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UNIT-II

SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS

Software requirements are necessary

 To introduce the concepts of user and system requirements
 To describe functional and non-functional requirements
 To explain how software requirements may be organised in a requirements document
What is a requirement?
 The requirements for the system are the description of the services provided by the system and its
operational constraints
 It may range from a high-level abstract statement of a service or of a system constraint to a
detailed mathematical functional specification.
 This is inevitable as requirements may serve a dual function
o May be the basis for a bid for a contract - therefore must be open to interpretation;
o May be the basis for the contract itself - therefore must be defined in detail;
Both these statements may be called requirements
Requirements engineering:
 The process of finding out, analysing documenting and checking these services and constraints is
called requirement engineering.
 The process of establishing the services that the customer requires from a system and the
constraints under which it operates and is developed.
 The requirements themselves are the descriptions of the system services and constraints that are
generated during the requirements engineering process.

Requirements abstraction (Davis):

If a company wishes to let a contract for a large software development project, it must define its
needs in a sufficiently abstract way that a solution is not pre-defined. The requirements must be
written so that several contractors can bid for the contract, offering, perhaps, different ways of
meeting the client organisation’s needs. Once a contract has been awarded, the contractor must
write a system definition for the client in more detail so that the client understands and can
validate what the software will do. Both of these documents may be called the requirements
document for the system.”

Types of requirement:
 User requirements
o Statements in natural language plus diagrams of the services the system provides and its
operational constraints. Written for customers.
 System requirements
o A structured document setting out detailed descriptions of the system’s functions,
services and operational constraints. Defines what should be implemented so may be part
of a contract between client and contractor.

Definitions and specifications:

User Requirement Definition:

The software must provide the means of representing and accessing external files created by other
tools.

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System Requirement specification:

 The user should be provided with facilities to define the type of external files.
 Each external file type may have an associated tool which may be applied to the file.
 Each external file type may be represented as a specific icon on the user’s display.
 Facilities should be provided for the icon representing an external file type to be defined by the
user.
 When an user selects an icon representing an external file, the effect of that selection is to apply
the tool associated with the type of the external file to the file represented by the selected icon.
Requirements readers:

1) Functional and non-functional requirements:

Functional requirements
• Statements of services the system should provide how the system should react to
particular inputs and how the system should behave in particular situations.
Non-functional requirements
• Constraints on the services or functions offered by the system such as timing constraints,
constraints on the development process, standards, etc.
Domain requirements
• Requirements that come from the application domain of the system and that reflect
characteristics of that domain.

1.1) FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS:

 Describe functionality or system services.
 Depend on the type of software, expected users and the type of system where the software is
used.
 Functional user requirements may be high-level statements of what the system should do but
functional system requirements should describe the system services in detail.
The functional requirements for The LIBSYS system:
 A library system that provides a single interface to a number of databases of articles in different
libraries.
 Users can search for, download and print these articles for personal study.
Examples of functional requirements
 The user shall be able to search either all of the initial set of databases or select a subset from it.
 The system shall provide appropriate viewers for the user to read documents in the document
store.

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 Every order shall be allocated a unique identifier (ORDER_ID) which the user shall be able to
copy to the account’s permanent storage area.
Requirements imprecision
 Problems arise when requirements are not precisely stated.
 Ambiguous requirements may be interpreted in different ways by developers and users.
 Consider the term ‘appropriate viewers’
o User intention - special purpose viewer for each different document type;
o Developer interpretation - Provide a text viewer that shows the contents of the document.
Requirements completeness and consistency:
In principle, requirements should be both complete and consistent.
Complete
 They should include descriptions of all facilities required.
Consistent
 There should be no conflicts or contradictions in the descriptions of the system facilities.
In practice, it is impossible to produce a complete and consistent requirements document.

