Unit – 4

TURNING EFFECT 0F FORCES

4.1 FORCES ON BODIES
Like and unlike parallel forces:
The forces that act along the
same direction are called like parallel forces.

Sometimes we find objects on which more

than one forces are acting. In most cases, some or all of the forces are found
acting in the same direction. For example, you might have seen many people
pushing a car to move it. Why do all of them push it together in same direction?
All of these forces are called like parallel forces because these are acting along
same line. Like parallel forces can add up to a single resultant force, therefore,
can be replaced by a single force.
The forces that act along opposite directions are called
unlike parallel forces.

4.2 ADDITION OF FORCES

Force is a vector quantity. It has both magnitude
(size) and direction. In diagrams it is represented by a line segment with an arrow-
head one end to show its at direction of action. Length of line segment gives the
magnitude of the force on suitable scale. Wherever more than one force act on
an object we need to add them to get a single resultant:
single force that has the same effect as the combined effect of
the forces to be added is called resultant force.
Ordinary arithmetic rules cannot be used to add the forces. Two different
methods are used for the addition of forces (i.e., in general addition of vectors):
 Graphical Method
 Analytical Method

Graphical Method:
This method is used for addition of one- dimensional vector
quantities. In this method head to tail rule of vector addition is used for the
addition of forces.

Head to Tail Rule

Step 1:
Choose a suitable scale.

Step 2:
Draw all the force vectors according to scale.

Step 3:
Now take any vector as first vector and draw next vector in such a way that
its tail coincides with head of the previous. If number of vectors is more than two
then continue the process till last vector is reached.

Step 4:
Use a straight line with arrow pointed towards last vector to join the tail of
first vector with the head of last vector. This is the resultant vector.

Worked Example 1
Find the resultant of three forces 15N along x-axis, 010N making an angle of 30 °
with x- axis and 10N along y-axis.

Solution
Step 1: Write the Known quantities and choose a suitable scale.
Here, f 1 = 15N along x-axis

f 2= 10N along 30° with x-axis

f 3 = 10N along Y-axis.

Scale 2N = 1cm

Step 2: Draw the representative vectors for the forces f 1 , f 2, f 3 according to the
scale in the given directions.
Step 3: Take f 1 as first vector and draw f 2 and f 3 in such a way that the tail of next
vector coincides with the head of the previous vector.

Step 4: Join the tail of the f 1 with the head of f 3 with a straight-line f 3with an
arrow pointing towards F. According to head to tail rule, Force F represents the
resultant force.

Step 5: Measure the length of F with a ruler and multiply it with 2N/cm that is
the magnitude of resultant. Measure the angle with protector that F makes with
f 1. This gives the direction of resultant Force.

Trigonometric Ratios:
The ratios between any two sides of a right-
angled triangle are given specific names. There are six ratios in total out of which
three are main ratios and other three are their reciprocals. Three main ratios
mostly used in physics are sine, cosine and tangent. Consider a right-angled
triangle ∆ ACB having angle θ at C.
Perpendicular
Sin θ= Hypotenuse
Base
Cos θ= Hypotenuse
Perpendicular
Tan θ= base

4.3 RESOLUTION OF FORCES

 A force (vector) may be split into components usually
perpendicular to each other; the components are called perpendicular
components and the process is known as resolution of Vectors.
The process of splitting of a vector into mutually perpendicular
components is called resolution of vectors.

B O
Figure shows a force F represented by a line segment OA which makes an angle
with x-axis. Draw a perpendicular AB on x-axis from A. The components OB= f x
and BA = f y are perpendicular to each other. They are called the perpendicular
components of OA = F. Therefore,

F= f +fx y

The trigonometric ratios can be used to find the magnitudes Fx and Fy . In right
angled triangle ∆ OBA.
f x OB
= =cos θ
F OA
f x =F cos θ …………………….. (equation derived)

f y BA
=
F OA
= sin θ
f y =F sin θ ………………… (equation derived)
 Equations give the perpendicular components respectively.

Worked Example 2
A man is pushing a wheelbarrow on a horizontal ground with a force of 300N
making an angle of 60° with ground. Find the horizontal and vertical components
of the force.

Solution:
Step 1: Write the known quantities and point out the quantities to be found.
F=200N
θ = 60° with horizontal

fx = ?

f y =?

