Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

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Results in Optics
journal homepage: www.sciencedirect.com/journal/results-in-optics

Design and numerical analysis of a circular SPR based PCF biosensor for
aqueous environments
Gideon Opoku *, Iddrisu Danlard, Albert Dede, Emmanuel Kofi Akowuah
Department of Computer Engineering, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: This paper presents the design and numerical analysis of a circular photonic crystal fiber (PCF) biosensor based
Biosensor on surface plasmon resonance (SPR) for aqueous environments. The proposed biosensor has a geometrical design
Photonic crystal fiber that uses the cladding at the fiber’s exterior to simplify the gold and analyte deposition process. The sensing
Surface plasmon resonance
characteristics and performances of the proposed biosensor are fully investigated with the finite element method.
Wide-ranged
Refractive index
The investigation indicates that the plasmonic material’s thickness affects the biosensor’s performance. The
Aqueous environments results of the proposed biosensor demonstrate a wide refractive index range of 1.30 to 1.44, with the highest
wavelength or spectral sensitivity as 21,000 nm/RIU and the highest resolution as 9.09 × 10− 6 RIU. The pro­
posed biosensor has a straightforward geometric profile. The proposed biosensor is stable and suited for aqueous
surroundings and wide-range detection applications.

1. Introduction Otupiri et al., 2015; Mo et al., 2021). Surface plasmon waves (SPWs) are
generated when the core mode and the plasmonic wave produced are in
Biosensors are among the widely researched and developed sensors phase, widely known as phase matching (Bodesheim and Otto, 1974;
in academia and industrial domains. The application domains of bio­ Liedberg et al., 1983; Slavı́k et al., 1998). Thus, the underlying principle
sensors include but are not limited to biomedical, pharmaceutical, upon which surface plasmon resonance (SPR) biosensors base their
environmental and food technology (Ravindran, 2021). A biosensor is a targeted analyte detection. Tables 1-2b.
device capable of producing a measurable signal proportional to the Many more options are now available because of the discovery of
concentration of a targeted analyte by a physiochemical element as a photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) (Arhinful et al., 2022; Shah and Kumar,
result of the occurrence of biological interactions (Chircov et al., 2020). 2019; Biswas et al., 2021a). Because of their unique properties, photonic
Biosensors are crucial for detecting toxic chemicals, medical diagnosis, crystal fibers (PCFs) are gaining popularity for applications in signal
food safety, monitoring surrounding and, among others (Shakya and processing, optical communication systems, and sensing (Kabir et al.,
Singh, 2021; Thenmozhi et al., 2019; Yasli, 2021; Garzón et al., 2019). 2020; Biswas et al., 2018; Kaur et al., 2022; Miah et al., 2022). Biswas
Optical biosensors have numerous merits over conventional analytical et al. reported an ultra-high negative dispersion that cancels accumu­
methods and have recently become a top class of biosensors widely used. lated positive material and group velocity dispersion for communication
This class of biosensor are known to have characteristics such as elec­ applications (Biswas et al., 2021b). A dispersion compensating
tromagnetic immunity, label-free detection, high sensitivity and reli­ extremely non-linear photonic crystal fiber was proposed by Mia et al.
ability (Khansili et al., 2018; Akgönüllü and Denizli, 2022; Farkas et al., for optical transmission systems (Mia et al., 2020). For monitoring air
2018; Kaushik et al., 2019). Optical, thermometric, electrochemical, pollution, Misty et al. proposed a biosensor that utilises photonic crystal
piezoelectric, and magnetic bio-sensing techniques are only a few of the fibers (PCFs) (Misty et al., 2022). A lot of interest has been shown
many that exist today. The surface plasmon resonance (SPR) based op­ recently in photonic crystal fiber biosensors that are based on surface
tical fiber biosensors are the most widely used and offer the most plasmon resonance (SPR) (Azab et al., 2022; Kiroriwal and Singal, 2021;
promising. When light travelling through a fiber’s core enters the Akter et al., 2019; Li et al., 2020; Danlard and Akowuah, 2020; Sakib
cladding and collides with a metal surface, free electrons are released, et al., 2022) because of their benefits such as compact size, design
and surface plasmon resonance occurs (SPR) (Kumar Paul et al., 2018; versatility, managed dispersion, unrestricted single-mode

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (G. Opoku), [email protected] (I. Danlard), [email protected] (E. Kofi Akowuah).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rio.2023.100432
Received 26 January 2023; Received in revised form 8 April 2023; Accepted 15 April 2023
Available online 20 April 2023
2666-9501/© 2023 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

Table 1 fabrication challenges (Chao et al., 2022; Yan et al., 2021).