NON-FUNCTIONAL REQUIREMENTS
 These define system properties and constraints e.g. reliability, response time and storage
requirements. Constraints are I/O device capability, system representations, etc.
 Process requirements may also be specified mandating a particular CASE system, programming
language or development method.
 Non-functional requirements may be more critical than functional requirements. If these are not
met, the system is useless.
1.2) Non-functional requirement types:

Non-functional requirements :
Product requirements

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• Requirements which specify that the delivered product must behave in a particular way
e.g. execution speed, reliability, etc.
• Eg:The user interface for LIBSYS shall be implemented as simple HTML without frames
or Java applets.
Organisational requirements
• Requirements which are a consequence of organisational policies and procedures e.g.
process standards used, implementation requirements, etc.
• Eg: The system development process and deliverable documents shall conform to the
process and deliverables defined in XYZCo-SP-STAN-95.
External requirements
• Requirements which arise from factors which are external to the system and its
development process e.g. interoperability requirements, legislative requirements, etc.
• Eg: The system shall not disclose any personal information about customers apart from
their name and reference number to the operators of the system.

Goals and requirements:

 Non-functional requirements may be very difficult to state precisely and imprecise requirements
may be difficult to verify.
 Goal
- A general intention of the user such as ease of use.
- The system should be easy to use by experienced controllers and should be organised in such
a way that user errors are minimised.
 Verifiable non-functional requirement
- A statement using some measure that can be objectively tested.
- Experienced controllers shall be able to use all the system functions after a total of two hours
training. After this training, the average number of errors made by experienced users shall not
exceed two per day.
 Goals are helpful to developers as they convey the intentions of the system users.

Requirements measures:
Property Measure
Speed Processed transactions/second
User/Event response time
Screen refresh time
Size M Bytes
Number of ROM chips
Ease of use Training time
Number of help frames
Reliability Mean time to failure
Probability of unavailability
Rate of failure occurrence
Availability
Robustness Time to restart after failure
Percentage of events causing failure
Probability of data corruption on failure

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Portability Percentage of target dependent statements

Number of target systems

Requirements interaction:
• Conflicts between different non-functional requirements are common in complex systems.
• Spacecraft system
 To minimise weight, the number of separate chips in the system should be
minimised.
 To minimise power consumption, lower power chips should be used.
• However, using low power chips may mean that more chips have to be used. Which is the most
critical requirement?
A common problem with non-functional requirements is that they can be difficult to verify. Users
or customers often state these requirements as general goals such as ease of use, the ability of the system to
recover from failure or rapid user response. These vague goals cause problems for system developers as
they leave scope for interpretation and subsequent dispute once the system is delivered.

1.3) DOMAIN REQUIREMENTS

 Derived from the application domain and describe system characteristics and features that reflect
the domain.
 Domain requirements be new functional requirements, constraints on existing requirements or
define specific computations.
 If domain requirements are not satisfied, the system may be unworkable.

Library system domain requirements:

 There shall be a standard user interface to all databases which shall be based on the Z39.50
standard.
 Because of copyright restrictions, some documents must be deleted immediately on arrival.
Depending on the user’s requirements, these documents will either be printed locally on the
system server for manually forwarding to the user or routed to a network printer.

Domain requirements problems

Understandability
• Requirements are expressed in the language of the application domain;
• This is often not understood by software engineers developing the system.
Implicitness
• Domain specialists understand the area so well that they do not think of making the
domain requirements explicit.

2) USER REQUIREMENTS
 Should describe functional and non-functional requirements in such a way that they are
understandable by system users who don’t have detailed technical knowledge.
 User requirements are defined using natural language, tables and diagrams as these can be
understood by all users.

Problems with natural language

Lack of clarity
• Precision is difficult without making the document difficult to read.
Requirements confusion
• Functional and non-functional requirements tend to be mixed-up.
Requirements amalgamation
• Several different requirements may be expressed together.

Requirement problems
Database requirements includes both conceptual and detailed information
• Describes the concept of a financial accounting system that is to be included in LIBSYS;

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• However, it also includes the detail that managers can configure this system - this is
unnecessary at this level.
Grid requirement mixes three different kinds of requirement
• Conceptual functional requirement (the need for a grid);
• Non-functional requirement (grid units);
• Non-functional UI requirement (grid switching).
• Structured presentation
Guidelines for writing requirements
 Invent a standard format and use it for all requirements.
 Use language in a consistent way. Use shall for mandatory requirements, should for desirable
requirements.
 Use text highlighting to identify key parts of the requirement.
 Avoid the use of computer jargon.