Step 2: Write the formula and rearrange if necessary.

f x =F cos θ

f y =F sin θ

Step 3: Put the values in the formula and calculate.

f x =300 N ×cos 60°

= 300N × 0.5
= 150N

f y =F sin θ

f y =300 N ×sin 60 °

= 300N × 0.8660
 = 259.8N
Therefore, horizontal and vertical components of pushing force are 150 N and
259.8N respectively.

Determination of Force from its Perpendicular

Components
This is opposite to the process of resolution. If the perpendicular components of a
force are known then the process of determining the force itself from the
perpendicular components called composition.

P
O
` Suppose f x and f y are the perpendicular components of the
force F and are represented by line segments OP and PR with arrowhead
respectively as shown in figure.

Applying the head to tail rule:

OR = OP + PR
Here OR represents the force F whose x and y – components are f x and f y
respectively.
Thus,
 F = f x+f y
In order to find the magnitude of F apply Pythagorean theorem to right angled
triangle OPR i.e.,
(¿) = (OP) + (PR) or F = f x+f y
2 2 2

Therefore,
F = √ f x 2 +√ f y2
The direction of F with x-axis is given by: f y
PR fy
Tan θ = OP = fx

−1 fy
θ=tan
fx

4.4 TORQUE OR MOMENT OF FORCE

The turning effect of force is
called moment of force or Torque.
It depends upon:
 The magnitude of force.
 The perpendicular distance of the point of application of force from the
Pivot or fulcrum.
Moment of force about a point = Force × Perpendicular distance from point
Or τ=F×d
Depending on their direction, SI unit of the torque or moment of force is newton -
metre (Nm).
Moments are described as clockwise or anticlockwise.

Worked Example 3
A car driver tightens the nut of wheel using 20 cm long spanner by exerting a
force of 300N. Find the torque.
Solution
Step 1: Write the known quantities and point out the quantity to be found.
F= 300N
L= 20 cm = 0.20m
τ=?

Step 2: Write the formula and rearrange if necessary.

τ= F×L

Step 3: Put the values in formula and calculate.

τ= 300N×0.20m = 60Nm
Thus, torque of 60Nm is used to tighten the nut.

4.5 PRINCIPLE OF MOMENT

The sum of the clockwise moments about a point is
equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moments about that point.

Worked Example 4
Consider a meter rod supported at mid-point O. The block of 20N is suspended at
point A 30cm from O. Find the weight of the block that balances it at point B,
20cm from O.

Solution
Step 1: write known quantities and point out unknown quantities.
w1 = 20N
Moment arm of w 1 = OA = 30cm =0.30m
Moment arm ofw 2 = OB = 20cm
Step 2: write formula and re arrange if necessary.
Clockwise moments = anticlockwise moments
w 1 × OA=w 2× OB
w1 ×OA
w2 = OB

Step 3: Put the values and calculate.

20 N × 0.3 m
w2 = 0.20 m

= 30 N
Thus, the weight of the block suspended at point B is 30N.

4.6 CENTRE OF MASS OR CENTRE OF GRAVITY

A body behaves as if its whole mass is concentrated at
one point, called its centre of mass or centre of gravity, even though earth
attracts every part of it.
The centre of mass of a uniform meter rod is at its centre
and when supported at that point, it can be balanced. If it is supported at any
other point it topples because the moment of its weight W about the point of
support is not zero.

Center of Gravity of Some Regular Shaped objects

The Center of gravity of regular shaped uniform objects is their
geometrical Center.
 The Center of gravity of uniform rod is its mid- point.
 The Center of gravity of uniform square or a rectangular sheet is the point
of intersection of its diagonals.
 The Center of gravity of solid or hollow sphere is the Center of the sphere.
  The Center of gravity of uniform circular ring is the Center of ring.
 The Center of gravity of uniform circular disc is its Center.
 The Center of gravity of a uniform solid or hollow cylinder is the mid-point
on its axis.
 The Center of gravity of a uniform triangular sheet is the point of
intersection of its medians.

Center of Gravity of Irregular Shaped Thin Lamina

Step 1: Make three small holes near the edges of the lamina farther apart from
each other.

Step 2: Suspend the lamina freely from one whole on retort stand through a pin.
Step 3: Hang a plumb line or weight from the pin in front of the lamina.
Step 4: When the plumb line is steady, trace the line on the lamina.
Step 5: Repeat steps 2 to 4 for second and third hole. The point of intersection of
three lines is the position of Center of gravity.

