes,
objectives, and values. These necessarily involve subjective judgments (Pillemer & Wheeler,
2010).

Some hold that reason and emotion are not really opposite. Both abstract inference and
emotional intuitions or instincts are seen as having relative roles in ethical thinking. For one thing,
feelings or emotions are said to be judgments about the accomplishment of one’s goals. Emotions,
it is thus concluded, can be rational in being based at least sometimes on good judgments about
how well a circumstance or agent accomplishes appropriate objectives. Feelings are also visceral
or instinctual by providing motivations to act morally (De Guzman et al. 2017).

Reason when removed from emotion, allows a person to make conscious decisions based
on fact, with no references to personal involvement. The use of reason as a way of knowing, allows
for the knower to see the consequences of their actions through-out the decision-making process.
Also, there are limitations to decisions made based on reason alone, perception of situations is not
questioned as it may be with an emotional decision (Ells, 2014).

Feeling-based Theories in Ethics

There are at least two theories in ethics that gives focus on the role of feelings on morality.
They are (1) Ethical Subjectivism and (2) Emotivism (De Guzman et al. 2017).

1. Ethical Subjectivism. This theory basically utter runs contrary to the principle that there is
objectivity in morality. Fundamentally a meta-ethically theory, it is not about what things are good
and what are things are bad. It does not tell how we should live or what moral norms we should
practice. Instead, it is a theory about the nature or moral judgments (De Guzman et al. 2017).

In the article “Basics of Philosophy,” Ethical Subjectivism holds that there are no objective
moral properties and that ethical statements are in fact arbitrary because they do not
express immutable truths. Instead, moral statements are made true or false by
the attitudes and/or conventions of the observers, and any ethical sentence just implies
an attitude, opinion, personal preference or feeling held by someone. Thus, for a statement to be
considered morally right merely means that it is met with approval by the person of interest.
Another way of looking at this is that judgments about human conduct are shaped by, and in many
ways limited to, perception.

As cited in the article “Basics of Philosophy,” there are several different variants which can be
considered under the heading of Ethical Subjectivism:

• Simple Subjectivism: the view (largely as described above) that ethical statements
reflect sentiments, personal preferences and feelings rather than objective facts.
• Individualist Subjectivism: the view (originally put forward by Protagoras) that there are
as many distinct scales of good and evil as there are individuals in the world. It is effectively
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a form of Egoism, which maintains that every human being ought to pursue what is in his
or her self-interest exclusively.
• Moral Relativism (or Ethical Relativism): the view that for a thing to be morally right is
for it to be approved of by society, leading to the conclusion that different things are right
for people in different societies and different periods in history.
• Ideal Observer Theory: the view that what is right is determined by the attitudes that a
hypothetical ideal observer (a being who is perfectly rational, imaginative and informed)
would have.

2. Emotivism. As cited in the “Emotive Theory of Ethics” The term emotivism refers to a theory
about moral judgments, sentences, words, and speech acts; it is sometimes also extended to cover
aesthetic and other nonmoral forms of evaluation. Although sometimes used to refer to the entire
genus, strictly speaking emotivism is the name of only the earliest version of ethical
noncognitivism (also known as expressivism and nondescriptivism).

Emotivism is actually the most popular form of non-cognitivism, the meta-ethical theory
that claims that ethical sentences do not convey authentic propositions. Moral judgments,
according to Emotivism, are not statements of fact but are mere expressions of the emotions of the
speaker especially since they are usually feelings—based (De Guzman et al. 2017).

To understand how the theory views moral judgments, it would help to note that language
is used in a variety of ways. Principally, language is used to state facts or what we believe to be
facts. But there are other purpose for which language may be used like utterance or command. The
purposes of utterances are (1) they are used as means of influencing other’s behavior and (2) moral
sentences are used to expresses (not report) the speaker’s attitude (De Guzman et al. 2017).

As cited in the article “Emotivism,” Emotivists believe that moral language expresses
emotions and tries to influence others; it has no cognitive content. If I say homosexuality is evil,
I’m just expressing my feeling that homosexuality is disgusting! I am expressing my emotions
and, at the same time, trying to influence you to dislike homosexuality. The same analysis applies
to any moral judgment. If I say that capital punishment is wrong, I’m just expressing my dislike
for it and trying to get you to agree with me. I might as well have said capital punishment while
shaking my head and rolling my eyes. And if I say that Stalin or Cheney were bad men—which
they were—I’m merely trying to get you to agree with what I’m really saying.

Criticisms on Ethical Subjectivism and Emotivism

Stated in the article “Subjectivism,” subjectivism implies the moral statements are less
significant than most people think they are – this may of course be true without rendering moral
statement insignificant. More so, Ethical Subjectivism has implications that are contrary to what
we believe about the nature of moral judgments.it also implies that each of us is infallible so as
long as we are honestly expressing our respective feelings about moral issues. Furthermore, it
cannot account for the fact of disagreement in Ethics. Finally, the theory could also have dangerous
implications in moral education (De Guzman et al. 2017).

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As cited in the article “Emotivism,” emotivism presupposes that moral disagreements

are incapable of being resolved by rational discourse. There is no way to resolve our attitudinal
disagreements unless we are persuasive enough (or violent enough). But we have already seen
that there’s another way to persuade—using reason to support our position. We can provide
good reasons why x is right or x is wrong. If we appeal to reason, we have discovered a way to
resolve our disputes that other than by shouting or beating others into submission. And if
reason plays a role in ethics, then there is truth or falsity about ethical judgments.

Feelings Can Help in Making the Right Decision

According to Pillemer & Wheeler (2010), moral development may rest in our ability to be
mindful of our own feelings, thoughts, and values—and the context in which we are functioning.
As we ponder decisions, and more fundamentally, our principles, Pillemer & Wheeler (2010),
enumerated some precepts to bear mind. Among them are:

1. Don’t accept the problem as given. How choices are framed can sway your choices
in ways that may contradict your core beliefs. (Think of the classic experiment about
health care policy.) Generate multiple options and assess them against one another
instead of considering them in isolation.
2. Listen to both your heart and head. Issues of right and wrong matter deeply to us, as
they should. Twinges of disgust or shame may be internal signals that we are nearing
the outer bounds of acceptable behavior. But we should also reflect on the sources of
our feelings, be they negative or positive, as they may be triggered by associations that
have nothing to do with the matter at hand.
3. Watch your language. How we name things exposes (or masks) the nature of our
actions and their consequences. Firings become layoffs, layoffs become downsizing,
and downsizing becomes right-sizing. The action may be unavoidable, but we should
not sugarcoat the fact that people who once worked with or for us are now jobless.
4. Take special care in dimly lit places. Your actions—and ultimately even your
values—are influenced by the company you keep.
5. Be modest about your virtue. Most of us believe that we are more ethical than are
others. Countless experiments and real life examples, however, should remind us that
people who are most self-righteous may be most likely to slip.
6. Understand why others transgress. Some lapses may be due to moral failure, but
others can be caused by external factors that have little to do with their fundamental
nature. Luck plays a role in regard to how people are tested and what resources they
can draw upon. Refrain from judging a person’s core character, positively or negatively,
on the basis of a single event.
7. Don’t give up on yourself (or on others). An ancient proverb says, “Every saint has
a past. Every sinner has a future.” Honest reflection about the past, coupled with a
measure of humility, can serve as foundation for leading a responsible life going
forward.
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In the end, morality is not merely—or even principally—determining the right thing to do
in specific instances, rather it entails who we want to be and what kind of life we want to lead
(Pillemer & Wheeler, 2010).

Learning Activity
Directions: The following are the suggested activities
1. Case analysis. Analyze the following cases with your group members and justify your
answer based on what you have learned from the topic.
A. You are a high-ranking public health official who must decide how to respond in
the face of an epidemic that will cost 600 lives if nothing is done. You only have
two alternatives: Option A which will result in 200 lives being saved or Option B
with a 1/3 chance that everyone would be saved. Which would you choose?
B. Dan, a student council president, often picks topics for discussion that appeal to
both professors and students in order to stimulate discussion. Would you say that
his conduct is highly immoral, not immoral at all, or someplace in between?
C. What if instead of throwing the switch, the only way for you to stop the train and
save the five is pushing a 300-pound man on to the tracks?