3) SYSTEM REQUIREMENTS
 More detailed specifications of system functions, services and constraints than user requirements.
 They are intended to be a basis for designing the system.
 They may be incorporated into the system contract.
 System requirements may be defined or illustrated using system models

Requirements and design

In principle, requirements should state what the system should do and the design should describe
how it does this.
In practice, requirements and design are inseparable
• A system architecture may be designed to structure the requirements;
• The system may inter-operate with other systems that generate design requirements;
• The use of a specific design may be a domain requirement.
Problems with NL(natural language) specification
Ambiguity
• The readers and writers of the requirement must interpret the same words in the same
way. NL is naturally ambiguous so this is very difficult.
Over-flexibility
• The same thing may be said in a number of different ways in the specification.
Lack of modularisation
• NL structures are inadequate to structure system requirements.

Alternatives to NL specification:
Notation Description

Structured natural This approach depends on defining standard forms or templates to express the
language requirements specification.

Design description This approach uses a language like a programming language but with more abstract
languages features to specify the requirements by defining an operational model of the system.
This approach is not now widely used although it can be useful for interface
specifications.

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Graphical A graphical language, supplemented by text annotations is used to define the functional
notations requirements for the system. An early example of such a graphical language was SADT.
Now, use-case descriptions and sequence diagrams are commonly used .

Mathematical These are notations based on mathematical concepts such as finite-state machines or
specifications sets. These unambiguous specifications reduce the arguments between customer and
contractor about system functionality. However, most customers don’t understand
formal specifications and are reluctant to accept it as a system contract.

3.1) Structured language specifications

 The freedom of the requirements writer is limited by a predefined template for requirements.
 All requirements are written in a standard way.
 The terminology used in the description may be limited.
 The advantage is that the most of the expressiveness of natural language is maintained but a
degree of uniformity is imposed on the specification.

Form-based specifications
 Definition of the function or entity.
 Description of inputs and where they come from.
 Description of outputs and where they go to.
 Indication of other entities required.
 Pre and post conditions (if appropriate).
 The side effects (if any) of the function.

Tabular specification
 Used to supplement natural language.
 Particularly useful when you have to define a number of possible alternative courses of action.

Graphical models
 Graphical models are most useful when you need to show how state changes or where you need to
describe a sequence of actions.

Sequence diagrams
 These show the sequence of events that take place during some user interaction with a system.
 You read them from top to bottom to see the order of the actions that take place.
 Cash withdrawal from an ATM
• Validate card;
• Handle request;
• Complete transaction.

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Sequence diagram of ATM withdrawal

System requirement specification using a standard form:

1. Function
2. Description
3. Inputs
4. Source
5. Outputs
6. Destination
7. Action
8. Requires
9. Pre-condition
10. Post-condition
11. Side-effects

When a standard form is used for specifying functional requirements, the following information should be
included:
1. Description of the function or entity being specified
2. Description of its inputs and where these come from
3. Description of its outputs and where these go to
4. Indication of what other entities are used
5. Description of the action to be taken
6. If a functional approach is used, a pre-condition setting out what must be true before the function is
called and a post-condition specifying what is true after the function is called

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7. Description of the side effects of the operation.

4) INTERFACE SPECIFICATION
 Most systems must operate with other systems and the operating interfaces must be specified as
part of the requirements.
 Three types of interface may have to be defined
• Procedural interfaces where existing programs or sub-systems offer a range of services
that are accessed by calling interface procedures. These interfaces are sometimes called
Applicatin Programming Interfaces (APIs)
• Data structures that are exchanged that are passed from one sub-system to another.
Graphical data models are the best notations for this type of description
• Data representations that have been established for an existing sub-system
 Formal notations are an effective technique for interface specification.

