FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

ECG 573: FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

COURSE INTRODUCTION
 Details of Lecturer

◼ Course Lecturer: Ir. Ts. Noorfaizah Hamzah

◼ Room Number: T1-A19-7C
◼ Tel. No. : 010-2366476
Course Outcomes:
◼ Determine ground parameters for a given
site and evaluate the possible design and
construction of the foundation
◼ Design typical shallow foundation
◼ Design typical deep foundation
 Programme Outcomes:
◼ PO2 : identify, formulate, research literature and analyze
complex civil engineering problems reaching substantiated
conclusions using first principles of mathematics, natural
sciences and engineering sciences
◼ PO3 : design solutions for complex civil engineering problems
and design systems, components or processes that meet
specified needs with appropriate consideration for public
health and safety, cultural. Societal and environmental
considerations
 Before Proceed the Foundation
Engineering (ECG 573)…..
◼ Student should have:
1) Strong Fundamental on Soil Mechanics
(ECG 426)
2. Strong understanding on Geotechnics
(ECG 553)
Course Outline
TOPICS:

1 - Site Investigation for Foundation Design (5 hours)

- SI methods for measuring ground strength
- Ground exploration
- Interpretation of borelog report and laboratory strength parameters

2- Types of Foundations (5 hours)

- Shallow Foundation – pad footing, raft footing
- Deep foundation – individual pile, group piles, rake pile
- Driven pile, cast in situ pile
- Foundation on rock
- Advantages and limitations with respect to site condition

3- Design and Analysis of Shallow Foundation (12 hours)

- Bearing capacity for shallow foundation
- Settlement of foundation
- Foundation on filled ground
- Settlement criteria for foundation design
- Structural design of shallow foundation
4 - Design and Analysis of Deep Foundation (12 hours)
- Principle of friction and end- bearing piles
- Bearing capacity analysis of single pile using empirical and dynamic formulae
- Design of single , group and rake piles
- Design of pile cap
- Pile load test and its analysis

5 - Project Based Design for Deep Foundation (6 hours)

- Ground parameters must be determined from real borelog report. Student to
produce report consisting of design sheet, structural details and method
statement.
 Course Content
• Part A- General Principles
– Foundations (historical development, dealing
with uncertainties, building codes, types of
foundations)✓
– Performance Requirements (Design loads,
strength, serviceability, constructability,
economy)
– Soil Mechanics Review ✓
– Site Exploration and Characterization ✓
✓ …. In-depth coverage
 Part B- Shallow Foundations

– Shallow Foundations (Types of shallow foundations;

estimating bearing pressure) ✓
– Bearing Capacity (Estimating bearing capacity using
different methods, Factor of safety, Accuracy in bearing
capacity analyses, BEARING.XLS)✓
– Settlement (Induced stresses, Settlement in clays,
Settlement in sands, SETTLEMENT.XLS,
SCHMERTMANN.XLS, Accuracy in Settlement
estimations) ✓
– Spread Footings-Geotechnical Design (Design for
Concentric downward loads)✓
– Mat Foundations
 Part C - Deep Foundations

– Deep Foundations (Types of deep foundations;

Piles, Drilled shafts, Auger cast piles; load transfer)
✓
– Deep Foundations-Structural design
– Deep Foundations-Axial load capacity based on
static load tests ✓
– Deep Foundations-Axial load capacity based on
analytical methods ✓
– Deep Foundations-Axial load capacity based on
dynamic methods ..Not covered
– Deep Foundations-Lateral load capacity .. Not
covered
– Deep foundation-design
 Course Objectives
On Completion of this course, students should be able to:

(i) To determine various ground parameters for foundation design.

(ii) Able to design typical shallow foundation.
(iii) Able to design typical deep foundation for tree storey buildings or
more.
(iv) Able to provide technical advice for foundation design for different
types of engineering structures.
Reading Material
Tomlinson,M.J.(2001).Foundation design and construction. Seventh edition
Pearson, Prentice Hall.

REFERENCES

1- Duncan,C.W.(1992). Foundation on Rock. Chapman Hall

2- Das,B.M.(1997). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, Forth Edition. PWS
3- Brown,R.W.(1995). Practical Foundation Engineering Handbook. Mc Graw
Hill
4- Atkinson, J. (1993). An Introduction to The Mechanics of Soil and
Foundation Mc Graw Hill, London
◼Course work assignments will be reviewed
with the students.

ECG 573 FOUNDATION ENGINEERING

ASSESSMENT

Assignment / Report 10%

Test (Common Test) 30%
Final Exam 60%
_____
TOTAL 100%
 OUTLINE

•What is a foundation?

