MODULE 26

Human Reproduction and

Development
1 Reproductive Systems
BEFORE YOU READ WHAT YOU’LL LEARN
On the lines below, describe two visible ways in which the male • the structures and functions
body differs from the female body. In this lesson, you will learn of the male and female
reproductive systems
about the sexual differences between males and females.
• how hormones regulate
reproductive systems

READ TO LEARN ⊳ FOCUS

Human Male Reproductive System For each paragraph, think of a
question your teacher might
Reproduction is needed for a species to continue to exist. The ask on a test. Write the
human reproductive process consists of the union of an egg cell question on one side of a flash
card. Write the answer on the
and a sperm cell, the development of a fetus, and the birth of an other side. Quiz yourself until
infant. you know the answers.
Sperm cells are the male reproductive cells. They are produced
in the testes (tes TEEZ) (singular testis), the male reproductive
glands. The testes are located outside the body cavity in a pouch
called the scrotum (SKROH tum), as shown below.
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Male Reproductive System

Side view Posterior view

Vas deferens
Bladder Bladder TAKE A LOOK
Seminal
Vas deferens 1. Underline the name of the
vesicle structure that produces
Seminal Prostate sperm.
vesicle gland

Urethra
Prostate
gland Epididymis
Urethra Testis
Epididymis Penis
Testis
Penis
Scrotum Seminiferous tubule

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 Where do sperm cells develop?
The scrotum provides a good environment for normal sperm
development because the temperature in the scrotum is slightly
lower than the normal body temperature. Sperm develop in the
seminiferous tubules (se muh NIHF rus • TEW byulz) of the
testes. Sperm travel to the top of each testis where they mature
and are stored in the epididymis (eh puh DIH duh mus).
When the sperm are released from the body, they travel away
from the testis through a duct called the vas deferens (VAS • DEF
uh runz). The vas deferens, one for each testis, joins and enters
the urethra. The urethra (yoo REE thruh) is the tube that carries
both semen and urine outside the body through the penis.
Semen (SEE mun) is the fluid that contains the sperm and their
nourishment. Energy for the sperm comes from sugars produced
by seminal vesicles. The prostate gland and the bulbourethral
glands produce an alkaline solution that becomes part of the
semen. This solution reduces the effect of acidic conditions sperm
might encounter in the female reproductive tract.
What is the role of testosterone?
Testosterone (tes TAHS tuh rohn) is a steroid hormone needed
to produce sperm. Testosterone also influences the development
of male secondary sex characteristics that appear at puberty.
Puberty is the period of growth when sexual maturity is reached.
Secondary sex characteristics in males include hair on the face
and chest, broad shoulders, increased muscle mass, and a deeper
voice.

What hormones influence testosterone production?

The hypothalamus produces a gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH). GnRH acts on the anterior pituitary gland and increases

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the production of follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
luteinizing (LEW tee uh ni zing) hormone (LH). FSH and LH
THINK IT OVER travel through the bloodstream to the testes. FSH promotes
2. Name another hormone sperm production. LH stimulates the production and secretion of
that is controlled by a testosterone.
negative feedback system. A negative feedback system regulates the levels of male
hormones. When the body detects increased levels of testosterone
in the blood, LH and FSH production decrease. When
testosterone levels in the blood decrease, the body responds by
making more LH and FSH.

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 Human Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system has three main functions. The
first is to produce the female sex cells called egg cells. The second
is to receive sperm. The third function is to provide an
environment in which a fertilized egg can develop.
THINK IT OVER
Where are egg cells produced? 3. Compare Name one
Egg cells are produced in the ovaries, as shown in the figure similarity between the male
below. Inside each ovary are immature eggs known as oocytes and female reproductive
systems.
(OH uh sites). Eggs, called ovum, form when oocyte development
is stimulated.
When an egg is released from the ovary, it travels through a
tube called an oviduct (OH vuh duct). The oviduct connects to
the uterus, which is where a baby develops before birth. The
lower end of the uterus is called the cervix. A narrow opening in
the cervix leads to the vagina. The vagina leads to the outside of
the female’s body.
Female Reproductive System
Side view TAKE A LOOK
4. Highlight the name of the
Oviduct
structure that releases eggs
Oviduct
into the oviduct.
Ovary Egg Ovary
Uterus released Corpus
Follicle luteum forms
Cervix ruptures
Follicle
Vagina
Egg
Follicle
develops
Egg
develops
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Where are female hormones produced?