2. Recall a news report that you have seen recently. Illustrate your feelings as instinctive
response to the news.

Learning Assessment
Directions: The class will be divided into six group. Each group will play a wheel of fortune game
prepared earlier by their teacher. Each part of the wheel has topic to be used in the class debate.
Each group have only chance to roll the wheel. The topic where the pointer ends would be the
group’s topic.

The following are the options written in the wheel of fortune

15. Affirmative Team – End of life involving a dying parent
16. Negative Team – End of life involving a dying parent
17. Affirmative Team – Payment of facilitation fee to a customs officer by a finance employee
18. Negative Team – Payment of facilitation fee to a customs officer by a finance employee
19. Affirmative Team - The use of an official car to bring a four-year old daughter to school
everyday
20. Negative Team - The use of an official car to bring a four-year old daughter to school
everyday

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Rubric on the Levels of Performance for AFFIRMATIVE Team

Criteria 4 3 2 1 Grade:
1. Organization & Completely Mostly clear Clear in some Unclear and
Clarity: clear and and orderly in parts but not disorganized
orderly all parts overall throughout
Main arguments and presentation
responses are outlined
in a clear and orderly
way.
2. Use of Argument: Very strong Many good Some decent Few or no real
and persuasive arguments arguments, but arguments given,
Reasons are given to arguments given, with some or all arguments
support the resolution given only minor significant given had
throughout problems problems significant
problems
3. Use of cross- Excellent Good cross- Decent cross- Poor cross-exam
examination and cross-exam exam and exam and/or or rebuttals,
rebuttal: and defense rebuttals, with rebuttals, but failure to point
against only minor with some out problems in
Identification of Negative slip-ups significant Negative team’s
weakness in Negative team’s problems position or
team’s arguments and objections failure to defend
ability to defend itself itself against
against attack. attack.
4. Presentation Style: All style Most style Few style Very few style
features were features were features were features were
Tone of voice, clarity used used used used, none of
of expression, convincingly convincingly convincingly them
precision of arguments convincingly
all contribute to
keeping audience’s
attention and
persuading them of the
team’s case.
TOTAL
SCORE:

_____

(Divide by 4)

AVERAGE FOR AFFIRMATIVE TEAM: _______

STUDENT NUMBER (to remain confidential): _______________________________

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Rubric on the Levels of Performance for NEGATIVE Team

Criteria 4 3 2 1 Grade:
1. Organization & Completely Mostly clear Clear in some Unclear and
Clarity: clear and and orderly in parts but not disorganized
orderly all parts overall throughout
Main arguments and presentation
responses are outlined
in a clear and orderly
way.
2. Use of Argument: Very strong Many good Some decent Few or no real
and persuasive arguments arguments, but arguments given,
Reasons are given arguments given, with some or all arguments
against the resolution given only minor significant given had
throughout problems problems significant
problems
3. Use of cross- Excellent Good cross- Decent cross- Poor cross-exam
examination and cross-exam exam and exam and/or or rebuttal,
rebuttal: and defense rebuttal, with rebuttal, but failure to point
against only minor with some out problems in
Identification of Affirmative slip-ups significant Affirmative
weakness in team’s problems team’s position
Affirmative team’s objections or failure to
arguments and ability defend itself
to defend itself against against attack.
attack.
4. Presentation Style: All style Most style Few style Very few style
features were features were features were features were
Tone of voice, clarity used used used used, none of
of expression, convincingly convincingly convincingly them
precision of arguments convincingly
all contribute to
keeping audience’s
attention and
persuading them of the
team’s case.
TOTAL
SCORE:

_______

(Divide by 4)

AVERAGE FOR NEGATIVE TEAM: _______

STUDENT NUMBER (to remain confidential): _______________________________

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Learning References

28. Pillemer, J. & Wheeler, M. (2010). Moral Decision-Making: Reason, Emotion & Luck.
Accessed August 8, 2020
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228147434_Moral_Decision-
Making_Reason_Emotion_Luck
29. De Guzman, J. M., Tesico, M. D., & Paras, W. D. (2017). Ethics Principles of Ethical Behavior
in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
30. Ells, O. (2014). Accessed August 8, 2020 https://prezi.com/tfqmvcyiv0lb/what-roles-do-
emotion-and-reason-play-in-ethics/?fallback=1
31. https://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_ethical_subjectivism.html
32. The Basics of Philosophy. Accessed August 8, 2020
https://www.philosophybasics.com/branch_ethical_subjectivism.html
33. Subjectivism. Accessed August 8, 2020
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/introduction/subjectivism.shtml#:~:text=Bad%20points%20of
%20subjectivism,without%20rendering%20moral%20statements%20insignificant.
34. Emotivism (2016). Accessed August 8, 2020
https://reasonandmeaning.com/2016/11/26/emotivism/
35. Emotive Theory of Ethics (2019). Accessed August 8, 2020
https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-
maps/emotive-theory-ethics
Ethics- BatStateU

MODULE 12
THE 7-STEP MORAL REASONING

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
t) Understand the different the 7-step moral reasoning model
u) Apply the 7 steps of moral reasoning in his/ her decision making.

Learning Content

To ensure the reasonableness and neutrality of moral decisions, it is good to follow the
seven-step moral reasoning model. These steps can serve as a guide in making best choices in
decision makings.
1. Stop and think. Before making any decisions, it is nice to take a moment to think about
the following:
a. Situation itself
b. Your role in the situation
c. Other internal/ external factors such as
• People who might get involved in the result of the decision
• Potential effects of the decision
2. Clarify Goals. In a decision making, it is essential to determine your goals both short-term
and long-term goals. Short-term goals are those that need to be accomplished right after or
immediately after a decision is made. A long-term goal is that which the result may come
out after some times. It is important because that is going to be the basis of what one wishes
to accomplish. Sometimes, it requires a sacrifice for someone just to achieve his or her goal
whether short or long term one.
3. Determine facts. Make sure that that all essential information is considered before you
make a decision. To determine the facts, solve first what you know, then what do you still
need to know. Have a heart to accept other information about the subject of your decision-
making process and make it sure that facts are reliable and credible since these facts would
be the basis of your decision. In addition:

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a. Consider the reliability and credibility of the people providing the facts.
b. Consider the basis of the supposed facts. Evaluate on the basis of honesty,
accuracy, and memory.
4. Develop options. Once you know what you the goals are and facts are well considered
already, then you can make a list of actions that are possibly be your options. If its about
life decision, you can make talk to someone you trust most so you can broaden your
perspective and think of new choices. If you can think of only one or two choices, you are
probably not thinking hard enough.
5. Consider consequences. After developing options which are possibly your basis of action,
you must consider consequences of each option. Filter your choices to determine if any of
your options will violate any ethical considerations, and then omit unethical options. Think
of its long long-term consequences and act in accordance to the spirit of fairness and justice.
Identify who will be affected by your decision and how the decision is a likely to affect
them.
6. Choose. After consideration of all the consequences from the options, make a decision
now. If you are doubtful of your choice, try the following:
a. Talk to people whom you trust.
b. Think of someone who you think has the character of good decision maker.
c. If people around you found out your decision, would you be comfortable and
proud?
d. Follow the Golder Rule: treat others the way you want to be treated, and keep
your promises.
7. Monitor and modify. Ethical decision makers monitor the effect of their decisions and are
willing to modify their decision. Though it takes a lot of humility and courage to do such,
it is necessary if the decision had been made has a lot of ethical considerations. Do not
hesitate to revise your decisions in light of new developments in the situation.