5) THE SOFTWARE REQUIREMENTS DOCUMENT:

 The requirements document is the official statement of what is required of the system developers.
 Should include both a definition of user requirements and a specification of the system
requirements.
 It is NOT a design document. As far as possible, it should set of WHAT the system should do
rather than HOW it should do it

Users of a requirements document:

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IEEE requirements standard defines a generic structure for a requirements document that must be
instantiated for each specific system.
1. Introduction.
i) Purpose of the requirements document
ii) Scope of the project
iii) Definitions, acronyms and abbreviations
iv) References
v) Overview of the remainder of the document
2. General description.
i) Product perspective
ii) Product functions
iii) User characteristics
iv) General constraints
v) Assumptions and dependencies
3. Specific requirements cover functional, non-functional and interface requirements. The
requirements may document external interfaces, describe system functionality and performance,
specify logical database requirements, design constraints, emergent system properties and quality
characteristics.
4. Appendices.
5. Index.

REQUIREMENTS ENGINEERING PROCESSES

The goal of requirements engineering process is to create and maintain a system requirements document.
The overall process includes four high-level requirement engineering sub-processes. These are concerned
with
 Assessing whether the system is useful to the business(feasibility study)
 Discovering requirements(elicitation and analysis)
 Converting these requirements into some standard form(specification)
 Checking that the requirements actually define the system that the customer wants(validation)
The process of managing the changes in the requirements is called requirement management.

The requirements engineering process

Requirements engineering:

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The alternative perspective on the requirements engineering process presents the process as a three-stage
activity where the activities are organized as an iterative process around a spiral. The amount of time and
effort devoted to each activity in iteration depends on the stage of the overall process and the type of
system being developed. Early in the process, most effort will be spent on understanding high-level
business and non-functional requirements and the user requirements. Later in the process, in the outer rings
of the spiral, more effort will be devoted to system requirements engineering and system modeling.

This spiral model accommodates approaches to development in which the requirements are developed to
different levels of detail. The number of iterations around the spiral can vary, so the spiral can be exited
after some or all of the user requirements have been elicited.

Some people consider requirements engineering to be the process of applying a structured analysis method
such as object-oriented analysis. This involves analyzing the system and developing a set of graphical
system models, such as use-case models, that then serve as a system specification. The set of models
describes the behavior of the system and are annotated with additional information describing, for example,
its required performance or reliability.
Spiral model of requirements engineering processes

1) FEASIBILITY STUDIES
A feasibility study decides whether or not the proposed system is worthwhile. The input to the
feasibility study is a set of preliminary business requirements, an outline description of the system and how
the system is intended to support business processes. The results of the feasibility study should be a report
that recommends whether or not it worth carrying on with the requirements engineering and system
development process.
• A short focused study that checks
– If the system contributes to organisational objectives;
– If the system can be engineered using current technology and within budget;

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– If the system can be integrated with other systems that are used.

Feasibility study implementation:

• A feasibility study involves information assessment, information collection and report writing.
• Questions for people in the organisation
– What if the system wasn’t implemented?
– What are current process problems?
– How will the proposed system help?
– What will be the integration problems?
– Is new technology needed? What skills?
– What facilities must be supported by the proposed system?
In a feasibility study, you may consult information sources such as the managers of the
departments where the system will be used, software engineers who are familiar with the type of system
that is proposed, technology experts and end-users of the system. They should try to complete a feasibility
study in two or three weeks.
Once you have the information, you write the feasibility study report. You should make a
recommendation about whether or not the system development should continue. In the report, you may
propose changes to the scope, budget and schedule of the system and suggest further high-level
requirements for the system.

2) REQUIREMENT ELICITATION AND ANALYSIS:

The requirement engineering process is requirements elicitation and analysis.
• Sometimes called requirements elicitation or requirements discovery.
• Involves technical staff working with customers to find out about the application domain, the
services that the system should provide and the system’s operational constraints.
• May involve end-users, managers, engineers involved in maintenance, domain experts, trade
unions, etc. These are called stakeholders.
•
Problems of requirements analysis
• Stakeholders don’t know what they really want.
• Stakeholders express requirements in their own terms.
• Different stakeholders may have conflicting requirements.
• Organisational and political factors may influence the system requirements.
• The requirements change during the analysis process. New stakeholders may emerge and the
business environment change.