•Types of foundation

•Types of soil

•The purpose of a Site Investigation

•What to do and when

 What Is A Foundation?
• A foundation is a system which transfers the load of a
structure to a suitable bearing stratum below ground,
while taking into account the settlement characteristics
of that stratum and the possible effects of ground
heave, subsidence, creep or negative skin friction that
may be imposed on the system.
Piled Foundation Traditional Trench Fill Raft Foundation
 Types Of Ground

TYPE EXAMPLE FOUNDING SUITABILITY

ORGANIC PEAT, TOPSOIL COMPRESSES & DECAYS
GOOD BEARING GROUND, WATER CAN BE
SANDS, GRAVELS
GRANULAR PROBLEMATIC
SILTS OK IF NO WATER
CLAY - NON PLASTIC GOOD BEARING GROUND
COHESIVE
CLAY – PLASTIC CAN SHRINK & SWELL IN UPPER LEVELS
HARD ROCK LIMESTONE, SANDSTONE GOOD BEARING GROUND
NOT ALWAYS STRAIGHT FORWARD. THIN LAYERS,
SOFT ROCK MUDSTONES, CHALKS SOFT
SPOTS, SOLUTION FEATURES ETC.
NORMALLY CAUSES PROBLEMS OR REDUCES
WATER WATER TABLE - PERCHED & RUN OFF CAPACITY
EXCEPT IN CLAYS
INFILL MATERIAL, RUBBLE, RUBBISH, ANY OF THE
MADE GROUND NOT SUITABLE (CAN BE TREATED TO MAKE SUITABLE)
ABOVE EXCAVATED & DUMPED
DEPENDS ON THE COMBINATION - GRAVEL & CLAY
MIXED ANY OF THE ABOVE COMBINED ARE
MOST COMMON

OBSTRUCTIONS MAY BE MAN MADE OR NATURALLY OCCURRING NORMALLY CAUSE PROBLEMS

MAY ACT AS OBSTRUCTIONS, HOWEVER MAY NEED

__
TREE ROOTS TO
BE PROTECTED TO PRESERVE TREE

NORMALLY EXPENSIVE TO ADDRESS (GASSING SITES

CONTAMINATION HYDROCARBONS, HEAVY METALS, GASSING SITES MAY BE DEALT WITH AT LOWER COST
DEPENDING ON GAS & EMISSION RATE)
 KARST FEATURES
POTHOLE or BURIED SINKHOLE

AS SHOWN BY WALTHAM & AS FOUND ON SITE

FOOKES
Site Investigation
 Learning Outcomes
Student should be able to:

• Describe the various methods of Soil

Investigation Methods.(CO1-PO2)
• Derive information from these
investigations. (CO1-CO2)
• Discuss the limitations and advantages of
each methods. (CO1-CO2)
 Learning Outcomes
Student should be able to:

• Explain how SPT are done (CO1-PO2)

• Derive information from the bore-log. (CO1-PO2)
• Discuss sampling method and the laboratory
tests to determine the soil properties.(CO1-PO2)
 INTRODUCTION

• Soil Investigation (S.I) refers to the procedure of

determining surface and subsurface condition in an
area of proposed construction/development.

• Surface and subsurface features may influence

1. what can be built
2. what will affect the design and construction
procedures
• Generally, it is to find out the strength characteristics
of the sub-soil and nature of soil in all aspects over
which the proposed structure is to be built.

• The scope depends on the size and type of project

and the characteristics of the soil

• The necessary data to evaluate are:

1.The safe bearing capacity of soil
2.The location of ground water level
3.The choice and depth of foundation
4.The probable settlements of structures under
design load
OBJECTIVES OF SOIL INVESTIGATION

• To assess the general suitability of the site for the

proposed works.
• To enable an adequate and economic design to be
prepared.
• To plan the best method of construction & prepare
for difficulties or delay during construction.
• To explore source of indigenous materials for use
in construction
• To determine the changes that may arise in the
ground and environmental conditions.
• To advise on the relative suitability of different sites
should alternatives exist.
 Purpose of Site Investigation

• Identify Type, Depth and Location of Underlying Soil

Layers
• Determine Physical Characteristics of Soil Layers
• Locate Water Table
• Evaluate Load Bearing Capacity
• Predict Lateral Earth Pressures
• Select Type & Depth of Foundation
• Estimate Settlements
• Determine Potential Problems
• Establish Construction Methods
TYPES OF PROPOSED DEVELOPMENTS/
PROJECT INITIATIONS

• Buildings: High rise, double storey, single storey

• Mixed Development: commercial, residential
• Highways/Roads
• Bridges
• Railways
• Factories/Plants/Silos
• Airports
• Harbours
• Off-Shore structures
Why It Is needed?
 Site Investigation
A Site Investigation is an exploration of the conditions you are likely to
encounter in the ground when constructing the foundations to your
property.
1. Walk Over Study
• Have a look: Trees, flora, fauna, water courses, elevation, condition of
nearby buildings, place names (eg. Gravel Pit Rd., Pond St., Spring Lane
etc)
• Local knowledge

2. Desk Study
• Maps dating back to when records were taken. Can include searching
records of previous uses of site and mining records
• Geological survey maps
• Planning departments & Local Libraries

3. On-site Groundbreaking Work

• Trial pits – by hand or excavator
• ‘Lightweight’ and ‘Heavyweight’ boring and testing equipment
• Laboratory soil testing (eg. plasticity of Clays)
 STAGES OF S.I
PART A
• Desk study
• Site reconnaissance
• Planning program and scope of soil investigation
• Ground exploration: boring,sampling and in-situ testing
• Laboratory testing
• Preparation of soil investigation report

PART B
• Design
• Review during construction and monitoring
Phases of a Typical Site Investigation
Tender phase - i.e. win the job!