Learning Activity
Directions: In a sheet of paper try this:
Ethics- BatStateU

1. Narrate the greatest decision you ever did in your life so far. Whether you applied it or
not already, try to it once more using this 7 step moral reasoning.

Learning Assessment
Directions: in your own words, how will you define and explain each step in moral reasoning.

1. Stop and think.

2. Clarify Goals.
3. Determine facts.
4. Develop options.
5. Consider consequences.
6. Choose.
7. Monitor and modify.
Essay Rubric

Points
5 4 3 2 1
Earned

The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay
fully focused consistently sufficiently minimally shows little
IDEAS and contains focused and focused and focused. The or no focus
a wealth of contains contains provided and the
• Controlling
ideas and ample ideas some ideas examples are ideas are
idea
• Supporting examples. and and vague or unclear,
ideas The writer examples. examples. general and irrelevant,
• Use of details uses The writer The response the response or
• Awareness of rhetorical may employ is generally demonstrates repetitive.
purpose strategies and rhetorical appropriate to minimal The
• Sense of addresses strategies or the awareness. response is
completeness counterargum address persuasive incomplete
ents. counterargum purpose. or too brief.
ents.

The The The The The essay

organization organization organization organization shows little
ORGANIZATION of ideas is appropriate is generally is formulaic evidence of
supports the and the appropriate or organizatio
• Introduction/bo
writer’s sequencing of and the ideas inappropriate. n or
dy/conclusion
• Sequence of focus. Ideas ideas is are clearly The response sequencing.
ideas are grouped logical. sequenced, may lack a Transitions
• Grouping of in a logical Varied but may be clear are not
ideas manner. repetitive. introduction used. The
Effective and or response is

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Ethics- BatStateU

• Effective varied transitions Transitions conclusion. incomplete

transitions transitions are used. are used Transitions or too brief.
• Awareness of are used. are rare.
purpose

The writer The language The language The language The

utilizes and tone of and tone are and tone are language
STYLE carefully the essay appropriate. uneven. and tone
crafted enhance the Word choice Word choice are
• Sentence
phrases to persuasive is adequate, is simple, inappropria
variety
• Word choice create a purpose. but may be ordinary, or te. Word
• Audience sustained Word choice simple or repetitive. choice is
awareness tone and an is ordinary. There is incorrect or
• Personal voice authoritative appropriate. Some minimal confusing.
voice. Word Sentences are sentence variation in The
choice varied. variety is sentence response is
reflects an evident. length and incomplete
advanced structure. or too brief.
vocabulary.

The writer The writer The writer The writer The writer
demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates lacks
CONVENTIONS full command knowledge of sufficient minimal understandi
of the the control of the control of the ng of the
• Sentence
conventions conventions conventions conventions convention
formation
• Subject-verb of written of written of written of written s of written
agreement English English. English. English. English.
• Standard word language. No Errors are Errors may Errors are Errors are
forms errors are minor and do interfere with frequent and pervasive.
• Punctuation, evident. not interfere meaning, but interfere with The
spelling, and with are not meaning. response is
capitalization meaning. distracting. incomplete
or too brief.

Learning References
1. Pasco, M. O., Suarez, V. F., & Rodriguez, A. M. (2018). Ethics. Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc.
Ethics- BatStateU

MODULE 13
REASON AND WILL

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
a) To understand the meaning of reason and will;
b) Compare and contrast the reason and will.
c) To apply these two concepts in their daily lives.

Learning Content
What is Reason?
In philosophy, reason, is the faculty or process of drawing logical syllogism. Reasoning is
the process of drawing out conclusion from the previous knowledge. In other words, reason is
associated with knowledge. Knowledge is something that one acquires as he studies, gets matured
and professional. The term reason is also used in other context as a disagreement to sensation,
perception, feeling, and desire.
According to Immanuel Kant, reason is the power of producing into oneness, by means
of understandable theories, the concepts that are provided by the intellect or the mind. The
foundation of sound ethics for him can only be by the authority of human reason. The voice of
God- conscience for St. Thomas Aquinas- is not heard directly today while man is living in this
finite world. That reason which gives a priori principles Kant calls “pure reason,” as distinguished
from the “practical reason,” which is especially concerned with the performance of actions. The
reason elects such and such as morally binding and thus act in accordance with what he/she this is
so. Kant told that reason in itself can only be sensible foundation of what is ethical for man. It also
reiterated that morality is grounded with external authority but it is simply grounded with reason
itself. Kant certainly wanted to delimit the bounds of reason, but this is not the same as arguing
that it has no role in our knowledge. There are three points in Kant’ reason:
1. the relation of reason to empirical truth;
2. reason’s role in scientific inquiry; and
3. the positive gains that come from appreciating reason’s limits.

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In theology, reason, as distinguished from faith, is the human intelligence exercised upon
religious truth whether by way of discovery or by way of explanation. The limits within which the
reason may be used have been laid down differently in different churches and periods of thought:
on the whole, modern Christianity, especially in the Protestant churches, tends to allow to reason
a wide field, reserving, however, as the sphere of faith the ultimate (supernatural) truths of
theology.
What is the will?
If the reason is the foundation of what is ethical for Kant, in turn, its source must be a
goodwill. This means that what is morally binding is rooted in reason as workable for the human
person who possesses the goodwill. A good will is also a force to pursue what one possesses in
mind also. Instead of looking at a man as he displays external attributes, goodness is in the very
interiority of himself. The good that is relevant to the person who through his/her reason knows
what one ought to do. The good will implies the achievability of what is known though reason.
Generally, will is a faculty od the mind that at the moment of decision is always present. For him,
there is only one good which can be called good without any qualification- the good motive or
good will. The true object of reason is to produce a will which is good in itself, since nothing else
is always and necessarily good. This will must be autonomous in nature because the will’s
autonomy will make a man a dignified one. To lose one’s freewill is to lose one’s dignity.

In a nutshell, Reason is the foundation of morality and the source of is the goodwill.

For example, the basis of our actions is our prior knowledge of somethings. The purpose
of why we wish to buy rubber shoes is that because we have prior knowledge that rubber shoes is
good for sports. To insist and the actual purchase of the rubber shoes, our will pushed us to do so.

Learning Activity
Directions: Make a simple essay about your future wishes/ dreams. Consider the following
questions?
1. What do you really want in your life?
2. What are the factors that made you realize what you want?
3. What are the ways are you going to do to achieve what you want in your life?
Ethics- BatStateU

Learning Assessment
Directions: Answer this for 20 points.

1. What come first, reason or the will? Defend your answer showing some other literatures/
evidences.

Essay Rubric

Points
5 4 3 2 1
Earned

The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay
fully focused consistently sufficiently minimally shows little
IDEAS and contains focused and focused and focused. The or no focus
a wealth of contains contains provided and the
● Controlling
idea ideas and ample ideas some ideas examples are ideas are
● Supporting examples. and and vague or unclear,
ideas The writer examples. examples. general and irrelevant,
● Use of details uses The writer The response the response or
● Awareness of rhetorical may employ is generally demonstrates repetitive.
purpose strategies and rhetorical appropriate to minimal The
● Sense of addresses strategies or the awareness. response is
completeness
counterargum address persuasive incomplete
ents. counterargum purpose. or too brief.
ents.

The The The The The essay

organization organization organization organization shows little
ORGANIZATION of ideas is appropriate is generally is formulaic evidence of
supports the and the appropriate or organizatio
● Introduction/bo
writer’s sequencing of and the ideas inappropriate. n or
dy/conclusion
● Sequence of focus. Ideas ideas is are clearly The response sequencing.
ideas are grouped logical. sequenced, may lack a Transitions
● Grouping of in a logical Varied but may be clear are not
ideas manner. transitions repetitive. introduction used. The
● Effective Effective and are used. Transitions or response is
transitions varied are used conclusion. incomplete
● Awareness of
transitions Transitions or too brief.
purpose
are used. are rare.