The requirements spiral

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Process activities
1. Requirements discovery
– Interacting with stakeholders to discover their requirements. Domain requirements are
also discovered at this stage.
2. Requirements classification and organisation
– Groups related requirements and organises them into coherent clusters.
3. Prioritisation and negotiation
– Prioritising requirements and resolving requirements conflicts.
4. Requirements documentation
– Requirements are documented and input into the next round of the spiral.
The process cycle starts with requirements discovery and ends with requirements documentation. The
analyst’s understanding of the requirements improves with each round of the cycle.
Requirements classification and organization is primarily concerned with identifying overlapping
requirements from different stakeholders and grouping related requirements. The most common way of
grouping requirements is to use a model of the system architecture to identify subsystems and to associate
requirements with each sub-system.
Inevitably, stakeholders have different views on the importance and priority of requirements, and
sometimes these view conflict. During the process, you should organize regular stakeholder negotiations so
that compromises can be reached.
In the requirement documenting stage, the requirements that have been elicited are documented in such a
way that they can be used to help with further requirements discovery.

2.1) REQUIREMENTS DISCOVERY:

• Requirement discovery is the process of gathering information about the proposed and existing
systems and distilling the user and system requirements from this information.
• Sources of information include documentation, system stakeholders and the specifications of
similar systems.
• They interact with stakeholders through interview and observation and may use scenarios and
prototypes to help with the requirements discovery.
• Stakeholders range from system end-users through managers and external stakeholders such as
regulators who certify the acceptability of the system.
• For example, system stakeholder for a bank ATM include
1. Bank customers
2. Representatives of other banks
3. Bank managers
4. Counter staff
5. Database administrators
6. Security managers
7. Marketing department
8. Hardware and software maintenance engineers
9. Banking regulators
Requirements sources( stakeholders, domain, systems) can all be represented as system viewpoints, where
each viewpoints, where each viewpoint presents a sub-set of the requirements for the system.

Viewpoints:
• Viewpoints are a way of structuring the requirements to represent the perspectives of different
stakeholders. Stakeholders may be classified under different viewpoints.
• This multi-perspective analysis is important as there is no single correct way to analyse system
requirements.
•
Types of viewpoint:
1. Interactor viewpoints
– People or other systems that interact directly with the system. These viewpoints provide
detailed system requirements covering the system features and interfaces. In an ATM,
the customer’s and the account database are interactor VPs.
2. Indirect viewpoints

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– Stakeholders who do not use the system themselves but who influence the requirements.
These viewpoints are more likely to provide higher-level organisation requirements and
constraints. In an ATM, management and security staff are indirect viewpoints.
3. Domain viewpoints
– Domain characteristics and constraints that influence the requirements. These viewpoints
normally provide domain constraints that apply to the system. In an ATM, an example
would be standards for inter-bank communications.
Typically, these viewpoints provide different types of requirements.

Viewpoint identification:
• Identify viewpoints using
– Providers and receivers of system services;
– Systems that interact directly with the system being specified;
– Regulations and standards;
– Sources of business and non-functional requirements.
– Engineers who have to develop and maintain the system;
– Marketing and other business viewpoints.

LIBSYS viewpoint hierarchy

Interviewing
In formal or informal interviewing, the RE team puts questions to stakeholders about the system that they
use and the system to be developed.
There are two types of interview
- Closed interviews where a pre-defined set of questions are answered.
- Open interviews where there is no pre-defined agenda and a range of issues are explored with
stakeholders.
-
Interviews in practice:
• Normally a mix of closed and open-ended interviewing.
• Interviews are good for getting an overall understanding of what stakeholders do and how they
might interact with the system.
• Interviews are not good for understanding domain requirements
– Requirements engineers cannot understand specific domain terminology;

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– Some domain knowledge is so familiar that people find it hard to articulate or think that it
isn’t worth articulating.

Effective interviewers:
• Interviewers should be open-minded, willing to listen to stakeholders and should not have pre-
conceived ideas about the requirements.
• They should prompt the interviewee with a question or a proposal and should not simply expect
them to respond to a question such as ‘what do you want’.
•
Scenarios:
Scenarios are real-life examples of how a system can be used.
• They should include
– A description of the starting situation;
– A description of the normal flow of events;
– A description of what can go wrong;
– Information about other concurrent activities;
– A description of the state when the scenario finishes.