Client briefing

Desk Study

Site Reconnaissance

Ground Investigation

Laboratory Testing
May be staged
Synthesis of Information

Reporting

Monitoring During Construction

 Desk Study
◆ Involves collection of available
information relevant to the site.
1. Layout plans (master plan and building
layout)
2. Topographic/survey maps
3. Geological maps and published literature
on existing geological conditions
4. Aerial photos
5. History of the site – ex mining activity,
dumping site, ex plantation
6. Geographical Information System
7. Soil information of nearby site
Regional Geology Map

Map shows the

surface geology in
the Perth region
Geological Map of Malaysia
Karstic formations present hazards to piling works
MOVING THROUGH THE NORTH JUNCTION BOX
 Site Reconnaissance

◆ Early examination of the site by appropriate

experts is most desirable e.g. geologist,land
surveyor,soil engineers, hydrologist etc.
◆ Information should be collected on the overall
site layout, topography, basic geology, details of
access, entry and height restrictions.
◆ Local conditions should be examined, such as
climate, stream flow, ground water conditions,
available utilities, drainage
◆ Photos taken at site
 Field Reconnaissance
◆ Observation of Surface
Conditions
– Accessibility
– Traffic Control
– Surface Drainage
– Geologic Features (Rock outcrops)
– Vegetation
– Slopes
– Drainage Patterns
SITE LAYOUT
 Planning Program and Scope of S.I

◆ Identify potential geotechnical problems

– The nature of sub-soil (based on desk study
and site visit)
– The type of structure or proposed development
i. Shallow foundation
ii. Deep foundation
iii. Basement excavation
iv. Retaining structures
v. Bridges
vi. Slope stability (cuts, fills)
vii. Embankments
 Planning Program and Scope of S.I
(con’t)
◆ Decide on the extent of site investigation
and scheduling for duration
– A preliminary distribution of the exploratory
holes and other field test to be performed
– Spacings of exploratory holes
– Depths of termination
– Frequencies of field tests
Note : In limestone area, number of boreholes
may need to be greatly increased
 Ground Exploration
The execution of SI works by SI
Contractors: exploratory holes, insitu
tests, sampling

Exploratory holes

◆ Boreholes
◆ Mackintosh probes or JKR probes
◆ Cone Penetration Tests
◆ Trial Pits
◆ Hand Augering ( HA)
◆ Geophysical Survey
 Ground Exploration (Con’t)

In-situ test

◆ Standard Penetration Test( SPT)

◆ Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
◆ Pressuremeter test
◆ Plate loading test
◆ Vane Shear Test
◆ Permeability test
◆ Dissipation test
 IN-SITU TESTING
Main reasons why in-situ testing needs to be conducted at site ;
✓ It is difficult (almost impossible) to obtain good undisturbed samples especially
in soft sensitive silts and clays, and in some coarse cohesionless soils.
✓ It is difficult to accurately model in the laboratory truly representative
conditions of structure and/or pore pressure under certain site conditions.

A number of relatively simple in-situ testing procedures have been devised which
enable good estimates of soil properties to be made under actual site conditions.
Although in in-situ testing the degree of accuracy and control possible is lower
than would be expected in the laboratory, this is often compensated for by a large
number of tests being carried out.
 Ground Exploration (Con’t)

Sampling

◆ Disturbed

◆ Undisturbed

◆ Bulk

◆ Continuos
METHODS OF SAMPLING
There are two main categories of soil samples ;
1) Undisturbed sample : the structure and water content is preserved
as far as possible to truly represent site conditions. Undisturbed
samples are request for tests of shear strength, consolidation and
permeability. Suitable coring method is usually used to obtained
undisturbed samples.
2) Disturbed sample : where possible attempting to preserve the in-situ
water content. As samples are collected they are placed and sealed
into glass or plastic containers, or tins, or plastic bags. Disturbed
samples are mainly required for soil identification and for
classification.
TYPES OF SAMPLER (SAMPLE CONTAINERS)
➢ Open drive sampler (class 2 – 3 sample)
➢ Thin-walled sampler (class 1 samples)
➢ Split barrel sampler (class 3 – 4 samples)
➢ Piston sampler (class 1- 2 samples)
➢ Swedish foil sampler
 In clay layers…

collect undisturbed clay

samples in thin walled
Clay sampler
(e.g. shelby tube)

bore hole Consolidation,

triaxial tests in lab
How Many Borings & How Deep?
“No hard-and-fast rule exists for determining the
number of borings or the depth to which borings
are to be advanced.”

But guidelines exist in –

• Textbooks
• Design manuals
 Types of Site
Enclosed urban
Open country
Compact Mountain region
Harbour
Off-shore
Road
Railways routes
Extended Tunnels
Sewers
Canals
New or existing
- High-rise buildings
Types of structure - Low-rise buildings
Materials
- Steel
- Reinforced concrete
- Timber
 Example of Design Requirements: High Rise
Some of the design issues:
• Structure must be supported
safely and without excessive
settlement.
• Basement walls must resist
lateral earth and water
pressures.
• Construction must not unduly
influence adjacent structures
(adjacent building should not
fall into your excavation!)

Some of the requirements:

• Choose and design
appropriate systems.
• Assess relative performance
and cost.

QV1 Building, St George’s Terrace, Perth

 How Many Borings?
• Conventional Wisdom
– The number (density) of borings will
increase:
• As soil variability increases
• As the loads increase
• For more critical/significant structures
• Rules of Thumb:
– Soft soils, critical structures – 50'
– Soft Soils - Space 100' to 200'
– As soils become harder, spacing may be
increased up to 500’
 How many bore holes?

Proposed site for a

multi-storey
shopping complex

bore hole

120 m

Not enough bore holes; soil profile and properties

not well defined..
 How many bore holes?