1
Ethics- BatStateU

The writer The language The language The language The

utilizes and tone of and tone are and tone are language
STYLE carefully the essay appropriate. uneven. and tone
crafted enhance the Word choice Word choice are
● Sentence
phrases to persuasive is adequate, is simple, inappropria
variety
● Word choice create a purpose. but may be ordinary, or te. Word
● Audience sustained Word choice simple or repetitive. choice is
awareness tone and an is ordinary. There is incorrect or
● Personal voice authoritative appropriate. Some minimal confusing.
voice. Word Sentences are sentence variation in The
choice varied. variety is sentence response is
reflects an evident. length and incomplete
advanced structure. or too brief.
vocabulary.

The writer The writer The writer The writer The writer
demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates lacks
CONVENTIONS full command knowledge of sufficient minimal understandi
of the the control of the control of the ng of the
● Sentence
conventions conventions conventions conventions convention
formation
● Subject-verb of written of written of written of written s of written
agreement English English. English. English. English.
● Standard word language. No Errors are Errors may Errors are Errors are
forms errors are minor and do interfere with frequent and pervasive.
● Punctuation, evident. not interfere meaning, but interfere with The
spelling, and with are not meaning. response is
capitalization
meaning. distracting. incomplete
or too brief.

Learning References
1. Williams, Garrath, "Kant's Account of Reason", The Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy (Summer 2018 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), URL =
<https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/kant-reason/>.

2. Pasco, M. O., Suarez, V. F., & Rodriguez, A. M. (2018). Ethics. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Ethics- BatStateU

MODULE 14
MORAL THEORIES

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
a) determine the difference between morality and ethics
b) understand the different moral theories
c) differentiate between moral theories.

Learning Content

The words "moral" and "ethics" (and cognates) are often used interchangeably. However, it is
useful to make the following distinction:

● Morality is the system through which we determine right and wrong conduct -- i.e., the guide to
good or right conduct.
● Ethics is the philosophical study of Morality.
What, then, is a moral theory?

A theory is a structured set of statements used to explain (or predict) a set of facts or concepts. A
moral theory, then, explains why a certain action is wrong -- or why we ought to act in certain ways. In
short, it is a theory of how we determine right and wrong conduct. Also, moral theories provide the
framework upon which we think and discuss in a reasoned way, and so evaluate, specific moral issues.

Seen in this light, it becomes clear that we cannot draw a sharp divide between moral theory and
applied ethics (e.g., medical or business ethics). For instance, in order to critically evaluate the moral issue
of affirmative action, we must not attempt to evaluate what actions or policies are right (or wrong)
independent of what we take to determine right and wrong conduct. You will see, as we proceed, that we
do not do ethics without at least some moral theory. When evaluating the merits of some decision regarding
a case, we will always (or at least ought to always) find ourselves thinking about how right and wrong is
determined in general, and then apply that to the case at hand. Note, though, that sound moral thinking does
not simply involve going one way -- from theory to applied issue. Sometimes a case may suggest that we
need to change or adjust our thinking about what moral theory we think is the best, or perhaps it might lead
us to think that a preferred theory needs modification.

Are moral theories descriptive or prescriptive?

In presenting a moral theory, are we merely describing how people, in their everyday 'doings' and
'thinkings,' form a judgment about what is right and wrong, or are we prescribing how people ought to make
these judgments?

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Most take moral theories to be prescriptive. The descriptive accounts of what people do are left to
sociologists and anthropologists. Philosophers, then, when they study morality, want to know what is the
proper way of determining right and wrong. There have been many different proposals. Here is a brief
summary.

Theories of Morality
1. Moral Subjectivism
Main Point: Moral Subjectivism is where right or wrong are determined by what you -- the subject -- just
happens to think (or 'feel') is right or wrong. This is simply based on your personal assessment and
judgment.

In its common form, moral subjectivism amounts to the denial of moral principles of any significant
kind, and the possibility of moral criticism and argumentation. In nature, 'right' and 'wrong' lose their
meaning because so long as someone thinks or feels that some action is 'right', there are no grounds for
criticism. If you are a moral subjectivist, you cannot object to anyone's behavior. This shows the key flaw
in moral subjectivism -- probably nearly everyone thinks that it is legitimate to object, on moral grounds,
to at least some peoples' actions. That is, it is possible to disagree about moral issues.

2. Cultural Relativism
Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by the particular set of principles or rules the relevant culture
just happens to hold at the time. This is also based on the idea that different people have different cultures
that are why right or wrong is based on how one’s culture dictates morality.

Cultural Relativism is closely linked to Moral Subjectivism. It implies that we cannot criticize the
actions of those in cultures other than our own. And again, it amounts to the denial of universal moral
principles. Also, it implies that a culture cannot be mistaken about what is right and wrong (which seems
not to be true), and so it denies the possibility of moral advancement (which also seems not to be true).

3. Ethical Egoism
Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by what is in your self-interest. Or, it is immoral to act contrary
to your self-interest.

Ethical Egoism is usually based upon Psychological Egoism -- that we, by nature, act selfishly.
Ethical egoism does not imply hedonism or that we ought to aim for at least some 'higher' goods (e.g.,
wisdom, political success), but rather that we will (ideally) act so as to maximize our self-interest. This
may require that we forgo some immediate pleasures for the sake of achieving some long term goals. Also,
ethical egoism does not exclude helping others. However, egoists will help others only if this will further
their own interests. An ethical egoist will claim that the altruist helps others only because they want to
(perhaps because they derive pleasure out of helping others) or because they think there will be some
personal advantage in doing so. That is, they deny the possibility of genuine altruism (because they think
we are all by nature selfish). This leads us to the key implausibility of Ethical Egoism -- that the person
who helps others at the expense of their self-interest is actually acting immorally. Many think that the ethical
egoist has misunderstood the concept of morality -- i.e., morality is the system of practical reasoning
through which we are guided to constrain our self-interest, not further it. Also, that genuine altruism is
indeed possible, and relatively commonly exhibited.
Ethics- BatStateU

4. Divine Command Theory

Main Point: Right and wrong come from the commands of God (or the gods)

Many claim that there is a necessary connection between morality and religion, such that, without
religion (in particular, without God or gods) there is no morality, i.e., no right and wrong behaviour.
Although there are related claims that religion is necessary to motivate and guide people to behave in a
morally good way, most take the claim of the necessary connection between morality and religion to mean
that right and wrong come from the commands of God (or the gods). This view of morality is known as
Divine Command Theory. The upshot is that an action is right -- or obligatory -- if God commands us to do
it, wrong if God commands we refrain from doing it, and morally permissible if God does not command
that it not be done.

5. Virtue Ethics
Main Point: Right and wrong are characterized in terms of acting in accordance with the traditional
virtues -- making a good person.

This will be further discussed in the preceding chapters.

6. Feminist Ethics

Main Point: Right and wrong are to be found in women's responses to the relationship of caring.

Comes out of the criticism that all other moral theories are 'masculine' -- display a male bias.
Specifically, feminists are critical of the 'individualistic' nature of other moral theories. Rather, feminist
ethics suggests that we need to consider the self as at least partly constructed by social relations. So morality,
according to some feminist moral philosophers, must be ground in 'moral emotions' like love and sympathy,
leading to relationships of caring. This allows legitimate biases towards those with whom we have close
social relationships.

7. Utilitarianism
Main Point: Right and wrong is determined by the overall goodness (utility) of the consequences of the
action.

Utilitarianism is a Consequentialist moral theory.

Basic ideas:

All action leads to some end. But there is a summum bonum -- the highest good/end. This is
pleasure or happiness. Also, there is a First Principle of Morals -- 'Principle of Utility', alternatively called
'The Greatest Happiness Principle' (GHP), usually characterized as the ideal of working towards the greatest
happiness of the greatest number. The GHP implies that we ought to act so as to maximize human welfare.
We do this in a particular instance by choosing the action that maximizes pleasure/happiness and
minimizing suffering.

This will be further discussed in the preceding chapters.

