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Lec 22

This document provides an overview of x-rays and their use in medical imaging. It begins with a brief history of x-rays and their discovery by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895. It then discusses how x-rays interact with matter via the photoelectric effect and Compton effect. Key concepts are introduced, such as x-ray attenuation, contrast, and the factors that influence them like photon energy and tissue composition. Examples are given of different medical x-ray techniques like chest x-rays and mammography. Formulas like Beer's law are presented along with sample problems calculating x-ray transmission and contrast. The document provides the essential foundations for understanding x-ray physics and its role in medical diagnostic imaging.

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Divya Agarwal
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45 views

Lec 22

This document provides an overview of x-rays and their use in medical imaging. It begins with a brief history of x-rays and their discovery by Wilhelm Rontgen in 1895. It then discusses how x-rays interact with matter via the photoelectric effect and Compton effect. Key concepts are introduced, such as x-ray attenuation, contrast, and the factors that influence them like photon energy and tissue composition. Examples are given of different medical x-ray techniques like chest x-rays and mammography. Formulas like Beer's law are presented along with sample problems calculating x-ray transmission and contrast. The document provides the essential foundations for understanding x-ray physics and its role in medical diagnostic imaging.

Uploaded by

Divya Agarwal
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 7

Lecture 22: Introduction to X-rays

Announcements
Start reading Chapter 5.


Outline
A Brief History of X-rays
X-ray interactions with matter
Photoelectric Effect & Compton Effect
X-ray attenuation
X-ray contrast in tissue
Chest x-rays
Breast x-rays (mammography)
Contrast agents

A Brief History of X-Rays


Wilhelm Rontgen, Germany
1895: Announces discovery of x-rays

1896: Images needle in patient's hand;


X-ray is used pre-surgically

1901: Receives 1st Physics Nobel Prize


for discovery and use of x-rays Radiograph of hand of
Rontgen's wife (1895)

Rontgen's Setup Rontgen detected:


No reflection or refraction
Unresponsive to mirrors or lenses

His conclusions:
X-rays are not EM waves (incorrect!)
Dominated by particle rather than
wave behavior (correct)

Attenuation Coefficient
Projection X-Ray
Film shows intensity as negative
(dark areas, high x-ray detection)
Disadvantage:
No depth information
Advantages:
Inexpensive, simple
X-ray interactions with tissues described by:
(1) Photoelectric Effect (Photon Absorption)
(2) Compton Effect (Photon Scattering)



Photoelectric Effect (Absorption)

Dominates x-ray absorption for low energies < 25 keV.


Inner orbital electron is emitted from material after absorption of a
photon. Such electrons are called photoelectrons.

If photoelectrons get reabsorbed by the material, they release


energy, in the form of characteristic x-rays.

X-ray Absorption is dependent on:


(1) Atomic Number (Z), or # of electrons
(2) Density ( ), of tissue
(3) Thickness (x), or depth in tissue
(4) Absorption Edge (matching of x-ray energy to energy
required to promote an electron).

Compton Effect (Scattering)

For energies > 25 keV, interaction different than photoelectric


effect. Photon collides with & ejects outer orbital electrons, but is
scattered (not absorbed), and interacts with more electrons.
*For high energy x-rays, only density & thickness of material
matters, NOT chemical composition. Most soft tissues have
similar densities, so Compton Effect is not sensitive to anatomy.

X-ray Attenuation / Penetration Depth

Attenuation by tissue determined by X-ray attenuation & penetration


Photoelectric & Compton effects dependent on photon energy.
Key Terms, Units, Conversions
Electron-Volt
Conversion between Joules & electron-volts (eV) is given by:

1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J 


* Energies for x-ray imaging range from 10-150 keV.

Attenuation Coefficient ( , units of (1/cm) or cm-1.

Penetration Depth (1/ ) is range of travel of x-rays.


Number of x-rays that are absorbed or scattered depends on
number of electrons in path of x-rays, which in turn depends on
thickness or density of electrons in absorbing material.

Chemical composition:
Atomic number (Z) = # protons, but also # electrons

(cm-1) = (g/cm3) x m (cm2/g)


*Density term is a constant, but mass attenuation term changes
with photon energy and chemical composition.

Mass Attenuation Coefficient ( ) or ( / )


m
defined as attenuation coefficient per unit density, depends on
chemical composition (Z number) and photon energy
(correspondence with absorption edge).

Intensity of X-rays
Itrans = I0e- x

* Beer's Law - same as equation for attenuation of light & sound !

Half-value layer (HVL) is depth at which 50% of


x-rays are absorbed in a tissue.

Beam Hardening: low-energy x-rays are absorbed, but


remaining x-rays are then all of higher energy and thus travel
further. HVL becomes larger for remaining x-rays! This effect
occurs because x-ray sources have a wide range of initial
energies.

Absorption Edge: When x-ray energy coincides exactly


with amount of energy needed to promote an electron to a higher
energy level (think orbitals or shells). This is described by the
photoelectric effect - absorption of an x-ray, which is dependent on
atomic number (Z) - # of atoms in material.