120 m

Too many bore holes and blows the budget.

How many bore holes?

trial pit

120 m

About right?
Economics
How Many Borings?
Structure Subsurface Spacing of Borings (ft)
or Project Variability
Irregular 100-1000 (200, typical)
Highway
Average 200-2000 (500, typical)
Subgrade
Uniform 400-4000 (1000, typical)
Irregular 25-75
Multistory
Average 50-150
Building
Uniform 100-300
How Many Borings?
How Deep?
 Depth of Investigation - Foundations
Isolated footing Pile group

Stress contours Soil stressed to

greater depth due
to interaction
between piles and
Must explore to the depth to which the soil
due to shaft
will be significantly stressed (perhaps to
friction
10% of the applied stress). This is of the
order of twice the width of the loaded area.
Depth of Investigation - Dams and Reservoirs

H
B
Exploration depth of
½B about half the base width
for an earth dam

Critical issues are seepage, foundation failure and settlement

Prove low Exploration depth of

permeability 2H about twice the
stratum hydraulic head
 How Deep (Bridges)?
• Boring depth is governed by various factors,
including:
– Foundation type
– Foundation load
– Lowering of grade line at underpass?
– Channel relocation, widening, dredging?
– Scour?
 How Deep (Retaining Walls)?
• Boring depth is governed by various factors,
including:
– Wall type (Fill vs. Cut)
– Lowering of grade line at wall?
– Scour?
 Excavation and Boring Method/Site
Exploration Method

1. Trial pits
2. Hand Auger Boring
3. Percussion Rig Boring
4. Rotary Coring/Boring
5. Wash Boring
6. Rotary Auger Boring

What are the factors influencing the method of site exploration?

 Trial Pit
Enables visual inspection, locating strata boundaries,
and access for undisturbed block samples.

A Very Large Trial Pit

 Excavation: Test Pits
◆ Typically using a backhoe or
excavator
◆ Generally to depths of about 3 m (can
go deeper with long-reach backhoe)
◆ Enables:
• visual inspection and identification, logging of
soil in test-pit wall
• collection of bulk samples
• some in situ testing to determine engineering
properties
◆ SAFETY:
• deep test pit can collapse - endanger anyone in
the pit
• care in heavily polluted areas - gasses may
collect in pit
2. Hand Auger Boring

◆ Uses light hand operated equipment

◆ The auger and drill rods are usually lifted out of
the borehole without the aid of a tripod
◆ No borehole casing is used
◆ Diameter between 100mm – 200mm may be
made in suitable ground conditions to a depth of
about 5m, usually cohesive soils (silts and clays)
and fine sands
◆ Not suitable for ground with hard obstructions or
gravel-sized to boulder-sized particles
◆ It is used to obtain disturbed samples
◆ Small undisturbed samples can also be obtained
by hand driving tubes into the bottom of the hole
3. Light Cable Percussion
Boring

◆ Also known as Shell and

Auger Boring or
Percussion Rig Boring
◆ Shown in the Figure, it
consists of:
a) Rig or derrick
b) Clay cutter
c) Shell or sand auger
d) Borehole casing
e) Drilling bit or chisel
f) Clay auger
g) Cross head chisel
◆ Light cable percussion boring’s drilling tools
consist of :
- A clay cutter for dry cohesive (clayey) soils
- A shell (or baler) for granular (sandy) soils
- A chisel for breaking up rock and hard layers
◆ The common borehole diameter is 150mm
◆ It cannot be used for boring into rock
◆ Suitable to investigate the finer grained marine
sediments and alluvium type of soils, maximum
depth of exploration about 50-60m
◆ Widely used in the UK
◆ Percussion method:
– Raise the tool assembly by the winch to 1 m above the
bottom of the hole
– Allow the tool assembly to fall under its own weight to
drive the cutting tool into the soil
– Raise the tool to surface when the cutting tool is full of
soil to obtain disturbed sample
4. Rotary Coring/Boring

◆ A drilling bit, shown below, with a

diamond or tungsten carbide tip,
is screwed on to the end of a
hollow core barrel, and is rotated
in the ground to produce a core
of rock, which is retained in the
core barrel as shown in the next
slide
Split Spoon (Barrel) Sampler
◆ Suitable for stiff soil, sand
gravel
◆ Thick-wall Steel Tubes
◆ 1.5” ID, 2.0” OD, 18”-30”
long
 Truck-Mounted Drill Rig

◆ Typical
Equipment Used
for Geotechnical
Drilling
◆ Truck Mounted
Drill Rig &
Support Truck
(Water Tank)
 Field Drilling and Sampling

◆ Air or Mud Rotary

Drilling
 Angle Drilling

◆ Assess geologic
features (dip,
strike, joints, etc.)
◆ Foundation testing
for bridge
abutments
Offshore Drilling/ Barge Rig
Exploration for
abutments,
bridges,
docks, etc.
 Rotary Drilling
◆ Bit at the end of drill rod
rotated and advanced
◆ Soil/rock cuttings
removed by circulating
drilling fluid
◆ Common drilling fluid;
bentonite in water with
slurry density 68-72pcf
◆ Air may be used as
drilling fluid
Rock Coring
– Double-tube core
barrel is typical
– Diamond or
tungsten-carbide
tooth bit
– Size of core
samples varies
(NX, NQ, HQ, etc.)
Rock Core Quality
– Core recovery
percentage
– Rock Quality
Designation (RQD)
◆ Defines the fraction of solid
core recovered greater than 4
inches in length
◆ Calculated as the ratio of the
sum of length of core
fragments greater than 4
inches to the total drilled
footage per run, expressed as
a percentage
5. Wash Boring