8. Kantian Theory

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Main Point: Right and wrong are determined by rationality, giving universal duties.

Basic ideas:

That there is "the supreme principle of morality". Good and Evil are defined in terms of Law / Duty /
Obligation. Rationality and Freedom are also central. Kant thought that acting morally was quite simple.
That is:

1. you ought to do your duty (simply because it is your duty).

2. Reason guides you to this conclusion.
3. Good Will (i.e., having the right intentions) is the only thing that is good without qualification. So,
actions are truly moral only if they have the right intention, i.e., based on Good Will.

This will be further discussed in the preceding chapters.

9. Contractarianism
Main Point: The principles of right and wrong (or Justice) are those which everyone in society would agree
upon in forming a social contract.

Various forms of Contractarianism have been suggested. In general, the idea is that the principles
or rules that determine right and wrong in society are determined by a hypothetical contract forming
procedure.

Learning Activity
Directions: Make a reflection paper anchored on any of the given Moral Theory above.
Ethics- BatStateU

Learning Assessment
Directions: Describe and Explain the following moral theories. Five points each.
1. Moral Subjectivism
2. Cultural Relativism
3. Ethical Egoism
4. Divine Command Theory
5. Contractarianism

Essay Rubric

Points
5 4 3 2 1
Earned

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Ethics- BatStateU

The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay
fully focused consistently sufficiently minimally shows little
IDEAS and contains focused and focused and focused. The or no focus
a wealth of contains contains provided and the
● Controlling
ideas and ample ideas some ideas examples are ideas are
idea
● Supporting examples. and and vague or unclear,
ideas The writer examples. examples. general and irrelevant,
● Use of details uses The writer The response the response or
● Awareness of rhetorical may employ is generally demonstrates repetitive.
purpose strategies and rhetorical appropriate to minimal The
● Sense of addresses strategies or the awareness. response is
completeness
counterargum address persuasive incomplete
ents. counterargum purpose. or too brief.
ents.

The The The The The essay

organization organization organization organization shows little
ORGANIZATION of ideas is appropriate is generally is formulaic evidence of
supports the and the appropriate or organizatio
● Introduction/bo
writer’s sequencing of and the ideas inappropriate. n or
dy/conclusion
● Sequence of focus. Ideas ideas is are clearly The response sequencing.
ideas are grouped logical. sequenced, may lack a Transitions
● Grouping of in a logical Varied but may be clear are not
ideas manner. transitions repetitive. introduction used. The
● Effective Effective and are used. Transitions or response is
transitions varied are used conclusion. incomplete
● Awareness of
transitions Transitions or too brief.
purpose
are used. are rare.

The writer The language The language The language The

utilizes and tone of and tone are and tone are language
STYLE carefully the essay appropriate. uneven. and tone
crafted enhance the Word choice Word choice are
● Sentence
phrases to persuasive is adequate, is simple, inappropria
variety
● Word choice create a purpose. but may be ordinary, or te. Word
● Audience sustained Word choice simple or repetitive. choice is
awareness tone and an is ordinary. There is incorrect or
● Personal voice authoritative appropriate. Some minimal confusing.
voice. Word Sentences are sentence variation in The
choice varied. variety is sentence response is
reflects an evident. length and incomplete
advanced structure. or too brief.
vocabulary.
Ethics- BatStateU

The writer The writer The writer The writer The writer
demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates lacks
CONVENTIONS full command knowledge of sufficient minimal understandi
of the the control of the control of the ng of the
● Sentence
conventions conventions conventions conventions convention
formation
● Subject-verb of written of written of written of written s of written
agreement English English. English. English. English.
● Standard word language. No Errors are Errors may Errors are Errors are
forms errors are minor and do interfere with frequent and pervasive.
● Punctuation, evident. not interfere meaning, but interfere with The
spelling, and with are not meaning. response is
capitalization
meaning. distracting. incomplete
or too brief.

Learning References
1. https://home.sandiego.edu/~baber/gender/MoralTheories.html
2. Roa, F. C. (2011). Business Ethics and Social Responsibility. Manila: REX Bookstore.

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Ethics- BatStateU

MODULE 15
ARISTOTLE AND ST. THOMAS

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:

a) To describe the moral philosophy of Aristotle and St. Thomas.

b) To explain the differences and similarities of Aristotle and St. Thomas’ philosophy.

Learning Content
Aristotle

The Greek philosopher Aristotle wrote his Nicomachean Ethics with these questions in

mind. For him, the ultimate purpose cannot be understood without understanding the place of

reason in ordering one’s life. Aristotle considers that morality is not merely a matter of knowing

the good, just like Plato’s proposition, but actually doing the good habitually. We become what

we are not what we know but what we do. According to him, self-realization is the highest good

attainable by man. Self-realization is termed as Eudaemonia or well-being or happiness.

This happiness is not the same as possession of wealth or pleasure; while pleasure is good,

it is not the ultimate good. Happiness is the natural outcome of the active exercise of functions.

The full realization of functions refers to fulfilling, realizing, actualizing, and developing one’s

nature with all its potentials.

Eudaemonia is sought for its own sake. All other ends, such as wealth, health, power, are

sought because they are perceived to be instrumental in one’s flourishing. It is, as the proper end

of man, not some kind of inactive state but actually something that one does. for Aristotle, our
Ethics- BatStateU

chief good is not something we merely possess in mind but something that we continually actualize

in practice. According to him, Eudaemonia is an activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.

Threefold Nature of Man

Each of these must be fulfilled as the realization of each is accompanied by a state of

pleasure and happiness.

1. Vegetative- it refers to the physical body which is cultivated by wholesome food and proper

exercise. The body needs food, drink, work, and rest in order to survive and to keep oneself

physically fit.

2. Sentient- Man as full of senses has sentient nature. Man’s sensual feelings and emotions

must be fully developed through appropriate sex activity within the limit of his social

conventions. One needs to make his feelings and emotions fine to satisfy his senses.

3. Rational- Human bearings are rational animals. the full realization of their vegetative and

sentient nature keeps them longing for more lasting satisfaction. food and shelter cannot

satisfy their thirst for self-realization. one develops his rational nature in the pursuit of

scientific knowledge. philosophical truth, political activity, religious commitment, and

creative, artistic endeavor.

Therefore, for Aristotle, upon the realization of man’s highest nature, there is good,

happiness.

Determinant of Morality

The doctrine of the golden mean is central in the self- realization ethics of Aristotle,

especially in the full exercise of functions regarding the development of man’s vegetative and

sentient nature. reason seeks the balanced course between too much and too little. Extremes and

excesses are always evil, hence, to be avoided.

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St. Thomas Aquinas

St. Thomas’ philosophy began with the standpoint of faith. He is known to be one who

Christianized the philosophy based on his theories and ways. His perspective presupposes the

existence of God who is the author (source) and the goal (end) of all realities. According to him,

there exists a natural law which is the interpretation of man from the Eternal Law. In his view, the

source of the moral law is reason itself. in its operation, reason recognizes the basic principle “Do

good and avoid evil”. He used the term synderesis to describe this inherent capacity of an

individual to perceive what is good or bad. In short, the moral law is the dictates of the voice of

reason, and this dictate is expressed in the principle that good must be done and evil must be

avoided. The voice of reason is also called the conscience, in so far the conscience refers to the

immediate judgment of practical reason applying the general principle of morality.

What is good for St. Thomas?

St. Thomas asserts that what is human good is which is suitable for and proper to human

nature. Thus, whenever an act is suitable to human nature as such, then it is good and it must be

done; whenever it is not proper to human nature, however, then it is evil and it must be avoided.

So, human nature is the proximate norm of morality. In St. Thomas View, the good is built

into human nature, to which we are directed by our natural inclinations: self-preservation, just

dealings with others and the propagation of the species.

Three Natural Inclinations of Man

1. Self-preservation. We are inclined to preserve our life. Self- destruction, first of all, is

unnatural as far as St. Thomas is concerned. This urges us to care for our health, not to kill

ourselves or put ourselves in danger.