Estrogen and progesterone (proh JES tuh rohn) are steroid
hormones made by cells in the ovaries. At puberty, estrogen levels
increase and cause a female’s breasts to begin to develop, hips to
widen, and the amount of fat tissue to increase. A female
experiences her first menstrual cycle during puberty. The
menstrual (MEN stroo ul) cycle is the monthly series of events
that help prepare the female body for pregnancy.

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 Sex Cell Production
In the human male, sperm production begins at puberty and
continues for the rest of the male’s life. Sex cell production in
males follows the general pattern of meiosis.
Sex cell production is different in females. Beginning at
THINK IT OVER puberty, the female releases one mature egg each month. The egg
5. Contrast Name one is formed through a unique meiotic process. The structures at the
difference between sex cell end of the first meiotic division are unequal in size. The smaller
production in males and
females. structure is called a polar body. The chromosomes separate
following the general pattern of meiosis, but the cytoplasm
divides unequally. Most of the cytoplasm goes to the cell that will
eventually become the egg. The polar body disintegrates.
The second meiotic division follows the same pattern as the
first meiotic division. In the end stage, the larger portion of the
cytoplasm results in the egg, and the polar body disintegrates.

What is ovulation?
Before a female is born, cells in the ovaries divide up to the first
stage of meiosis. Beginning at puberty, meiosis continues for one
oocyte each menstrual cycle. At metaphase of the second meiotic
division, an egg breaks through the ovary wall in a process called
Make a two door book and ovulation. The second meiotic division is completed only if
label it as shown. Use it to fertilization takes place.
organize your notes about
sperm and egg production.
The Menstrual Cycle
Sperm production
The menstrual cycle varies in length, but the average cycle is 28
days. The menstrual cycle has three phases: the flow phase, the
follicular phase, and the luteal phase.

What happens during the flow phase?

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The first day of the menstrual cycle is the day that menstrual
flow begins. Menstrual flow is the shedding of the endometrium—
the lining of the uterus. The endometrium is made up of blood,
tissue, fluid, mucus, and epithelial cells. Around day five, the
THINK IT OVER endometrium begins to mend. As the menstrual cycle continues,
6. Explain What is menstrual the endometrium thickens.
flow?
What happens during the follicular phase?
Hormone levels change throughout the menstrual cycle
through a negative feedback system. At the beginning of the
cycle, hormone levels are relatively low. The anterior pituitary
increases production of LH and FSH. This stimulates a few
follicles to begin to mature in the ovary. Inside each follicle is an
oocyte.

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352
 When does ovulation occur?
Cells in the follicles produce estrogen and progesterone. Only
one follicle continues to grow and secrete estrogen. The amount
of estrogen in the blood keeps the production of LH and FSH
low. On approximately day 12 of the menstrual cycle, the high
level of estrogen stimulates the anterior pituitary to release a large
THINK IT OVER
quantity of LH. At this point, ovulation occurs. 7. Sequence the events at
approximately day 12 of the
What is the luteal phase? menstrual cycle.
After ovulation, the follicle transforms into a structure called
the corpus luteum (KOR pus • LEW tee um). The corpus luteum
produces high amounts of progesterone and some estrogen.
These hormones keep the levels of LH and FSH low through
negative feedback.
LH and FSH stimulate new follicle development. When the
levels of LH and FSH are low, new follicles cannot mature.
Toward the end of the luteal phase, the corpus luteum breaks
down and stops producing estrogen and progesterone. The rapid
decrease in these hormone levels triggers menstrual flow. At this
point, the flow phase of a new menstrual cycle begins, as
shown below.