COUPLE:
Two unlike parallel forces of the same magnitude but not acting along
the same line form a couple.

To form a couple, two forces must be:

 Equal in magnitude.
 Parallel, but opposite in direction.
 Separated by a distanced.
Torque of couple = one of the forces × perpendicular distance between the
forces.
4.8 EQUILIBRIUM
When a body does not possess any acceleration neither linear
nor angular it is said to be in equilibrium. For example, a book lying on table in
rest, a paratrooper moving downwards with terminal velocity, a chair lift hanging
on supporting ropes.
There are two types of equilibrium:
 Static Equilibrium
 Dynamic Equilibrium

Static Equilibrium:
A body at rest is said to be in static equilibrium.
A wall hanging buildings, bridges or any object lying in rest on the ground are
some examples of static equilibrium.

Dynamic Equilibrium:
A moving object that does not possess any
acceleration neither linear nor angular is said to be in dynamic equilibrium.

For example, uniform downward motion of steel ball through viscous liquid and
jumping of the paratrooper from the Helicopter.

Conditions for Equilibrium

A body must satisfy certain conditions to be in equilibrium. There are two
conditions for equilibrium:

First Condition for Equilibrium:

According to this condition for
equilibrium sum of the all forces acting on a body must be equal to zero.
Mathematically,
 f 1+ f 2 + f 3+ … … … … … … … … …+ f n=0

∑ f =0
Second Condition For Equilibrium:
Sum of all clockwise and
anticlockwise torques acting on a body is zero. Mathematically,
Στ=0

States of Equilibrium
 Stable Equilibrium
 Unstable Equilibrium
 Neutral equilibrium

Stable Equilibrium:
Suppose a box is lying on the table. It is in
equilibrium. Tilt the box slightly about its one edge. On releasing it returns back to
its original position. This state of body is known as stable equilibrium.
A body is in stable equilibrium if when slightly displaced
and then released it returns to its previous position.
A body is in stable equilibrium when:
 Its Centre of gravity is at lowest position.
 When it is tilted its Centre of gravity rises.
 It returns back to stable state by lowering its Centre of gravity.

Unstable Equilibrium:
Take a paper cone and try to keep it in vertical
position on its vertex. It topples down on releasing. This state of body is known as
unstable equilibrium.
 A body is said to be in unstable equilibrium when slightly tilted does
not return back to its previous position.
A body is in unstable equilibrium when:
 Its Centre of gravity is at highest position.
 When it is tilted its Centre of gravity is lowered.
 Its previous position cannot be restored by raising it.

Neutral Equilibrium:
Consider a ball placed on a horizontal surface. It is in
equilibrium. When it is displaced from its previous position it remains in its new
position still in equilibrium. This is called neutral equilibrium.
A body is said to be in neutral equilibrium when displaced from
previous position remains in equilibrium in new position.
A body said to be in neutral equilibrium when:
 Its Center of gravity always remains above the point of contact.
 When it is displaced from its previous position its Centre of gravity
remains at same height.
 All the new states in which body is moved are the stable states.

4.9 STABILITY
In most situation we are interested in maintaining stable
equilibrium, or balance for example design of structures, racing cars and in
working with human body. Consider a refrigerator if it is tilted slightly it will
return back to its original position due to torque on it. But if it is tilted more, it will
fall down. The critical point is reached when the centre of gravity shifts from one
side of the pivot point to the other. When the centre of gravity is on the one side
of the pivot point, the torque pulls the refrigerator back onto its original base of
support. If the refrigerator is tilted further, the centre of gravity crosses onto the
other side of the pivot point and the torque causes the refrigerator to topple.
In general,
A body whose center of gravity is above its base of support will be
stable if a vertical line projected downward from the center of gravity falls within
base of support.
A sewing needle fixed in a cork. The forks are hanged on the cork to balance it on
the tip of the needle. The forks lower the centre of mass of the system. If it is
disturbed it will return back to original position. It is made heavy at tail which
lowers its centre of gravity. It can keep itself upright when tilted. In general, larger
the base and lower the centre of gravity, more stable the body will be.
The sports cars are made heavy at bottom which lowers the Center of mass and
hence increases the stability.