◆ Typical arrangement of a
wash boring is shown in
the Figure.
◆ It utilizes the percussive
action of a chisel bit to
break up material.
◆ The material is flushed to
the surface by water
pumped down the hollow
drill rods.
◆ Casings are used to
support the sides of the
bore hole
◆ High tendency for sample
 CHAPTER TWO
SOIL INVESTIGATION
 SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

Field Sampling and Laboratory Tests

▪ The guidance given in the standards can be used to determine
the locations, numbers and types of SI methods or boreholes
or insitu testing required based on the need and purpose of SI
established from the desk study.

▪ The sequence of SI methods or boring or insitu testing &

criteria of termination of boreholes should be clearly stated in
the written instruction and contract document for SI
contractor.
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

~ Field Sampling ~
1 - Disturbed Samples
Basic & Index Properties

2 - Undisturbed samples
Engineering Properties Tests

3 - Water Samples
Chemical Tests

4 - Block Samples
Engineering Properties & Classification Tests

5 - Bulk Samples – from test pits

Compaction/CBR & Classification Tests
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

~ Laboratory Tests ~

1 - Basic Properties Tests

2 - Index Properties Tests

3 - Chemical Properties Tests

4 - Engineering Properties Tests

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

~ Basic Properties Tests ~

❑ Include for colour, smell, natural

moisture content, Gs, Porosity,
Void Ratio, Reactivity, etc

❑ For soil identification, description,

classification and correlation
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

~ Index Properties Tests ~

❑ Include Atterberg Limits (LL, PL, PI),

Shrinkage Limit (SL), Particle Size
Distribution (PSD), Organic Content.

❑ For soil description, classification and

correlation with engineering properties
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

~ Chemical Properties Tests ~

❑ Include Total Dissolved Salts,

Sulphate & Chloride Contents,
pH value, etc

❑ For corrosion and durability

assessment of foundation
SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

Engineering Properties Tests

❑ Include shear strength, stiffness,

compressibility/swelling,
compaction/CBR, permeability
❑ For analysis and design
❑ Can be obtained from insitu testing &
laboratory test on undisturbed samples
❑ should be compared with correlated
values from Index Properties
 Sampling The Ground
◆ The main purposes are to establish the subsurface geological
profile in detail and to supply both undisturbed and disturbed
materials for laboratory testing.
◆ There are 2 main categories of soil samples:

[1] Undisturbed samples .

The structure and the water content of the samples are
preserved as far as possible, to truly represent site
conditions. Obtained by a suitable coring method. Tests
done: shear strength, consolidation, permeability

[2] Disturbed samples.

Collected as drilling or digging progress for soil identification
and classification. If it is permissible, the water content
should also be preserved.
 Field Soil Sampling Categories
◆ Disturbed Sample: ◆ Undisturbed Sample:
– Test pit
◆ Recovered completely
– Cuttings from bottom of
auger
intact
– Test pits:
– Split spoon
◆ Limited depth
– Auger boring
◆ Water table problems
– Wash boring
– Shelby thin tube
◆ Used to determine: ◆ Pushed in soil
– Grain size analysis ◆ Sample Preserved with wax:
– Liquid limit/plastic limit ◆ Used to Determine:
– Specific gravity – Soil strength
– Compaction – Compressibility
– permeability
95
Undisturbed Sample
6. Block Samples

- Block samples are cut by hand from

material exposed in trial pits and
excavations.
- Sample cutting should be done as quickly
as possible to prevent excessive moisture
loss, should be protected from rain and
direct sunlight.
- Protect the sides with aluminum foil or
grease proof paper and coated with wax
and cover with muslin.
- A strong, rigid,
close fitting box is
required to
minimize sample
disturbance during
transport.
 In-Situ Tests in Borehole
◆ Various tests may be conducted as
supplementary to a ground
investigation carried out by
boreholes
◆ The tests described are generally
undertaken as an intergral part of
the drilling operation.
1. Standard Penetration Test
2. Vane Shear Tests
3. Permeability Tests
4. Pressuremeter Tests
SPT

VST PMT DMT

CPT

In bore holes 10
0
 65 kg hammer

760 mm drop
Count the number of blows required anvil
for 300 mm penetration
Blow count
or
N-Value

drill rod

split spoon sampler

10
1
IN-SITU TESTING
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
After anitial deive of 150 mm, the number of blows required to drive the sampler a
further 300 mm is recorded.
This number of blows is referred to as the standard penetration resistance or N -
value.