Use cases
• Use-cases are a scenario based technique in the UML which identify the actors in an interaction and
which describe the interaction itself.
• A set of use cases should describe all possible interactions with the system.
• Sequence diagrams may be used to add detail to use-cases by showing the sequence of event
processing in the system.
•
Article printing use-case:

LIBSYS use cases:

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Article printing sequence:

Social and organisational factors

• Software systems are used in a social and organisational context. This can influence or even
dominate the system requirements.
• Social and organisational factors are not a single viewpoint but are influences on all viewpoints.
• Good analysts must be sensitive to these factors but currently no systematic way to tackle their
analysis.

2.2) ETHNOGRAPHY:
• A social scientists spends a considerable time observing and analysing how people actually work.
• People do not have to explain or articulate their work.
• Social and organisational factors of importance may be observed.
• Ethnographic studies have shown that work is usually richer and more complex than suggested by
simple system models.

Focused ethnography:
• Developed in a project studying the air traffic control process
• Combines ethnography with prototyping
• Prototype development results in unanswered questions which focus the ethnographic analysis.
• The problem with ethnography is that it studies existing practices which may have some historical
basis which is no longer relevant.

Ethnography and prototyping

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Scope of ethnography:
• Requirements that are derived from the way that people actually work rather than the way I which
process definitions suggest that they ought to work.
• Requirements that are derived from cooperation and awareness of other people’s activities.

3) REQUIREMENTS VALIDATION
• Concerned with demonstrating that the requirements define the system that the customer really
wants.
• Requirements error costs are high so validation is very important
– Fixing a requirements error after delivery may cost up to 100 times the cost of fixing an
implementation error.

Requirements checking:
• Validity: Does the system provide the functions which best support the customer’s needs?
• Consistency: Are there any requirements conflicts?
• Completeness: Are all functions required by the customer included?
• Realism: Can the requirements be implemented given available budget and technology
• Verifiability: Can the requirements be checked?

Requirements validation techniques

• Requirements reviews
– Systematic manual analysis of the requirements.
• Prototyping
– Using an executable model of the system to check requirements. Covered in Chapter 17.
• Test-case generation
– Developing tests for requirements to check testability.

Requirements reviews:
• Regular reviews should be held while the requirements definition is being formulated.
• Both client and contractor staff should be involved in reviews.
• Reviews may be formal (with completed documents) or informal. Good communications between
developers, customers and users can resolve problems at an early stage.

Review checks:
• Verifiability: Is the requirement realistically testable?
• Comprehensibility: Is the requirement properly understood?
• Traceability: Is the origin of the requirement clearly stated?
• Adaptability: Can the requirement be changed without a large impact on other requirements?

4) REQUIREMENTS MANAGEMENT
• Requirements management is the process of managing changing requirements during the
requirements engineering process and system development.
• Requirements are inevitably incomplete and inconsistent
– New requirements emerge during the process as business needs change and a better
understanding of the system is developed;
– Different viewpoints have different requirements and these are often contradictory.

Requirements change
• The priority of requirements from different viewpoints changes during the development process.
• System customers may specify requirements from a business perspective that conflict with end-user
requirements.
• The business and technical environment of the system changes during its development.

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Requirements evolution:

4.1) Enduring and volatile requirements:

• Enduring requirements: Stable requirements derived from the core activity of the customer
organisation. E.g. a hospital will always have doctors, nurses, etc. May be derived from domain
models
• Volatile requirements: Requirements which change during development or when the system is in
use. In a hospital, requirements derived from health-care policy
Requirements classification:
Requirement Description
Type
Mutable Requirements that change because of changes to the environment in which the
requirements organisation is operating. For example, in hospital systems, the funding of patient
care may change and thus require different treatment information to be collected.
Emergent Requirements that emerge as the customer's understanding of the system develops
requirements during the system development. The design process may reveal new emergent
requirements.
Consequential Requirements that result from the introduction of the computer system. Introducing
requirements the computer system may change the organisations processes and open up new ways
of working which generate new system requirements
Compatibility Requirements that depend on the particular systems or business processes within an
requirements organisation. As these change, the compatibility requirements on the commissioned
or delivered system may also have to evolve.

