Concepts of Biotechnology

The term “Biotechnology" was first coined in 1919 by Karl Ereky which means products
are produced from raw materials with the aid of living organisms.

Biotechnology is NOT new. Man has been manipulating living things to solve problems and
improve his way of life for millennia. Early agriculture concentrated on producing food.
Plants and animals were selectively bred and microorganisms were used to make food
items such as beverages, cheese and bread. The late eighteenth century and the beginning
of the nineteenth century saw the advent of vaccinations, crop rotation involving leguminous
crops and animal drawn machinery. The end of the nineteenth century was a milestone of
biology. Microorganisms were discovered, Mendel's work on genetics was accomplished
and institutes for investigating fermentation and other microbial processes were established
by Koch, Pasteur and Lister.

Biotechnology at the beginning of the twentieth century began to bring industry and
agriculture together. During World War I, fermentation processes were developed that
produced acetone from starch and paint solvents for the rapidly growing automobile
industry. Work in the 1930s was geared towards using surplus agricultural products to
supply industry instead of imports or petrochemicals. The advent of World War II brought
the manufacture of penicillin. The biotechnical focus moved to pharmaceuticals. The "cold
war" years were dominated by work with microorganisms in preparation for biological
warfare as well as antibiotics and fermentation processes (Goodman, 1987).

Biotechnology is currently being used in many areas including agriculture, bioremediation,

food processing and energy production. DNA fingerprinting is becoming a common practice
in forensics. Production of insulin and other medicines is accomplished through cloning of
vectors that now carry the chosen gene. Immunoassays are used not only in medicine for
drug level and pregnancy testing, but also by farmers to aid in detection of unsafe levels of
pesticides, herbicides and toxins on crops and in animal products. These assays also
provide rapid field tests for industrial chemicals in ground water, sediment and soil. In
agriculture, genetic engineering is being used to produce plants that are resistant to insects,
weeds and plant diseases.
Definition
Biotechnology- Bio means life and technology means the application of knowledge for
practical use ie., the use of living organisms to make or improve a product.

Other definitions for the term Biotechnology

 The use of living organisms to solve problems or make useful products.
 The use of cells and biological molecules to solve problems or make useful
products. Biological molecules include DNA, RNA and proteins.
 The commercial application of living organisms or their products, which involves the
deliberate manipulation of their DNA molecules.
 Make a living cell to perform a specific task in a predictable and controllable way.

Biotechnology has been described as "Janus-faced". This implies that there are two sides.
On one side techniques allow DNA to be manipulated to move genes from one organism to
another. On the other, it involves relatively new technologies whose consequences are
untested and should be met with caution.

Stages of biotechnology development

 Ancient biotechnology - 8000-4000 B.C
Early history as related to food and shelter; includes domestication
 Classical biotechnology - 2000 B.C.; 1800-1900 AD
Built on ancient biotechnology; fermentation promoted food production and
medicine
 1900-1953: Genetics
 1953 - 1976: DNA research, science explodes
 Modern biotechnology - 1977
Manipulates genetic information in organism; Genetic engineering
Biotechnology is a collection of various technologies that enable us to improve crop yield
and food quality in agriculture and to produce a broader array of products in industries.
Various technologies and their uses
 Genetic Engineering (Recombinant DNA) Technology
The use of cellular enzymes to manipulate DNA
Transferring DNA between unrelated organisms
 Protein Engineering Technology
Improve existing/create novel proteins to make useful products
 Antisense or RNAi Technology
Block or decrease the production of certain proteins
 Cell and Tissue Culture Technology
Grow cells/tissues under laboratory conditions to produce an entire
organism, or to produce new products
 Bioinformatics Technology
Computational analysis of biological data, e.g., sequence analysis macromolecular
structures, high-throughput profiling data analysis
 Functional Genomics (the -omics)
 The use of genome-wide, high-throughput approaches to determine the biological
function of all of the genes and their products

High-throughput technologies (the -omics)