K Edge: Barium and Iodine used as contrast agents


because their absorption edge corresponds well with x-ray
energies typically used (37.4 and 33.2 keV).
Sample Problem (Part a): Lead aprons are worn in medicine to
shield the body from exposure to x-rays. What fraction of 140 keV
x-rays hitting a 0.5 mm thick lead apron will be transmitted?
From lookup table, lead mass attenuation coefficient at 140 keV is:
m = 2.0 cm2 g-1
= 11.3 g/cm3. 


Answer: First, compute attenuation coefficient:

= m 2.0 cm2 g-1 11.3 g/cm3 = 23 cm-1

Then use Beer's Law to find x-ray transmission through apron.

Here, x = 0.5 mm = 5 x 10-2 cm.

30% of original x-ray intensity is transmitted through lead apron.

Problem (part b): How thick would lead shielding an x-ray lab wall
need to be to reduce intensity of 8.0 keV x-rays to 1% of original
value? At 8.0 keV: m = 232 cm2 g-1

Answer: Using density of lead from part (a), we can compute


attenuation coefficient of lead for 8.0 keV x-rays:
= m 232 cm2 g-1 11.3 g/cm3 = 2620 cm-1

Now compute relationship between


desired x-ray transmission & thickness
of lead, x, required:

Use natural logarithm function


(ln) to extract out value of x:

*Shielding low energy x-rays is easy. It requires only thin lead foil
(18 m). Lead apron would give excellent shielding of these x-
rays. To shield higher energy x-rays requires thicker lead
shielding.
X-ray Image Contrast

Penetration through soft tissue X-ray image is formed by different


changes with X-ray energy. attenuations of x-ray beam within
patient's body. Objects with high
attenuation produce shadows.

Image contrast depends on Increased penetration through object


object's attenuation of x-rays. decreases contrast, and increased
penetration through total body
decreases radiation dose to patient.

X-ray Image Contrast (cont.)


C = (I1 - I2) / I1
Since intensity is given
by Beer's Law:
Itrans = I0e- x

after solving the math,


C = 1 - e-( x2

If 2 = 1, or x2 is small, contrast is low, C = 0 or ~ 0% (bad).


If 2 >> 1, or x2 is large, C is high, close to 1 (100%) (good).

Physical Contrast
Material Effective Atomic Density (
Number (Z) g/cm3)

Water 7.42 1.0


Muscle 7.46 1.0
Fat 5.92 0.91
Air 7.64 0.00129
Calcium 20.0 1.55
Iodine 53.0 4.94
Barium 56.0 3.5

Object must have physical contrast


to be visible in x-ray image.
Chest X-rays

Chest has high physical contrast Chest images are produced using
due to large difference in density of high x-ray energy. Beam is filtered
air in lungs and ribs (bone). with higher energies providing good
penetration and less exposure.

Mammography (Breast X-rays)

Breast has low physical contrast, with Low x-ray energies required
small differences in soft tissue density, or for breast, so that increased
low contrast of very small calcifications. absorption improves contrast.

Sample Problem: Compute contrast between normal fatty breast


tissue & 0.1 mm microcalcification for (a) 20 keV and (b) 60 keV
x-rays. Approximate breast tissue as having same linear
attenuation coefficient as fat, & microcalcification same as bone.

a) For microcalcification, x = 0.1 mm = 0.01 cm and for 20 keV:


1 = 0.5 cm
-1 and
2 = 4.8 cm
-1

b) For 60 keV: 1 = 0.17 cm-1 and 2 = 0.55 cm-1 for mineralized


bone, used to model microcalcification absorption coefficient.

*For 20 keV, much greater difference in transmission occurs for


two tissues than is the case for 60 keV x-rays. Only an image
made with 20 keV x-rays would distinguish microcalcifications if an
x-ray detector only sensitive to contrasts > 1%.
Problem (cd): Do same calculation for a 0.1 cm lump having
same linear attenuation coefficient as water in fatty breast tissue
for (c) 20 keV and (d) 60 keV x-rays. Which cases would be
found for x-ray detection only sensitive only to contrasts > 1%.

(c) For thickness, x=0.1 cm. For 20 keV: 1 =0.5 cm-1 & 2 =0.76 cm-1

(d) For 60 keV: 1 = 0.17 cm-1 and 2 = 0.20 cm-1

- Only 20 keV case would be detectable.

- Although 20 keV x-rays provide a higher x-ray dose than 60


keV x-rays, they are required for imaging possible tumors.

- In both cases, calcifications < 0.1 mm are undetectable with


mammography setups, & small tumors are also difficult to detect.

X-ray Contrast Agents


From Table earlier in this lecture...

Material Effective Density (


Atomic # (Z) g/cm3)
Water 7.42 1.0
Muscle 7.46 1.0
Fat 5.92 0.91
Air 7.64 0.00129
Calcium 20.0 1.55
Iodine 53.0 4.94
Barium 56.0 3.5

Iodine used in brain angiogram. Barium used in colon x-ray.


Iodine contrast requires spectrum
with significant amount of radiation
above K-edge energy of iodine.

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