Ethics- BatStateU

2. Just dealings with others. Reason by nature leads us to treat others with the same dignity

and respect that we accord ourselves. This is the basis of justice which arises out of human

relations. Thus, any act of injustice is against human nature.

3. Propagation of the species. We are naturally inclined to perpetuate our species which is

viewed as a natural good. We are obligated not to pervert this natural inclination. the

reproductive organs are by nature designed to reproduce and to perpetuate the human

species. And any intervention against such nature must be evil.

Determinant of Morality

1. Object- the Act itself

2. Circumstances-are conditions which, when superadded to the nature of the moral act, will

affect its morality. It answers the question of who, what, where, by what means, why, how

and when?

3. End of the agent- The end here is taken in the sense of end or purpose of the agent or the

doer.

Learning Activity
Directions: Answer this situation using St. Thomas’ determinants of morality.

Giving alms to a beggar is good in itself. Try to explain this proving that there can be an
evilness in it.

Learning Assessment
Directions: Identify the following:
1. This urges us to care for our health, not to kill ourselves or put ourselves in danger.

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2. These are conditions which, when superadded to the nature of the moral act, will affect
its morality.
3. Basis of goodness according to St. Thomas.
4. Man is full of senses that is why man is ______________.
5. This is the basis of justice which arises out of human relations.
6. It refers to the physical body which is cultivated by wholesome food and proper exercise.
7. This is an inherent capacity of an individual to perceive what is good or bad
8. This is exemplified by the reproductive organs are by nature designed to reproduce and to
perpetuate the human species.
9. It is also called the purpose of the agent or the doer.
10. Basis of goodness according to Aristotle

Learning References
1. Timbreza, F. T. (2005). Quest for Meaning Philosohpy Made Easy for Filipinos. Quezon City:
New Day Publisher.
2. Pasco, M. O., Suarez, V. F., & Rodriguez, A. M. (2018). Ethics. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Ethics- BatStateU

MODULE 16
KANTIAN THEORY

Learning Objectives

At the end of the topic, students are expected to:

a) understand the Kantian Theory.
b) determine the role of goodwill in ethics
c) understand the Right Based theory of Kant.

Learning Content
Kantian Theory (Continuation of Module 15)

Main Idea: Right and wrong is determined by rationality, giving universal duties.

Kantianism is a Non-consequentialist moral theory.

Basic ideas: That there is "the supreme principle of morality". Good and Evil are defined in terms of Law
/ Duty / Obligation. Rationality and Freedom are also central. Kant thought that acting morally was quite
simple. That is:

a. you ought to do your duty (simply because it is your duty).

b. Reason guides you to this conclusion.
c. Good Will (i.e., having the right intentions) is the only thing that is good without
qualification. So, actions are truly moral only if they have the right intention, i.e., based
on Good Will.
What establishes Good Will?

- only can be a law of "universal conformity" -- "I should never act except in such a way that I can also
will that my maxim should become a universal law".

This is called the Categorical Imperative = Principle of Universalizability (something like The
Golden Rule). The basic idea is that we should adopt as action-guiding rules (i.e., maxims) only those that
can be universally accepted. Consider someone wondering if they could break a promise if keeping it
became inconvenient. We might formulate the following maxim governing promises:

“I can break promises when keeping them becomes inconvenient.”

Can this be universalized? Kant says no because making promises then becomes, in essence,
contradictory. The thinking is that a promise is, by definition, something you keep. The above maxim
would lead to a contradiction of will, i.e., "I'll make a promise (something I keep), but I'll break it if I
choose". The more general way to understand the Principle of Universalizability is to think that we must

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Ethics- BatStateU

always ask the following questions: What if everyone did the action you are proposing? Or, what if I were
in the other person's position? This leads to the basic idea behind the Golden Rule.

Kant had another way of formulating the Categorical Imperative that is worth noting.

Never treat anyone merely as a means to an end. Rather, treat everyone as an end in themselves.

We can understand this by noting an example, i.e., the slave society. What is wrong with the slave
society, following the above principle, is that a slave is treated as a means to the slave owner's ends, i.e.,
as an instrument or tool, not as a person. The upshot is that no person's interests (or rights) can be
overridden by another's, or the majority.

Many think that this way of formulating the Categorical Imperative shows that Kantianism is
clearly anti-Utilitarian.

Some things to ask about Kantianism:

● Is it true that having good intentions is the only thing that counts morally?
● Must we always ignore good consequences?
● Is it always wrong to treat people merely as a means to an end? (Can we do otherwise?)
Rights-based Theories of Kant

Main Point: We are to act in accordance with a set of moral rights, which we possess simply by being
human.

Rights-based views are connected to Kantianism and are Non-consequentialist. The basic idea is
that if someone has a right, then others have a corresponding duty to provide what the right requires.

Most distinguish between positive and negative rights. A positive right is one in which the corresponding
duty requires positive action, e.g., giving a charitable donation in order to sustain someone's right to life,
shelter, education, etc. A negative right is one in which the corresponding duty merely requires refraining
from doing something that will harm someone. For instance, the right to life does not require that we give
what is needed to sustain life, rather merely that we refrain from taking any action that would take life.
Some things to ask about Rights-based theories:

● Where do rights come from? From nature (we have them simply by being human)? From principles
of Justice? Or, from Utilitarian procedures?
● How do we decide between competing rights?

Learning Activity
Directions: Write a reflection paper entitled, “My Rights and my Duties”
Ethics- BatStateU

Learning Assessment
Directions: Answer the question below for 25 points.

1. Explain how rights are limited by your duties.

Essay Rubric

Points
5 4 3 2 1
Earned

The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay is The essay
fully focused consistently sufficiently minimally shows little
IDEAS and contains focused and focused and focused. The or no focus
a wealth of contains contains provided and the
● Controlling
ideas and ample ideas some ideas examples are ideas are
idea
● Supporting examples. and and vague or unclear,
ideas The writer examples. examples. general and irrelevant,
● Use of details uses The writer The response the response or
● Awareness of rhetorical may employ is generally demonstrates repetitive.
purpose strategies and rhetorical appropriate to minimal The
● Sense of addresses strategies or the awareness. response is
completeness
counterargum address persuasive incomplete
ents. counterargum purpose. or too brief.
ents.

The The The The The essay

organization organization organization organization shows little
ORGANIZATION of ideas is appropriate is generally is formulaic evidence of
supports the and the appropriate or organizatio
● Introduction/bo
writer’s sequencing of and the ideas inappropriate. n or
dy/conclusion
● Sequence of focus. Ideas ideas is are clearly The response sequencing.
ideas are grouped logical. sequenced, may lack a Transitions
● Grouping of in a logical Varied but may be clear are not
ideas manner. transitions repetitive. introduction used. The
● Effective Effective and are used. Transitions or response is
transitions varied are used conclusion. incomplete
● Awareness of
transitions Transitions or too brief.
purpose
are used. are rare.

The writer The language The language The language The

utilizes and tone of and tone are and tone are language
STYLE carefully the essay appropriate. uneven. and tone
crafted enhance the Word choice Word choice are
● Sentence
phrases to persuasive is adequate, is simple, inappropria
variety
create a purpose. but may be ordinary, or te. Word

1
Ethics- BatStateU

● Word choice sustained Word choice simple or repetitive. choice is

● Audience tone and an is ordinary. There is incorrect or
awareness authoritative appropriate. Some minimal confusing.
● Personal voice voice. Word Sentences are sentence variation in The
choice varied. variety is sentence response is
reflects an evident. length and incomplete
advanced structure. or too brief.
vocabulary.