Proposed Sensor Structural Parameters. This paper presents the design and numerical analysis of a circular
d1 d2 d3 d4 ʌ tg photonic crystal fiber (PCF) biosensor based on surface plasmon reso­
nance (SPR) utilising gold as the plasmonic material for aqueous envi­
0.3 µm 0.55 µm 0.7 µm 0.84 µm 2.4 µm 30 nm
ronments. The finite element method (FEM) is used to examine the
sensing characteristics and performances of the proposed biosensor. The
biosensor demonstrates a wide refractive index range of 1.30 to 1.44,
Table 2a with a maximum wavelength or spectral sensitivity and resolution of
Circumstantial Results of the Proposed Biosensor.
21,000 nm/RIU (Refractive Index Unit) and 9.09×10− 6 RIU (Refractive
Refractive Resonant Wavelength Resolution Index Unit), respectively. Our proposed biosensor is stable and suited for
Index (RI) wavelength shift (dλ) sensitivity (nm/RIU) (RIU)
aqueous surroundings and applications.
4
1.31 10 1000 1.00×10−
4
1.32 10 1000 1.00×10−
4 2. Structural description of the proposed biosensor
1.33 10 1000 1.00×10−
5
1.34 20 2000 5.00×10−
1.35 20 2000 5.00×10− 5
The 2D transversal view and the mesh representation of the proposed
5
1.36 30 3000 3.33×10− structure are depicted in the schematic diagram in Fig. 1(a and b),
5
1.37 40 4000 2.50×10−
5
respectively.
1.38 50 5000 2.00×10−
1.39 70 7000 1.43×10− 5 The proposed biosensor is designed and numerically analysed with
1.40 110 11,000 9.09×10− 6 the full-vectorial finite element method. The geometric parameters have
1.41 150 15,000 6.67×10− 6
been chosen to enhance the strong interaction of the SPP mode and the
6
1.42 180 18,000 5.56×10− core mode according to the fundamental operation principle of PCF-SPR
6
1.43 200 20,000 4.76×10−
6 biosensor. In total, twenty-four (24) air holes with four distinctive sizes
1.44 210 21,000 4.76×10−
are employed in the proposed biosensor’s geometric structure. The di­
ameters of d2 = 0.55 µm, d3 = 0.7 µm and d4 = 0.84 µm have been
selected to confine light at the core region. There is a need to drive the
Table 2b
evanescent field in multiple directions toward the plasmonic substrate
Performance Comparison of with Existing Designed Biosensors.
(gold); therefore, the diameter of d1 = 0.3 µm is positioned near the
Reference Plasmonic RI Wavelength Resolution plasmonic material and is made comparatively small in comparison to
Material Detection Sensitivity
the air holes of d2, d3, and d4. The pitch is fixed at 2.4 µm, and the
Range
symbol tg stands for the thickness of gold that serves as the plasmonic
6
(Kiroriwal and Gold 1.33–1.40 4,500 4.80×10−
material in the proposed structure. The perfectly matched layer (PML) is
Singal, 2021)
(Akter et al., Gold 1.33 – 1.39 5,000 2.00×10− 5 the structure’s outermost layer, absorbing all scattered light.
2019) Because of its mechanical strength and loss absorption loss, the
(Wang and Li, Gold 1.30 – 1.42 8,000 1.30×10− 5
extensively fused silica cladding material is chosen in this design. The
2019) Sellmeier equation is used to calculate the refractive index of the silica.
5
(Chakma et al., Gold 1.34–1.37 9,000 1.11×10−
(Danlard and Akowuah, 2020);
2018)
6
(Mollah et al., Gold 1.34 – 1.40 11,000 9.09×10−
B1 λ 2 B2 λ2 B3 λ 2
2019) n2 (λ) = 1 + 2
+ 2 + 2 (1)
6 λ − C1 λ − C2 λ − C3
(Dhinakaran Gold 1.34 – 1.39 11,000 5.20×10−
et al., 2021)
(Kamrunnahar Gold 1.33 – 1.44 11,200 8.92×10− 6 B(1,2,3) and C(1,2,3) are Sellmeier coefficients, where n and λ are the
et al., 2020) index of refraction and wavelength, respectively. B1 = 0.696166300, B2
(Nuzhat et al., Gold 1.30 – 1.41 12,000 8.33×10− 6
= 0.407942600, B3 = 0.897479400, C1 = 0.00467914826, C2 =
2022) 0.0135120631 and C3 = 97.9340025 are the coefficient values, which
6
(Mahabubur Gold 1.33 – 1.37 13,000 7.69×10−
account for the material dispersion of the fiber.
Rahman et al.,
2020) Characterisation of the dielectric constant of plasmonic material
(Wang et al., Gold 1.27 – 1.33 13,500 7.41×10− 6 (gold) is done by employing the Drude – Lorentz equation (Sakib et al.,
2018) 2022);
6
(Sakib, 2020) Gold 1.40 – 1.46 16,000 6.25×10−
6
(Haque et al., Gold 1.18 – 1.36 20,000 5.00×10− ω2D Δε.Ω2L
2018) εAU = ε∞ − − (2)
6
ω(ω + jγD ) (ω − Ω2L ) + jΓL ω
2
Our proposed Gold 1.30 – 1.44 21,000 9.09×10−
biosensor
εAU is defined as the permittivity of gold, ε∞ = 5.9673 is known as the
permittivity of gold at high frequency, and the angular frequency is
communication, electromagnetic distribution resistance, scaled-down defined as ω = 2π c/λ where the velocity of light is denoted as c. The
size, and lightweight (De et al., 2019). Researchers are investigating plasma frequency is defined as ωD = 2113.6 THz × 2π , the damping
surface plasmon resonance (SPR) sensing via PCF to simplify the frequency is defined as γD = 15.92 THz × 2π and the weighting factor
complexity of conventional biosensors. Photonic crystal fibers (PCFs) is denoted as Δε = 1.09. The Lorentz oscillator strength and spectral
have been demonstrated to be a reliable prism replacement (Hossain width are defined as .ΩL = 650.07 × 2π THz and ΓL = 104.86 ×
et al., 2019). 2π THz , respectively.
Among the reported biosensor structures is the D-shaped, which cuts
down and reduces the amount of metal coating. However, D-shaped 3. Results of simulation and discussion
structures can only be realised through precise polishing process to
eliminate a predetermined proportion of the PCF (Biplob Hossain, 2020; The simulation outcomes of the proposed biosensor’s performance
Zhang et al., 2020; Zhao et al., 2022). Other biosensor profiles also parameters are presented in this section. Key performance parameters,
incorporate air holes of elliptical nature, and numerous smaller air holes such as wavelength sensitivity and sensor resolution, may be computed
deliberately positioned in precise regions of these biosensors pose by calculating confinement loss. Evaluating the confinement loss is a