Flow phase Follicular phase Luteal phase

Days 1-5 6-14 15-28

Hormone levels
FSH
LH
Estrogen
Progesterone
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Ovarian activity

Endometrium

What happens when an egg is fertilized? TAKE A LOOK

When an egg is fertilized, a new menstrual cycle does not 8. Identify At approximately
day 14, which hormone level
begin. Progesterone levels remain high and increase the blood is the highest?
supply to the endometrium. The corpus luteum does not break
down, and hormone levels do not drop. The endometrium begins
to secrete a fluid rich with nutrients to feed the embryo.
Reading Essentials • Human Reproduction and Development
353
 2 Human Development Before Birth
WHAT YOU’LL LEARN BEFORE YOU READ
• the events that take place On the lines below, describe one physical change that occurs in a
during the first week after female who is pregnant. In this lesson, you will read about the
fertilization
development of humans before birth.
• the major changes that occur
in each trimester of
pregnancy
• how female hormone levels
change during pregnancy

FOCUS ⊲ READ TO LEARN

As you read this lesson,
highlight the portions of the Fertilization
text that describe changes to Fertilization is the joining of a sperm cell with an egg cell.
an embryo and fetus during
Fertilization occurs in the upper part of the oviduct, near the
pregnancy.
ovary.
Sperm enter the vagina from the male’s penis during
intercourse. Sperm can survive for up to 48 hours in the female
reproductive tract. An unfertilized egg can survive only 24 hours.
Fertilization can take place if intercourse occurs from
approximately 48 hours before ovulation to approximately 24
hours after ovulation. Ovulation normally takes place in the
middle of the menstrual cycle, but it can occur at any time.

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How many sperm fertilize the egg?
Get It? About 300 million sperm are released into the vagina during
1. Explain why hundreds of intercourse. Many go no further than the vagina, and many more
sperm are necessary for
fertilization to take place, die on the way to the oviduct.
and how only one sperm Only one sperm fertilizes the egg, but hundreds are needed to
cell can fertilize the egg. weaken the egg’s plasma membrane. The tips of these sperm
release enzymes that weaken the membrane. Eventually, the
membrane becomes weak enough that one sperm can penetrate
it. Immediately, the egg forms a barrier to prevent other sperm
from entering the newly fertilized egg.

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354
 Early Development THINK IT OVER
2. Predict How many
Human sperm and eggs are haploid cells, and each has 23 chromosomes do most
chromosomes. The fertilized egg is called a zygote (ZI goht) and human cells have?
has 46 chromosomes. The zygote is forced through the oviduct by
involuntary smooth muscle contractions and by the cilia that line
the oviduct.
The zygote undergoes its first mitosis and cell division
approximately 30 hours after fertilization. Mitosis continues. By
the third day, the embryo leaves the oviduct and enters the
uterus. The embryo at this point is called a morula—a solid ball of
cells.

What is a blastocyst?
By the fifth day, the morula has developed into a blastocyst, or
hollow ball of cells. Inside the blastocyst is a group of cells that
will become the embryo. If this inner group of cells splits,
identical twins might form.
The blastocyst attaches to the endometrium around the sixth
day after fertilization, becoming more firmly implanted over the
next few days. Implantation is shown in the figure below.

What four extraembryonic membranes develop?

Early human development includes the formation of four
extraembryonic membranes—the amnion, the chorion, the yolk
sac, and the allantois. The chorion (KOR ee ahn) and allantois (uh
LAN tuh wus) help form the placenta. Red blood cells form in the
yolk sac.

Blastocyst Fertilization TAKE A LOOK

Zygote
Morula Oviduct
3. Trace the route that the
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fertilized egg takes to reach

the uterus.

Ovulation
Ovary
Implantation

Uterus

Vagina

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355
 What is the purpose of amniotic fluid?
The amnion is a thin layer that forms a sac around the
developing embryo. Amniotic fluid (am nee AH tihk • FLU id)
inside the amnion protects and cushions the embryo. This fluid
also helps regulate the embryo’s body temperature.

What is the placenta?