The writer The writer The writer The writer The writer
demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates demonstrates lacks
CONVENTIONS full command knowledge of sufficient minimal understandi
of the the control of the control of the ng of the
● Sentence
conventions conventions conventions conventions convention
formation
● Subject-verb of written of written of written of written s of written
agreement English English. English. English. English.
● Standard word language. No Errors are Errors may Errors are Errors are
forms errors are minor and do interfere with frequent and pervasive.
● Punctuation, evident. not interfere meaning, but interfere with The
spelling, and with are not meaning. response is
capitalization
meaning. distracting. incomplete
or too brief.

Learning References
1. https://home.sandiego.edu/~baber/gender/MoralTheories.html

2. Pasco, M. O., Suarez, V. F., & Rodriguez, A. M. (2018). Ethics. Quezon City: C & E
Publishing, Inc.
Ethics- BatStateU

MODULE 17
UTILITARIANISM

Learning Objectives

At the end of the topic, students are expected to:

a) understand utilitarianism.
b) understand Principle of Utility of Jeremy Bentham
c) Understand the John Stuart Mill Utilitarianism.

Learning Content
Utilitarianism

Utilitarianism is a normative ethical theory that places the locus of right and wrong solely on the

outcomes (consequences) of choosing one action/policy over other actions/policies. As such, it

moves beyond the scope of one's own interests and takes into account the interests of others.

Jeremy Bentham’ Principle of Utility

1. Recognizes the fundamental role of pain and pleasure in human life,

2. Approves or disapproves of action on the basis of the amount of pain or pleasure brought

about i.e, consequences,

3. Equates good with pleasure and evil with pain, and

4. Asserts that pleasure and pain are capable of quantification (and hence 'measure').

In measuring pleasure and pain, Bentham introduces the following criteria: INTENSITY,

DURATION, CERTAINTY (or UNCERTAINTY), and its NEARNESS (or FARNESS). He also

includes its "fecundity" (will more of the same follow?) and its "purity" (its pleasure won't be

followed by pain & vice versa). In considering actions that affect numbers of people, we must

also account for its EXTENT.

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John Stuart Mill

He adjusted the more hedonistic tendencies in Bentham's philosophy by emphasizing:

1. It is not the quantity of pleasure, but the quality of happiness that is central to

utilitarianism,

2. the calculus is unreasonable -- qualities cannot be quantified (there is a distinction

between 'higher' and 'lower' pleasures), and

3. utilitarianism refers to "the Greatest Happiness Principle" -- it seeks to promote the

capability of achieving happiness (higher pleasures) for the most amount of people (this

is its "extent").

Act and Rule Utilitarianism

We can apply the principle of utility to either PARTICULAR ACTIONS or GENERAL

RULES. The former is called "act-utilitarianism" and the latter is called "rule-utilitarianism."

Act-utilitarianism -- The principle of utility is applied directly to each alternative act in a

situation of choice. The right act is then defined as the one which brings about the best results (or

the least amount of bad results). Criticisms of this viewpoint to the difficulty of attaining full

knowledge and certainty of the consequences of our actions. It is possible to justify immoral acts

using AU: Suppose you could end a regional war by torturing children whose fathers are enemy

soldiers, thus revealing the hideouts of the fathers.

Rule-utilitarianism -- The principle of utility is used to determine the validity of rules of conduct

(moral principles). A rule like promise-keeping is established by looking at the consequences of

a world in which people broke promises at will and a world in which promises were binding.
Ethics- BatStateU

Right and wrong are then defined as following or breaking those rules. Some criticisms of this

position point out that if the Rules take into account more and more exceptions, RU collapses

into AU. More general criticisms of this view argue that it is possible to generate "unjust rules"

according to the principle of utility. For example, slavery in Greece might be right if it led to an

overall achievement of cultivated happiness at the expense of some mistreated individuals.

Learning Activity
Directions:
If you were an utilitarian, write a creative essay entitled, “The Duterte Administration’s
Response to COVID-19 Pandemic.”

Essay Rubric

Points
5 4 3 2 1
Earned

The essay The essay The essay The essay The essay
is fully is is is shows
IDEAS focused consistentl sufficiently minimally little or
● Controlling and y focused focused focused. no focus
idea contains a and and The and the
● Supporting wealth of contains contains provided ideas are
ideas ideas and ample some ideas examples unclear,
● Use of examples. ideas and and are vague irrelevant
details The writer examples. examples. or general , or
● Awareness
uses The writer The and the repetitive
of purpose
● Sense of rhetorical may response is response . The
completeness strategies employ generally demonstrat response
and rhetorical appropriate es minimal is
addresses strategies to the awareness. incomplet
counterarg or address persuasive e or too
uments. counterarg purpose. brief.
uments.

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The The The The The essay

organizatio organizatio organizatio organizatio shows
ORGANIZATION n of ideas n is n is n is little
● Introduction supports appropriate generally formulaic evidence
/body/conclu the writer’s and the appropriate or of
sion focus. sequencing and the inappropria organizati
● Sequence of Ideas are of ideas is ideas are te. The on or
ideas grouped in logical. clearly response sequencin
● Grouping of a logical Varied sequenced, may lack a g.
ideas
manner. transitions but may be clear Transitio
● Effective
transitions Effective are used. repetitive. introductio ns are not
● Awareness and varied Transitions n or used.
of purpose transitions are used conclusion. The
are used. Transitions response
are rare. is
incomplet
e or too
brief.

The writer The The The The

utilizes language language language language
STYLE carefully and tone of and tone and tone and tone
● Sentence crafted the essay are are uneven. are
variety phrases to enhance appropriate Word inappropr
● Word choice create a the . Word choice is iate.
● Audience sustained persuasive choice is simple, Word
awareness tone and an purpose. adequate, ordinary, choice is
● Personal authoritativ Word but may be or incorrect
voice
e voice. choice is simple or repetitive. or
Word appropriate ordinary. There is confusing
choice . Some minimal . The
reflects an Sentences sentence variation in response
advanced are varied. variety is sentence is
vocabulary evident. length and incomplet
. structure. e or too
brief.
Ethics- BatStateU

The writer The writer The writer The writer The

demonstrat demonstrat demonstrat demonstrat writer
CONVENTIONS es full es es es minimal lacks
● Sentence command knowledge sufficient control of understan
formation of the of the control of the ding of
● Subject-verb convention convention the convention the
agreement s of written s of written convention s of written conventio
● Standard English English. s of written English. ns of
word forms language. Errors are English. Errors are written
● Punctuation,
No errors minor and Errors may frequent English.
spelling, and
capitalizatio are do not interfere and Errors are
n evident. interfere with interfere pervasive
with meaning, with . The
meaning. but are not meaning. response
distracting. is
incomplet
e or too
brief.

Learning Assessment
Directions: Answer the question below. 20 points
1. Compare and contrast in your own words the position of Benthan and Mills
utilitarianism.

Learning References

1. http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/Cavalier/80130/part2/sect9.html

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MODULE 18
GLOBALIZATION AND ITS ETHICAL CHALLENGES

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
a) to define globalization;
b) to identify some emerging problems in globalization;
c) to identify some ethical challenges of globalization;
d) to identify business ethics issues on globalization.

Learning Content

What is Globalization?

Globalization has become the trend of unity among countries as this concept made scattered
states one interact with each other. Globalization is defined through the following:

a. the world-wide integration of government policies, cultures, social movements, and

financial markets through trade and the exchange of ideas;
b. intensification of worldwide relationships which link distant localities in such a way that
local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa.
c. It is the stress on trans-nationalization of the connections taking place in the world
today.

Some Problems with Globalization

1. It uses up finite resources more quickly. Once one country opens up their product to the
world wherein all countries can avail, there is a big possibility of depleting the supply.
2. Increases world carbon dioxide.
3. It makes it virtually impossible for regulators in one country to foresee the worldwide
implications of their actions.
4. It acts to increase world oil prices.
5. It transfers consumption of limited oil supply from developed countries to developing
countries.
6. It transfers jobs from developed countries to less developed countries.
7. It transfers investment spending from developed countries to less developed countries.
8. With the dollar as the world’s reserve currency, globalization leads to a huge US balance
of trade deficits and other imbalances.
9. It tends to move taxation away from corporations, and onto individual citizens.
10. It sets up a currency “race to the bottom” with each country trying to get an export
advantage by dropping the value of its currency.
Ethics- BatStateU

11. It encourages dependence on other countries for essential goods and services.
12. It ties countries together, so that if one country collapses, the collapse is likely to ripple
through the system, pulling many other countries with it.