2
G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

Fig. 1. (a) Structure in 2D view (b) Finer mesh FEM view.

preliminary step in determining the performance of a PCF-SPR

biosensor. The equation below describes confinement loss (Owusu
Mensah et al., 2022):

α(dB/cm) = 8.68 × KO × Im(ηeff ) × 104 (3)

Ko = 2/λ, with Im(neff ) denoting the imaginary portion.

The proposed structure’s x-polarized and y-polarized mode electric
field distributions, seen in Fig. 2(a and b), is accurately determined using
a finer mesh (b). The electric field intensity is highly concentrated in the
core region, indicating that the bulk of the light wave is confined there.
An evanescent field induces SPW when an electromagnetic wave travels
through the core, and an evanescent field creates SPW when it comes
into contact with the plasmonic interface. The SPWs travel through the
plasmonic material surface as they travel parallel to the interface, hence
the basic premise upon which PCF-SPR biosensors function. When the
fundamental mode of core and the mode of SPP are frequency matched,
a deep confinement loss peak appears, and the greatest energy is
transferred. Even minor changes in target sample RI cause significant
shifts in the loss curve. An unknown target sample or analyte can be
found through either a loss variation or a shifting peak.
The plot of the dispersion relationship between the core mode and Fig. 3. Dispersion relation of core-guided mode and SPP mode.
the first-order SPP mode when RI is 1.35 in Fig. 3. The real part of the
SPP mode intersects that of the real part of the core mode at the phase
the propagation constant and the kinetic binding energy simultaneously
matching point. It can be observed that the SPP mode establishes the
alter when RI is varied. The wavelength sensitivity can be used as a
resonance condition. From the EM field distribution in Fig. 3, the first-
metric to evaluate sensor performance. It is described as follows (Shaf­
order SPP mode can be identified to be tightly distributed across the
kat, 2020)
boundary of the plasmonic material (gold). At the phase matching point,
maximum energy is recorded for the SPP mode. The EM field distribu­ ∂λpeak
Sλ = (nm/RIU) (4)
tion of the SPP mode is displayed in Fig. 2(c). Figs. 4–7. ∂na

∂λpeak is the defined peak resonance shift, whereas ∂na is the change in
3.1. Performance evaluation based on analyte variation analyte refractive index.
The resolution of a biosensor is the smallest change in the amount to
The confinement loss is a plot of the wavelength in operation when be measured, resulting in a discernible change in sensor output. The
the RI of the analyte changes. It is seen that as the analyte’s RI is varied resolution is expressed as (Danlard and Akowuah, 2020)
incremental, the confinement loss increases, and the resonance peak
moves towards a higher value. This happens as a result of the fact that

Fig. 2. (a) EM field distribution x-pol (b) EM field distribution y-pol core mode (c) EM field distribution of SPP mode.

