CHAPTER 1

An Introduction to the Human Body

1.1. Anatomy and Physiology Defined

Human Anatomy
is the scientific study of the body’s structures. In the past, anatomy has primarily been studied via
observing injuries, and later by the dissection of anatomical structures of cadavers, but in the past
century, computer-assisted imaging techniques have allowed us to look inside the living body.

Human physiology
is the scientific study of the chemistry and physics of the body's structures. Physiology explains
how the structures of the body work together to maintain life.

How they are connected?

It is challenging to study structure (anatomy) without knowledge of function (physiology). The two
disciplines are typically studied together because form and function are closely related in all living things.
The structure of a part of the body often reflects its operations.

1.2. Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems

Selected Branches of Anatomy and Physiology
BRANCH OF STUDY OF BRANCH OF STUDY OF
ANATOMY PHYSIOLOGY

Embryology The first eight weeks of Neurophysiology Functional properties of

development after nerve cells.
fertilization of a human
egg.

Developmental The complete Endocrinology Hormones (chemical

Biology development of an regulators in the blood)
individual from and how they control
fertilization to body functions.
death.

Cell Biology Cellular structure and Cardiovascular Functions of the heart

functions. physiology and blood vessels.

Histology The microscopic Renal physiology Functions of the

structure of tissues. kidneys.

Gross Anatomy Structures that can be Respiratory Functions of the air

examined physiology passageways and
without a microscope. lungs.

Systemic Anatomy Structure of specific Immunology The body’s defenses

systems of against
the body such as the disease-causing
nervous or agents.
respiratory systems.
 Regional Anatomy Specific regions of the Exercise physiology Changes in cell and
body such organ functions
as the head or chest. due to muscular activity.

Surface Anatomy Surface markings of the Pathophysiology Functional changes

body to understand associated with disease
internal anatomy and aging.
through visualization
and palpation.

Imaging Anatomy Body structures that

can be visualized with
techniques such
as x-rays, MRI, and CT
scans.

Pathological anatomy Structural changes

(gross to microscopic)
are associated with the
disease.

Levels of structural organization in the human body.

1. Chemical Level
● Atoms: the smallest units of matter. Subatomic particles (protons, neutrons, and electrons)
combine to form atoms. Familiar examples of atoms include hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, nitrogen,
calcium, and iron.
● Molecules: two or more atoms combine to form a molecule, which includes things like water
molecules, proteins, and sugars found in living things. Molecules are the chemical building blocks
of all body structures.
2. Cellular Level
Molecules combine to form cells, cells are the basic unit of life. All living structures within the
human body contain cells, and almost all functions of human physiology are performed in cells or are
initiated by cells.
3. Tissue Level
Tissues are made of groups of cells that work together to perform a specific function. There are
four basic types of tissues in your body: epithelial tissue, connective tissue, muscular tissue, and nervous
tissue.
4. Organ Level
An organ is a structure of the body composed of two or more tissue types that perform specific
functions. Examples of organs are the stomach, heart, liver, lungs, and brain.
5. Organ System Level
An organ system is a group of organs that work together to perform major functions to meet the
physiological needs of the body.
6. Organismal Level
All the parts of the human body functioning together constitute the total organism.

The Eleven Systems of the Human Body

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
● Components: Skin and associated structures, such as hair, fingernails and toenails, sweat
glands, and oil glands.
 ● Functions: Protects body; helps regulate body temperature; eliminates some wastes; helps
make vitamin D; detects sensations such as touch, pain, warmth, and cold; stores fat and
provides insulation.
NERVOUS SYSTEM
● Components: Brain, spinal cord, nerves, and special sense organs, such as eyes and ears.
● Functions: Generates action potentials (nerve impulses) to regulate body activities; detects
changes in body’s internal and external environments, interprets changes, and responds by
causing muscular contractions or glandular secretions.
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
● Components: Hormone-producing glands (pineal gland, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, thymus,
thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, ovaries, and testes) and
hormone-producing cells in several other organs.
● Functions: Regulates body activities by releasing hormones (chemical messengers transported
in blood from endocrine gland or tissue to target organ).
CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM
● Components: Blood, heart, and blood vessels.
● Functions: Heart pumps blood through blood vessels; blood carries oxygen and nutrients to cells
and carbon dioxide and wastes away from cells and helps regulate acid–base balance,
temperature, and water content of body fl uids; blood components help defend against disease
and repair damaged blood vessels.
LYMPHATIC SYSTEM AND IMMUNITY
● Components: Lymphatic fluid and vessels; spleen, thymus, lymph nodes, and tonsils; cells that
carry out immune responses (B cells, T cells, and others).
● Functions: Returns proteins and fl uid to blood; carries lipids from gastrointestinal tract to blood;
contains sites of maturation and proliferation of B cells and T cells that protect against
disease-causing microbes.
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
● Components: Lungs and air passageways such as the pharynx (throat), larynx (voice box),
trachea (windpipe), and bronchial tubes leading into and out of lungs.
● Functions: Transfers oxygen from inhaled air to blood and carbon dioxide from blood to exhaled
air; helps regulate acid–base balance of body fl uids; air flowing out of lungs through vocal cords
produces sounds.
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
● Components: Organs of gastrointestinal tract, a long tube that includes the mouth, pharynx
(throat), esophagus (food tube), stomach, small and large intestines, and anus; also includes
accessory organs that assist in digestive processes, such as salivary glands, liver, gallbladder,
and pancreas.
● Functions: Achieves physical and chemical breakdown of food; absorbs nutrients; eliminates
solid wastes.
URINARY SYSTEM
● Components: Kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra.
● Functions: Produces, stores, and eliminates urine; eliminates wastes and regulates volume and
chemical composition of blood; helps maintain the acid–base balance of body fl uids; maintains
body’s mineral balance; helps regulate production of red blood cells.
REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEMS
● Components: Gonads (testes in males and ovaries in females) and associated organs (uterine
tubes or fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina, and mammary glands in females and epididymis, ductus
or vas deferens, seminal vesicles, prostate, and penis in males).
 ● Functions: Gonads produce gametes (sperm or oocytes) that unite to form a new organism;
gonads also release hormones that regulate reproduction and other body processes; associated
organs transport and store gametes; mammary glands produce milk.

1.3. Characteristics of the Living Human Organism

1. Metabolism is the sum of all chemical processes that occur in the body.
● Catabolism: a phase of metabolism, the breakdown of complex chemical substances into
simpler components.
● Anabolism: a phase of metabolism, the building up of complex chemical substances from
smaller, simpler components. For example, digestive processes catabolize (split) proteins in food
into amino acids. These amino acids are then used to anabolize (build) new proteins that make
up body structures such as muscles and bones.
2. Responsiveness is the body’s ability to detect and respond to changes. Nerve cells respond by
generating electrical signals known as nerve impulses (action potentials). Muscle cells respond by
contracting, which generates force to move body parts.
3. Movement includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, single cells, and even tiny structures
inside cells. Inside the cell, various parts, such as secretory vesicles move from one position to another to
carry out their functions.
4.