SPT Penetration (mm)

1.5m 75 75 75 75 75 75 N

2 2 3 4 4 5 16

3 3 3 4 5 5 17
150
50
N 150
1.5m N 50
N 150
N 7x

Boring process continue to another 1.5m depth before another

SPT to be conducted and next sample will be collected.
IN-SITU TESTING
Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
This is dynamic test carried out in boreholes during site investigations.
A standard 50 mm diameter split barrel sampler is driven into the soil at the bottom
of a hole using a standard drop hammer of mass 65 kg and falling distance of
760mm height.
After initial drive of 150 mm, the number of blows required to drive the sampler a
further 300 mm is recorded.
This number of blows is referred to as the standard penetration resistance or N -
value.
Classification using SPT-N values
Cohesinless Soil Cohesive Soil
SPT-N Value Id % SPT-N Value Cu kPa
<4 Very loose 0 -15 <2 Very soft < 20
4 – 10 Loose 15 – 35 2–4 Soft 20 – 40
10 – 30 Medium dense 35 – 65 4–8 Firm 40 – 75
30 – 50 Dense 65 – 85 8 – 15 Stiff 75 – 150
> 50 Very dense 85 - 100 > 15 Very stiff or hard > 150
 still has some
value

mainly for granular soils; unreliable in clays

N-value correlated to ’, E …

done within bore holes at 1.5 m depth intervals

samples (disturbed) collected in split-spoon sampler

AR = 112%; use
for classification

soil
I.D. = 35 mm
O.D.= 51 mm
111
◆ Disadvantages of SPT test:
– Crude
– Inconsistency in the measured resistance due
to variation in impact energy

◆ Advantages of SPT test:

– Simple, inexpensive & rugged equipment
– Test procedure is easy to execute
– Allow representative samples to be taken
– Suitable for all types of soils & weak rock
– Widely accumulated data & experience for
foundation design
Use of SPT Data
SPT Correction Factors
E mCBCSCR N
N 60 =
0.60

• hammer efficiency (Em) …. Table 4.3

• bore hole diameter (CB)…….Table 4.4.
• sampler correction (CS) ……Table 4.4
• rod length (CR) ………Table 4.4
 SPT Overburden
Correction
100 kPa
( N1 ) 60 = N 60 (SI)
 z
 Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
Measured N-values Corrected N60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
4 4

Donut
ER = 34 (energy ratio)
6 6 Saf ety
55 45
60 Trend
40

Depth (meters)
8 8
Depth (meters)

56 41
63
41 10
10
63
39
63 12
12 47

Donut 64 56
14 Saf ety 14
69
Sequence
16 16

Data from Robertson, et al. (1983)

9/17/2019 116
Vane Shear Test
 measuring (torque) head

For clays, and mainly for soft clays.

bore hole Measure torque required to quickly
shear the vane pushed into soft clay.

 undrained

h2d torque ➔ undrained shear strength cu

vane
Typical d = 20-100 mm.
d
vane
soft clay
11
9
 Vane Shear Test
In-situ shear strength of soft clays

Field Vane Showing Failure Surface

Objectives of Vane Shear Test

❑ Vane shear test is used primarily to estimate the insitu

undrained shear strength of very soft, sensitive and fine
grained soil deposits.

❑ The undisturbed and remoulded strength obtained are useful

for evaluating the sensitivity of soil.

❑ The undrained shear strength from field vane shear test is

usually given the symbol su

❑ This test can also be used in other fine geomaterials such as

mine tailings, organic muck, and substances where
undrained strength determination is required.
Undrained Shear Strength

What is undrained shear strength???

In simple words, if the soil is sheared without change of

water content (i.e. undrained) and its strength remains the
same, the strength is called the undrained shear strength
su.
Undrained Shear Strength

What is so important about undrained shear

strength???

The undrained shear strength is a key parameter in the

estimation of the stability of natural slopes and man-made
constructions in soft clay.
Soil Sensitivity

What is soil sensitivity???

Soil sensitivity is the ratio between the unconfined

compressive strength of an undisturbed specimen and
the strength of the same specimen at the same water
content but in a remolded state.

St = Unconfined compressive strength undisturbed

Unconfined compressive strength remolded
Soil Sensitivity

What is so important about soil sensitivity???

❑ Very sensitive Clay soil is prone to liquefaction during

earthquake

❑ Very sensitive Clay soil is subjected to shrinkage when its

water content is reduced causing foundation damage
Soil Sensitivity

Typical value of Clay soil sensitivity;

Description Sensitivity St
Normal Clay 2-4
Sensitive Clay 4-8
Extra sensitive Clay 8 - 16

Higher sensitive Clay is known as Quick Clay

Field Vane Shear Test Calculation

Relationship between Su and applied Torque:

6Tf
Su =
7pd 3

Relationship between Su and applied Torque

(after correction factor):

6lT f
Su =
7pd 3
Field Vane Shear Test Calculation

Sensitivity can be calculated by using the formula

STfv = (su)fv / (sur)fv

Where,

STfv = sensitivity
(Su)fv = peak undrained shear strength
(Sur)fv = remolded undrained shear strength
 Typical Vane Shear Test Result

Vane Strength, s uv (kPa) Sensitivity, S t

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0

Peak
5 5
Remolded
Depth (meters)

Depth (meters)
10 10

15 15

20 20

25 25

30 30
Advantages and Limitations

- The test itself causes very little disturbance

particularly in sensitive clays
- If carried out in soil that contains laminations of
sand or dense silt, the torque may be
misleadingly high
- Presence of roots in organic soils may lead to
erroneous results
 Other Common In-situ and Field Tests