3
G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

Fig. 4. Confinement loss spectra with the variation of the thickness of the plasmonic layer for 30 nm for analyte RI of 1.30 to 1.44 at x-pol mode.

Fig. 5. Confinement loss spectra with the variation of the thickness of the plasmonic layer for 40 nm for analyte RI of 1.30 to 1.44 at x-pol mode.

∂na × ∂λmin maximum resolution attained was 9.09×10− 6 RIU when the RI was set
R(λ, na ) = (RIU) (5)
∂λpeak to 1.40, and the average wavelength sensitivity found was 7928.57 nm/
RIU.
∂λmin is denoted as the minimal change in the wavelength operation at an
analyte refractive index, the drift in peak resonant wavelength of two
3.2. Performance evaluation in relation to thickness of plasmonic layer
consecutive loss peaks is denoted as ∂λpeak , and the refractive index of
two-loss peaks difference is denoted na . Selecting a plasmonic material that can generate free electrons for
The accompanying variations in loss peak wavelength by adjusting strong interaction between the core and SPP mode is essential for
the confinement loss curve are recorded and summarised in Table 2. The boosting biosensor performance and metal layer thickness, which may

4
G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

Fig. 6. Confinement loss spectra with the variation of the thickness of the plasmonic layer for 50 nm for analyte RI of 1.30 to 1.43 at x-pol mode.

Fig. 7. Confinement loss spectra with the variation of the thickness of the plasmonic layer for 60 nm for analyte RI of 1.30 to 1.39 at x-pol mode.

also increase sensitivity. Due to gold’s resistance to oxidation, it is used nm/RIU, respectively. Adjusting the thickness of the gold layer to 50 nm
as a plasmonic coating for our proposed biosensor. Specifically, we have yielded the highest wavelength sensitivities for x and y polarisation
considered gold layers of 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, and 60 nm in thickness. modes at RI 1.43 of 20,000 nm/RIU and 16,000 nm/RIU, respectively.
The maximal wavelength sensitivities that could be realised with a gold At a refractive index of 1.39 and 1.41, the maximum wavelength sen­
layer thickness of 30 nm were 21,000 nm/RIU for the x polarisation sitivities attainable for x and y polarisation modes with a gold layer
mode and 17,000 nm/RIU for the y polarisation mode when the thickness of 60 nm were 7,000 nm/RIU and 8,000 nm/RIU, respectively.
refractive index was 1.44. When the thickness of the gold layer was Our findings depict that the curve shifts as plasmonic thickness increase
modified to 40 nm, the highest wavelength sensitivity at RI 1.44 for the for 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, and 60 nm; therefore, the wavelength sensi­
x and y polarisation modes was found to be 20,000 nm/RIU and 17,000 tivities of the biosensor decrease. The inference is that as the gold layer’s

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G. Opoku et al. Results in Optics 12 (2023) 100432

thickness increases, the evanescent field cannot pass through the thick All Circular Air Holes for a Fiber-Optic Transmission System. Photonics vol. 5, no. 3,
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Declaration of Competing Interest momentum states in optical transmission. Optics Communications 467, 125731.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.optcom.2020.125731.
Kamrunnahar, Q.M., Mou, J.R., Momtaj, M., 2020. Dual-core gold coated photonic
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial crystal fiber plasmonic sensor: Design and analysis. Results in Physics 18, 103319.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rinp.2020.103319.
the work reported in this paper. Kaur, B., Kumar, S., Kaushik, B.K., 2022. (INVITED) Advances in photonic crystal fiber:
sensing and supercontinuum generation applications. Optical Fiber Technology 72,
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Data availability Kaushik, S., Tiwari, U.K., Deep, A., Sinha, R.K., 2019. Two-dimensional transition metal
dichalcogenides assisted biofunctionalized optical fiber SPR biosensor for efficient
and rapid detection of bovine serum albumin. Sci Rep vol. 9, no. 1, Art. no. 1.
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