4.2) Requirements management planning:

• During the requirements engineering process, you have to plan:
– Requirements identification
• How requirements are individually identified;
– A change management process
• The process followed when analysing a requirements change;
– Traceability policies
• The amount of information about requirements relationships that is maintained;
– CASE tool support
• The tool support required to help manage requirements change;

Traceability:
Traceability is concerned with the relationships between requirements, their sources and the system design
• Source traceability
– Links from requirements to stakeholders who proposed these requirements;
• Requirements traceability
– Links between dependent requirements;
• Design traceability - Links from the requirements to the design;

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CASE tool support:

• Requirements storage
– Requirements should be managed in a secure, managed data store.
• Change management
– The process of change management is a workflow process whose stages can be defined
and information flow between these stages partially automated.
• Traceability management
– Automated retrieval of the links between requirements.

4.3) Requirements change management:

• Should apply to all proposed changes to the requirements.
• Principal stages
– Problem analysis. Discuss requirements problem and propose change;
– Change analysis and costing. Assess effects of change on other requirements;
– Change implementation. Modify requirements document and other documents to reflect
change.

Change management:

SYSTEM MODELLING
 System modelling helps the analyst to understand the functionality of the system and models are
used to communicate with customers.
 Different models present the system from different perspectives
o Behavioural perspective showing the behaviour of the system;
o Structural perspective showing the system or data architecture.
Model types
 Data processing model showing how the data is processed at different stages.
 Composition model showing how entities are composed of other entities.
 Architectural model showing principal sub-systems.
 Classification model showing how entities have common characteristics.
 Stimulus/response model showing the system’s reaction to events.

1) CONTEXT MODELS:
 Context models are used to illustrate the operational context of a system - they show what lies
outside the system boundaries.
 Social and organisational concerns may affect the decision on where to position system
boundaries.
 Architectural models show the system and its relationship with other systems.

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The context of an ATM system:

Process models:
 Process models show the overall process and the processes that are supported by the system.
 Data flow models may be used to show the processes and the flow of information from one
process to another.

2) BEHAVIOURAL MODELS:
 Behavioural models are used to describe the overall behaviour of a system.
 Two types of behavioural model are:
o Data processing models that show how data is processed as it moves through the system;
o State machine models that show the systems response to events.
 These models show different perspectives so both of them are required to describe the system’s
behaviour.

2.1) Data-processing models:

 Data flow diagrams (DFDs) may be used to model the system’s data processing.
 These show the processing steps as data flows through a system.
 DFDs are an intrinsic part of many analysis methods.
 Simple and intuitive notation that customers can understand.
 Show end-to-end processing of data.

Order processing DFD:

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Data flow diagrams:

 DFDs model the system from a functional perspective.
 Tracking and documenting how the data associated with a process is helpful to develop an overall
understanding of the system.
 Data flow diagrams may also be used in showing the data exchange between a system and other
systems in its environment.

2.2) State machine models:

 These model the behaviour of the system in response to external and internal events.
 They show the system’s responses to stimuli so are often used for modelling real-time systems.
 State machine models show system states as nodes and events as arcs between these nodes. When
an event occurs, the system moves from one state to another.
 Statecharts are an integral part of the UML and are used to represent state machine models.

Statecharts:
 Allow the decomposition of a model into sub-models (see following slide).
 A brief description of the actions is included following the ‘do’ in each state.
 Can be complemented by tables describing the states and the stimuli.

Microwave oven model:

Microwave oven state description:

State Description
Waiting The oven is waiting for input. The display shows the current time.
Half power The oven power is set to 300 watts. The display shows ‘Half power’.
Full power The oven power is set to 600 watts. The display shows ‘Full power’.
Set time The cooking time is set to the user’s input value. The display shows the cooking time
selected and is updated as the time is set.
Disabled Oven operation is disabled for safety. Interior oven light is on. Display shows ‘Not
ready’.
Enabled Oven operation is enabled. Interior oven light is off. Display shows ‘Ready to cook’.