About two weeks after fertilization, tiny fingerlike projections
of the chorion begin to grow into the wall of the uterus. These
projections are called villi (VIH li). The villi combine with part of
the uterine lining to form the placenta.
The placenta (pluh SEN tuh) is the organ that delivers nutrients
to the embryo and carries away wastes from the embryo. It is
formed completely by the tenth week of pregnancy. The placenta
has two surfaces. The fetal side forms from the chorion, and the
maternal side forms from uterine tissue. The umbilical cord
connects the fetus and the mother. It contains many blood
vessels.
The placenta regulates what passes from the mother to the
fetus and from the fetus to the mother. Oxygen and nutrients
travel from the mother to the fetus. Harmful substances such as
alcohol and drugs can also pass through the placenta to the
developing fetus.
Metabolic waste products and carbon dioxide travel through
the placenta from the fetus to the mother, as shown in the figure
below. The fetus and the mother have separate circulatory
systems, and blood cells do not pass through the placenta. The
mother’s antibodies are passed to the fetus. The antibodies help
protect the fetus until its immune system is functioning.

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TAKE A LOOK
4. Underline the name of the
structure that connects the Chorion
fetus to the mother. Amnion
Embryo
Umbilical
cord
Allantois
Yolk sac

Fetal portion
of placenta
Maternal portion
of placenta

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356
 What role do hormones play in pregnancy?
Once the blastocyst is implanted in the endometrium during
the first week of development, the embryo begins to secrete a
hormone called human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG)
(kor ee AH nihk • go na duh TROH pen). This hormone keeps the
corpus luteum from breaking down. As long as the corpus luteum
THINK IT OVER
remains active, progesterone and estrogen levels remain high. As 5. Define the purpose of hCG.
a result, a new menstrual cycle will not begin. Two to three
months into the pregnancy, the placenta secretes the proper
amounts of estrogen and progesterone to maintain the conditions
needed for pregnancy.

Three Trimesters of Development

Human development takes approximately 266 days from
fertilization to birth. This time span is divided into three
trimesters. Each trimester lasts about three months. During this
time, the zygote grows from a single cell to a baby with trillions of
cells.
What changes occur during the first trimester?
All tissues, organs, and organ systems begin to develop during
the first trimester. At the end of eight weeks, the embryo is called
a fetus. At the end of the first trimester, the fetus can move its
arms, fingers, and toes. It can make facial expressions and has
fingerprints.
During the first two weeks of pregnancy, a woman might not
realize she is pregnant because she has not missed a menstrual
period. The fetus is especially vulnerable during the first
trimester. Alcohol, drugs, tobacco, and pollutants can harm the
fetus. A lack of important nutrients might cause damage that
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cannot be reversed.
THINK IT OVER
What changes occur during the second trimester? 6. Evaluate Why would a
The second trimester marks a period of rapid body growth. The baby born during the
developing fetus can suck its thumb and open its eyes. Hair second trimester likely
usually forms during this period. The mother might feel light remain in the hospital for
many weeks?
kicks as the fetus moves its arms and legs.
At the end of the second trimester, the fetus might be able to
survive outside the mother’s uterus with medical help. If born
this early, the baby cannot maintain a constant body temperature
and might be placed in an incubator. Because its lungs are not
fully developed, the baby might need assistance to breathe. The
baby is also at risk for serious illness because its immune system
is not fully formed.

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 What changes occur during the third trimester?
The fetus continues to grow rapidly during the third trimester.
Fat that will help insulate the newborn baby accumulates under
the skin. The developing fetus needs protein to fuel brain growth.
New nerve cells in the brain form at a rate of 250,000 cells per
THINK IT OVER minute. The developing fetus might respond to sounds in the
7. List two goals of diagnosing environment during the third trimester.
medical conditions before a
baby is born.
Diagnosis in the Fetus
Many medical conditions can be diagnosed before a baby is
born. Identifying problems before birth helps medical personnel
treat the problems early. This helps a newborn baby have the
highest possible quality of life.

What does ultrasound show?

Some medical conditions can be identified using ultrasound.
Ultrasound is a procedure in which sound waves are bounced off
THINK IT OVER
the fetus. The sound waves are changed to light images that can
8. State What type of
problems are identified by
be viewed on a monitor. Ultrasound helps doctors know if the
amniocentesis and fetus is growing properly. The position of the fetus in the uterus
chorionic villi sampling? and the gender of the fetus can be determined by ultrasound.