1. Cone Penetration Tests

2. Mackintosh/JKR Probes
3. Field Density Tests
4. Plate Bearing Tests
5. California Bearing Ratio
6. Geophysical Surveying
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
 Dynamic cone Static cone
penetration test penetration test
(DCPT) (SCPT)

similar to SPT; hammer driven pushed into the ground @ 2 cm/s

using cone instead of split spoon gives continuous measurements

closed end;
no samples

gives blow counts @ 1.5 m

depth intervals 13
4
CPT Arrangement

13
5
Simple and rugged.
Siva
Better than SPT or SCPT in hard
soils such as dense gravels
As crude as SPT; relies on
correlations based on blow counts

Hollow (split spoon)

SPT

DCPT

13
Solid (no 6
 10 cm2 cross
section fs
friction ratio, fR =  100 %
qc
sleeve friction (fs)
Typically 0 ———— 10%.

granular cohesive

cone resistance (qc)

or tip resistance (qT) 13
7
-Advantages:
CPT define soil profile with mush greater resolution
than SPT
Quicker and easy to conduct than SPT method
CPT mounted on truck thus grater mobility

-Limitations:
No soil sample is recovered
Not reliable for soil with high gravel content

13
8
Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

◆ Measures:
– Cone Resistance, qc
– Sleeve Resistance, fsc
◆ Typical CPT results
 Geostratigraphy by Piezocone Tests, Blytheville,
AR
qt (MPa) fs (kPa) u2 (kPa)
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 100 200 300 400 0 1000 2000 3000
0 0 0
Clayey Silt

5 5 5
Sand

10 10 10

15 15 15
Depth (m)

Clean
20 20 20 Sand

25 25 25

30 30 30

35 35 35
Clay

40 40 40
 Engineering Parameter
 Cohesive soils (Clay) - Undrained Shear Strength

Cu = qc/Nk’
Where
qc = minimum cone end resistance profile values
Nk’ = 17-18 for weak normally consolidated clays
= 20 for overconsolidated clays

 More detail undrained shear strength can be obtained from

Cu = (qc-Po)/Nk’

Where
Po = Overburden Pressure
Nk’ = 15-16 for normally consolidated clays
= 18-19 for overconsolidated clays
141
 Use of
CPT Data
 CPT Versus SPT

◆ CPT: Advantages over SPT

– provides much better resolution, reliability
– versatility; pore water pressure, dynamic
soil properties
◆ CPT: Disadvantages
– Does not give a sample
– Will not work with soil with gravel
– Need to mobilize a special rig
Advantages and Limitations

- Relatively quick to carry out and inexpensive in

comparison with boring, sampling and lab testing
- Traditionally used to predict driving resistance,
skin friction and the end bearing capacity of piles
in granular soils.
- Many published literature on relating cone
resistance value with other soil parameters
- Limited by the compressive strength of the inner
rods, some machines are capable of crushing the
inner rods.
- Penetration has to be terminated when
encountered dense sand or gravel.
2. Mackintosh Probes
 Plate Load Test
In-situ Bearing Capacity

Plate Stack at Failure.

Failure Depth = 25 mm
Plate Stack at Beginning
of Test
 Plate Load Test
In-situ Bearing Capacity
2

Graph of Time vs. Settlement. Graph of Applied Load vs.

3 kg/cm2 Load Increment Total Settlement
 Plate Load Test
In-situ Bearing Capacity

Plate Load Test Using Dead Load

 Plate Load Test
In-situ Bearing Capacity

Bearing Capacity Failure Envelop

Plate Load Test Schematic Foundation Failure

Plate bearing test
 Laboratory Testing
• Test carried out on samples collected at site
– Basic properties (color, smell, natural moisture
content, specific gravity, porosity, etc) for soil
identification,description,classification and
correlation.
– Index properties (LL,PL,PI, Organic Content etc) for
soil description, classification and correlations with
engineering properties.
– Chemical properties (sulphate and chloride
contents,pH value etc) for corrosion and durability
assessment of foundation.
– Engineering properties (shear strength, stiffness,
compressibility, compaction/CBR, permeability etc)
for analysis and design.
Ex-Situ (Laboratory) Tests
 Soil Classification
fines content
Particle size Divisions
GW Well graded gravels, sandy gravels
(mm) <5%
GP Poorly graded gravels, sandy gravels
boulder GM Silty gravel, gravel-sand-silt mixture
200 > 12 %
cobble GC Clayey gravel, gravel-sand-clay mixture
63 coarse
20 SW Well graded sands, gravelly sands
medium gravel <5%
SP Poorly graded sands, gravelly sands
6
fine SM Silty sand, sand-silt mixture
coarse > 12 %
2.36 SC Clayey sand, sand-clay mixture
0.6 medium
sand ML Low plasticity silt, sandy or clayey silt
0.2 fine CL Low plasticity clay, sandy or silty clay
0.075 OL Low plasticity organic silt, sandy or clayey silt
silt and clay
In Australia, common use made of
MH High plasticity silt, sandy or clayey silt
the Unified Soil Classification
CH High plasticity clay, sandy or silty clay
System (US), as well as the
OH High plasticity organic silt, sandy or clayey silt
Australian Standard system. See
Whitlow for British Standard
Pt Peat and other highly organic soils
system
 Sieve Analysis
(Mechanical Analysis)

▪ This procedure is
suitable for coarse
grained soils
▪ e.g. No.10 sieve ….
has 10 apertures per
linear inch
 Hydrometer
Analysis

▪ Also called
Sedimentation
Analysis
▪ Stoke’s Law

D 2 w (Gs − GL )
v=
18
Grain Size Distribution Curves
 Soil Plasticity

◆ Further classification within fine-grained soils (i.e.