Some Ethical Challenges of Globalization

It cannot be denied that globalization has an emerging challenge to address. They can be
deduced from the following:
1. Wealth concentration for the few and leaving behind the majority.
2. Laissez-faire capitalism deepens the inequalities within and between nations for
consequentialist and deontological standpoints.
3. States are losing their own sovereignty.
4. Problem of handling the global environment in order to prevent a global ecological
collapse.
5. Explosive population growth which threatens to surpass the earth’s carrying capacity and
bust the biosphere.

Some Emerging Issues of Globalization and Business Ethics

As globalization is largely an economic concept and system, it is reasonable to enumerate
the different concerns in Business Ethics. Business ethics is defined as a form of an applied ethics
that examines moral principles concerning business environment involving issues about:
● corporate policies;
● corporate practices;
● business behaviors; and
● the conducts and relationships of individuals in the organization.
1. duplication/ imitation of products;
2. child labor;
3. money laundering;
4. environmental issues;
5. and other business malpractices and crimes
● cyber crimes
● seuxal harrasments
● intellectual property
● patent thefts

Learning Activity
Directions: Make a video clip showing something you possess now as a product of
globalization then explain how it is part of globalization.

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Learning Assessment
Directions: Explain further the following statements. 5 points each.

1. Wealth concentration for the few and leaving behind the majority.
2. Problem of handling the global environment in order to prevent a global ecological
collapse.
3. Globalization is the stress on trans-nationalization of the connections taking place in the
world today.

Learning Reference

1. De Guzman, J. M., Tesico, M. D., & Paras, W. D. (2017). Ethics Principles of Ethical Behavior
in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.
Ethics- BatStateU

MODULE 20
MILLENIALS AND FILINIALS: ETHICAL CHALLENGES AND RESPONSES

Learning Objectives
At the end of the topic, students are expected to:
a) identify their own characteristics as compared to the researches
b) To understand the negative and positive characteristics of Millennials and Filinials
c) To identify the differences between Millennials and other Generation.

Learning Content
I. Millennials and Filinials

Millennials are the demographic cohort directly following the Generation X. It is also
known as ‘Generation Y’ or the ‘Net Generation’. The Center for Generational Kinetics mentions
five generations that presently make up our society and specifies birth years for each generation
as follows:

Birth Year Cluster Generation Name

1996 and later Gen Z, iGen, or Centennials

1977 to 1995 Millennials or Gen Y

1965 to 1976 Generation X

1946 to 1964 Baby Boomers

1954 and earlier Traditionalists or Silent Generation

Millenials are generally the children of baby boomers and older Gen Xers. In Filipino
terms, Millennials are called Filinials as adapted from Filipino.

Filinials are commonly characterized by an increased use and familiarity with

communications, media, and digital technologies. They are also known to be an advanced
generation in terms of technology utilization. Even in terms of work ethics, they are known to be
non-linear individuals which the traditionalists sometimes misunderstand. They are also marked
by an increase in a liberal approach to politics, economics, and morality, although this claim is
disputed.

Seven Basic Traits of Millennials

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1. special- They are the most educated generation on record.

2. sheltered- Since birth, they are known to be from many forms of protection. They are the
most protected generation since their birth.
3. confident- They are known to be less religious, less serve the military yet as the most
educated generation.
4. team-oriented (disputed trait)- They like to band together to socialize in groups. In
schools, they prefer working with groups rather than individuals.
5. conventional- They take pride in their improving behavior. Their taste to arts and music is
less extreme than the previous generations.
6. pressured- They wish to be ahead of many things, successful and take advantage of
opportunities but avoiding taking risks.
7. achieving- They are known to be of many achievements as youngsters. These can be
associated with their being proactive in life.

Visit this site for more information: https://blogs.adams.edu/event-planning-

leadership/files/2011/08/Chapter-13.pdf

II. Ethical Outlook and Cultural Identity

In 2013, 2014 researches resulted the following:

1. millennials were more open minded than their parents on some controversial matters. 84%
of millennials favored legalizing this marijuana.
2. in adulthood, they are detached from institutions and networked with friends.
3. found to be a pragmatic idealist in approach to social change.

❖ They are also called Boomerang Generation or Peter Pan because of their perceived
tendencies for delaying some rites of passage in adulthood for longer periods than
most generations before them and for living with their parents for longer periods
than previous generations.
❖ Generation Y are very cheerful and enthusiast and more open to change than older
generations.
❖ Most millennials of every religion, race, and ethnicity support access to affordable
contraception. some connotes that choosing an abortion is the most responsible
decision that a woman can make.

Some other findings are:

a. Some Millennials say that marriage is old fashioned and out of date while most of them
disagree.
b. Millennials belong to four-way split:
● pro-life
● pro-choice
● no both pro life and choice
● equal by pro choice and life.
c. few of them are either lesbian, gay, bisexual, or transgender.

III. Work Ethics

Ethics- BatStateU

POSITIVE NOTES

BOOMERS Millennials

● hardworking ● tech-savvy
● idealistic ● appreciative of diversity
● committed to harmony ● skilled in multitasking

NEGATIVE NOTES

● self-centered with sense of entitlement ● lack basic literacy fundamentals

● workaholics ● very short attention span
● self-motivated ● not loyal to organizations
● don't appreciate feedbacks ● demand immediate feedbacks and
recognition
● integrate technology in the workplace
● expect of many employers and careers
● work dress is whatever feel
comfortable

What do Millennials believed in to be ethical in the Workplace:

1. using social networking to find out about the company’s competitors= 37%
2. “Friending” a client or customer on social media= 36%
3. uploading personal photos on a company network= 26%
4. keeping copies of confidential documents= 22%
5. working less to compensate for cuts in benefits or pay= 18%
6. buying personal items using a company credit card= 15%
7. blogging or tweeting negatively about a company= 14%
8. taking a copy of work software home for personal use= 13%

The widespread use of social media appears to pose challenges, as substantial numbers of
Millenials post questionable information on their personal social media accounts including the
following:
1. feeling about their jobs= 40%
2. bad joke told by the boos= 26%
3. work on a project= 26%
4. picture of a co worker drinking= 22%
5. annoying habit of a coworker= 20%
6. information about the company’s competitors= 19%
7. opinion about coworkers’s politics= 16%

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Ethics- BatStateU

Learning Activity
Directions: Make “Huntahan with my Mom and/ or Dad”
Steps:
1. Make a matrix using the given format then try to fill out all the required boxes.
2. Analyze the differences and similarities with your parents' answers.

Guide issues/ My Answer My Parents’ Analysis and comparison and

questions: Answer interpretation

1. What time do
you prefer to
rise up in the
morning?

2. Preferences:
stay at home
or out of
home?

3. In schooling,
traditional or
technology
based?

4. In courtship,
what do prefer
home based or
via phone?

5. In
communicatio
n, personal or
via phone?

Learning Assessment
Directions: Check on the box whose generation is characterized?
Ethics- BatStateU

Characteristics Boomers Millennials

1. don't appreciate feedbacks

2. hardworking

3. skilled in multitasking

4. self-motivated

5. appreciative of diversity

6. idealistic

7. committed to harmony

8. workaholics

9. self-centered with sense of entitlement

10. tech-savvy

Learning References

1. De Guzman, J. M., Tesico, M. D., & Paras, W. D. (2017). Ethics Principles of Ethical Behavior
in Modern Society. Malabon City: Mutya Publishing House, Inc.

2. https://www.washingtonpost.com/us-policy/2019/03/16/millennials-really-are-special-data-
show/