What else is used to diagnose problems

with the fetus?
Amniocentesis (am nee oh sen TEE sus) and chorionic villi
sampling are prenatal tests. Both tests carry a small risk of
Get It? miscarriage.
9. Explain the difference Amniocentesis is usually performed during the second
between ultrasound and
trimester if a problem is suspected. Fluid from the amniotic sac is
amniocentesis.
removed by a needle inserted in the abdomen of the pregnant

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female. Enzyme tests and DNA analysis can be performed on the
fluid to detect certain medical conditions. For example, fetal cells
can be examined by a karyotype to detect unusual chromosome
numbers. Recall that a karyotype is a chart of chromosome pairs
used to identify unusual chromosome numbers or the sex of the
fetus.
Chorionic villi sampling might be conducted during the first
trimester. A small tube is inserted through the vagina and cervix
of the mother. Cells are removed and analyzed by karyotyping.
The chromosomes in the cells of the chorion are identical to those
in the cells of the fetus. Genetic problems might be identified
with either form of testing.

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 3 Birth, Growth, and Aging
BEFORE YOU READ WHAT YOU’LL LEARN
Compare a picture of you as a young child to how you look today. • the events that occur during
Write the differences you notice on the lines below. the three stages of birth
• the stages of human
development from infancy to
adulthood
• the hormones needed
for growth

READ TO LEARN ⊳ FOCUS

Birth Read the paragraphs under
each question heading.
The beginning of the birthing process is called labor. Labor Underline the part of the text
that answers the question.
begins when the posterior pituitary gland releases the hormone
oxytocin (ahk sih TOH sun), which stimulates involuntary uterine
contractions.
The three stages of birth are dilation, expulsion, and the
placental stage. Dilation (die LAY shun) is the opening of the
cervix to approximately 10 cm.
When the uterine contractions become strong, the mother
contracts her abdominal muscles to help push out the baby. The
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baby comes through the vagina in the expulsion stage.

When the baby is out of the mother’s body, the umbilical cord
is clamped and cut. During the placental stage, the placenta and Get It?
the extraembryonic membranes detach from the uterus and leave 1. Describe major events that
occur during each stage of
the mother’s body through the vagina. the birthing process.
A baby is called a newborn during the first four weeks of life.
The average human newborn has a mass of 3300 g and is 51 cm
long.

What is a cesarean section?

Complications might prevent the baby from being born
vaginally. During a cesarean section, the mother’s abdomen walls
and uterus are cut, and the baby is removed.

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 Growth and Aging
Newborns continue to grow and develop. They become infants
and then children. Adolescence (a dul ES unts) is a major phase
of human development that begins at puberty and ends at
adulthood.
THINK IT OVER
2. Generalize How long does What hormones affect growth?
adolescence last? Hormones influence growth. The human growth hormone
stimulates growth in most parts of the body. This hormone works
by increasing the rate of protein synthesis and the rate at which
fats break down. Thyroxine is produced by the thyroid. It
increases metabolism and is essential for growth.
Steroid hormones, such as estrogen and testosterone, are also
important for growth. These hormones pass through the plasma
membrane of cells. They trigger genes in a cell’s nucleus to form
proteins, causing an increase in cell size.

When does infancy occur?

The first two years of life are known as infancy. Physical and
mental development occur rapidly during this period. Most
infants learn to walk and talk. Infants grow taller and increase in
Get It?
3. Summarize the roles of weight. Growth rates slow after the second year.
human growth hormone Childhood is the period between infancy and adolescence.
and thyroxine. Children progressively learn to reason and solve problems during
childhood.

What marks the beginning of adolescence?

Puberty marks the beginning of adolescence. Puberty begins
between ages 8 and 13 in girls and between ages 10 and 15 in
boys. You have already learned about the sexual development that
occurs during adolescence. An adolescent also experiences

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growth spurts and other physical changes. Adulthood begins
when physical growth is complete.

What happens as adults age?

As the body ages, there are distinct, noticeable changes.
THINK IT OVER Graying hair marks a decline in pigment production. Adults
4. List three physical changes become shorter as they age because the discs between their
that occur as humans age. vertebrae flatten. Metabolism slows, muscle mass decreases, and
the skin loses its elasticity. In women, the ability to have children
ends with menopause (MEN uh pawz). Sperm production
decreases in men. However, despite the changes, many people
remain physically and mentally active as they grow older.

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