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Operation Oven in operation. Interior oven light is on. Display shows the timer countdown. On
completion of cooking, the buzzer is sounded for 5 seconds. Oven light is on. Display
shows ‘Cooking complete’ while buzzer is sounding.

Microwave oven stimuli:

Stimulus Description
Half power The user has pressed the half power button
Full power The user has pressed the full power button
Timer The user has pressed one of the timer buttons
Number The user has pressed a numeric key
Door open The oven door switch is not closed
Door closed The oven door switch is closed
Start The user has pressed the start button
Cancel The user has pressed the cancel button

3) SEMANTIC DATA MODELS:

 Used to describe the logical structure of data processed by the system.
 An entity-relation-attribute model sets out the entities in the system, the relationships between
these entities and the entity attributes
 Widely used in database design. Can readily be implemented using relational databases.
 No specific notation provided in the UML but objects and associations can be used.

Data dictionaries
 Data dictionaries are lists of all of the names used in the system models. Descriptions of the
entities, relationships and attributes are also included.
 Advantages
o Support name management and avoid duplication;
o Store of organisational knowledge linking analysis, design and implementation;
 Many CASE workbenches support data dictionaries.

4) OBJECT MODELS:
 Object models describe the system in terms of object classes and their associations.
 An object class is an abstraction over a set of objects with common attributes and the services
(operations) provided by each object.
 Various object models may be produced
o Inheritance models;
o Aggregation models;
o Interaction models.
 Natural ways of reflecting the real-world entities manipulated by the system
 More abstract entities are more difficult to model using this approach
 Object class identification is recognised as a difficult process requiring a deep understanding of
the application domain
 Object classes reflecting domain entities are reusable across systems

4.1) Inheritance models:

 Organise the domain object classes into a hierarchy.
 Classes at the top of the hierarchy reflect the common features of all classes.
 Object classes inherit their attributes and services from one or more super-classes. these may then
be specialised as necessary.

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 Class hierarchy design can be a difficult process if duplication in different branches is to be

avoided.

Object models and the UML:

 The UML is a standard representation devised by the developers of widely used object-oriented
analysis and design methods.
 It has become an effective standard for object-oriented modelling.
 Notation
o Object classes are rectangles with the name at the top, attributes in the middle section and
operations in the bottom section;
o Relationships between object classes (known as associations) are shown as lines linking
objects;
o Inheritance is referred to as generalisation and is shown ‘upwards’ rather than
‘downwards’ in a hierarchy.

Library class hierarchy:

User class hierarchy:

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Multiple inheritance:
 Rather than inheriting the attributes and services from a single parent class, a system which
supports multiple inheritance allows object classes to inherit from several super-classes.
 This can lead to semantic conflicts where attributes/services with the same name in different
super-classes have different semantics.
 Multiple inheritance makes class hierarchy reorganisation more complex.

Multiple inheritance

Object aggregation:
 An aggregation model shows how classes that are collections are composed of other classes.
 Aggregation models are similar to the part-of relationship in semantic data models.

4.2) Object aggregation

Object behaviour modelling

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 A behavioural model shows the interactions between objects to produce some particular system
behaviour that is specified as a use-case.
 Sequence diagrams (or collaboration diagrams) in the UML are used to model interaction between
objects.

5) STRUCTURED METHODS:
 Structured methods incorporate system modelling as an inherent part of the method.
 Methods define a set of models, a process for deriving these models and rules and guidelines that
should apply to the models.
 CASE tools support system modelling as part of a structured method.

Method weaknesses:
 They do not model non-functional system requirements.
 They do not usually include information about whether a method is appropriate for a given
problem.
 The may produce too much documentation.
 The system models are sometimes too detailed and difficult for users to understand.

CASE workbenches:
 A coherent set of tools that is designed to support related software process activities such as
analysis, design or testing.
 Analysis and design workbenches support system modelling during both requirements engineering
and system design.
 These workbenches may support a specific design method or may provide support for a creating
several different types of system model.

An analysis and design workbench

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Analysis workbench components:

 Diagram editors
 Model analysis and checking tools
 Repository and associated query language
 Data dictionary
 Report definition and generation tools
 Forms definition tools
 Import/export translators
 Code generation tools

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