soil that passes #200 sieve) is done based on soil
plasticity.
◆ Albert Atterberg, Swedish Soil Scientist (1846-
1916)…..series of tests for evaluating soil plasticity
◆ Arthur Casagrande adopted these tests for
geotechnical engineering purposes
 Atterberg Limits
▪ Consistency of fine-grained soil varies in
proportion to the water content
liquid (pea soup)
Liquid limit
Plasticity
Index plastic (pea nut butter)

Plastic limit
semi-solid (cheese)
Shrinkage limit
solid (hard candy)
 Liquid Limit (LL or wL)

➢ Empirical Definition
➢ The moisture content at which a 2 mm-
wide groove in a soil pat will close for a
distance of 0.5 in when dropped 25 times
in a standard brass cup falling 1 cm each
time at a rate of 2 drops/sec in a standard
liquid limit device
Engineering Characterization of Soils

Soil Properties that Control its Engineering Behavior

Particle Size

coarse-grained fine-grained

Particle/Grain Size ◼ Soil Plasticity

Distribution
Particle Shape
Casagrande Apparatus
Liquid Limit Determination
 Plastic Limit (PL, wP)

➢ The moisture content at which a thread of soil

just begins to crack and crumble when rolled
to a diameter of 1/8 inches
USCS Classification Chart
USCS Classification Chart
Plasticity Chart
 Field Classification of Strength
STRENGTH DEFINITION ESTIMATED SHEAR
DESCRIPTION STRENGTH (kPa)
VERY SOFT easily penetrated several centimetres by fist < 12.5
SOFT easily penetrated several centimetres by thumb 12.5 – 25
FIRM can be penetrated several centimetres by thumb with 25 – 50
SOIL

moderate effort
STIFF readily indented by thumb but penetrated only with great 50 – 100
effort
VERY STIFF readily indented by thumb nail 100 – 200
HARD > 200

ESTIMATED UNIAXIAL
COMPRESSIVE
STRENGTH (MPa)
EXTREMELY LOW easily remoulded by hand to a material with soil properties < 0.45
VERY LOW may be broken in hand with difficulty 0.45 – 1.25
LOW cuts easily with a knife 1.25 – 5
ROCK

MEDIUM difficult to cut with knife, pick indents deeply 5 – 12.5

HIGH cannot be cut with knife, pick indents to 5 mm 12.5 – 50
VERY HIGH requires one hammer blow to break 50 – 100
EXTREMELY HIGH requires multiple hammer blows to break >100
 Laboratory Measurement of Shear Strength

Measuring Shear Strength

Laboratory Test Methods
▪ Direct shear test
▪ Triaxial compression test
▪ Unconfined compression test
Failure Occurs by Shear !
1

3

Triaxial
Compression
Failed triaxial test
sample
Direct Shear Test Device
Shear Strength Measurement
Direct Shear Test
 Example
Direct Shear Test

20
Max. Shear Stress (psi)

15

10

0
0 10 20 30 40 50
Normal Stress (psi) c = 2.5 psi
(20 − 2.5)
tan  = = 0.365
48
 = tan −1 (0.365 ) = 20 
Triaxial Compression Test

GEO102
Triaxial Compression Test;
2 Stages of Loading
3 1= 3+ 

3 3

Apply Confining
Pressure Apply Axial Load
Failure Occurs by Shear !
1

3

Triaxial
Compression
Failed
triaxial test
sample
Triaxial Test on Clay:
Sample Preparation
Triaxial Test on Clay:
Sample Preparation
Getting c and  from Triaxial
Test Data

1= 3+

Horiz. plane
Vert. plane

3 
3 1

Triaxial
Compression
 Mohr’s Circles
As axial load is gradually increased
….

1= 3+


Vert.
plane
3 
 3 1

Triaxial Compression
 Triaxial Compression Test
Data Interpretation

s = c +  tan 
Total Stress vs. Effective
Stress

 = −u
▪  = Total Stress
▪ ' = Effective Stress
▪ u = Pore water pressure
Shear Strength Parameters in
terms of Effective Stress

s = c +   tan  
where   =  − u
▪ c' = effective cohesion
▪ ' = effective friction angle
Unconfined Compression Test
• Special Case of the 1
Triaxial Compression
Test
• Confining Stress = 0
• i.e. 3 = 0 3 = 0
• Deviator Stress = 1
 Unconfined Compression Test
Data
l
=
l0
A0
Ac =
(1 −  )
P
=
Ac

qu = Unconfined Compressio n Strength

qu
Su = Undrained Shear Strngth =
2
Unconfined Compression Test

C=Su

qu= at failure
 Triaxial Compression Test
Determining C and 

• Consolidated Undrained Test (CU-

Test)
• Consolidated Drained (CD-Test); Also
called “Drained Test”
Laboratory Consolidation Test
 Soil Response under Loading
Clayey Soils

Undrained
Conditions!

•Excess pore pressure builds up as soil is loaded

• Pore pressure cannot be determined; u = u0+ue
•  remains at initial value (S=100%, no drainage)
• Therefore, use S = Su ; c = Su and  = 0
Consolidation Test
Test Results
 Consolidation
Test Results
Plot-Idealized
Compression Index and
Recompression Index
ea − eb
Cc =
(log  z )b − (log  z ) a

ec − ed
Cr =
(log  z ) d − (log  z ) c