• Transcriptomics (e.g. microarray expression profiling)
• Proteomics (e.g. structures/modifications/interactions of proteins)
Proteins are responsible for an endless number of tasks within the cell. The
complete set of proteins in a cell can be referred to as its proteome and the study of
protein structure and function and what every protein in the cell is doing is known as
proteomics. The proteome is highly dynamic and it changes from time to time in
response to different environmental stimuli. The goal of proteomics is to understand
how the structure and function of proteins allow them to do what they do, what they
interact with and how they contribute to life processes.
• Metabolomics (e.g. metabolite profiling, chemical fingerprinting, flux analysis)
Metabolomics is one of the newest ‘omics’ sciences. The metabolome refers to the
complete set of low molecular weight compounds in a sample. These compounds
are the substrates and by products of enzymatic reactions and have a direct effect
on the phenotype of the cell. Thus, metabolomics aims at determining a sample’s
profile of these compounds at a specified time under specific environmental
conditions
• Transgenomics (e.g. knock-out, knock-in, gene tagging, mutagenesis)
• Translational genomics
Applications of biotechnology & genomics
1. Environmental biotechnology
A. Environmental monitoring
• Diagnosis of environmental problems via biotechnology
B. Waste management
• Bioremediation: the use of microbes to break down organic molecules or
environmental pollutants.

• Phyto remediation: the use of plants to remove pollutants (e.g. heavy metals) from
the environment.
C. Pollution prevention
• Renewable resources
• Biodegradable products
• Alternative energy sources
2. Medical biotechnology
A. Diagnostics
B. Therapeutics
C. Vaccines
D. Medical research tools
E. Human Genome Research
3. Agricultural biotechnology
A. Animal Biotechnology
B. Crop Biotechnology
C. Horticultural Biotechnology
D. Tree Biotechnology
E. Food processing
4. Evolutionary and ecological genomics
Finding genes associated with ecological traits and evolutionary diversification.
Common goals: health, productivity

Plant biotechnology /Agricultural biotechnology

A process to produce a genetically modified plant by removing genetic information
from an organism, manipulating it in the laboratory and then transferring it into a plant to
change certain of its characteristics . In Nutshell it’s the manipulation of plants for the
benefit of mankind
The plants are mainly manipulated for two major objectives
A. Crop improvement
 Herbicide tolerance (in use)
 Pest resistance (in use)
 Drought tolerance
 Nitrogen fixing ability
 Acidity and Salinity tolerance
B. Nutritional value of crops
 Improving food quality and safety
 Healthier cooking oils by decreasing the conc. of saturated fatty acids in
vegetable oils
 Functional foods: foods containing significant levels of biologically active
components that impart health benefits
Various technologies applied in plant biotechnology includes
 Genetic engineering/ recombinant DNA technology
 Tissue culture
 Molecular breeding – MAS

Traditional plant breeding involves cross-breeding of similar plants to produce new

varieties with different traits. But it takes many generations to achieve desired result. By
using various biotechnological tools, crop improvement can be achieved faster and it even
facilitates to transfer genes from unrelated species

Genetic engineering
Manipulation of genes is called genetic engineering or recombinant DNA technology. It
removes gene(s) from one organism and either
 Transfers them to another
 Puts them back in the original with a different combination
Various gene transfer techniques used in genetic engineering includes
 Agrobacterium mediated gene transfer: Desired trait is isolated from DNA of
original organism, inserted into Agrobacterium, target plant is infected. Cells that
accept the DNA are grown into plants with the new trait.
 Gene gun: DNA that codes for the desired trait is coated onto tiny particles of
tungsten and fired into a group of plant cells. Cells that accept the DNA are grown
into plants with the desired trait.

Tissue culture
Tissue culture manipulates cells, anthers, pollen grains, or other tissues; so they live
for extended periods under laboratory conditions or become whole, living, growing
organisms; genetically engineered cells may be converted into genetically engineered
organisms through tissue culture.

Marker Assisted Selection

Marker-aided genetic analysis studies DNA sequences to identify genes, QTLs
(quantitative trait loci), and other molecular markers and to associate them with
organism functions, i.e., gene identification. Marker-aided selection is the identification
and inheritance tracing of previously identified DNA fragments through a series of
generations.
Applications of biotechnology in agriculture (plants)
A. Crop Improvement
 Plants with built in resistance to pest and Diseases.
 Plants with built in tolerance to environmental conditions
 Improved color and quality
B. Pharmaceuticals
 Plants that produce edible vaccines
C. Food
 Improved taste and nutrition
 Improved handling qualities
D. Industrial
 plants that produce plastics, fuels, and other products
 plants for environmental cleanup
E. Other
 pesticides made from naturally-occurring microorganisms and insects
Applications of biotechnology in agriculture (animals)
A. Food
 Increased milk production
  leaner meat in pork
 growth hormones in farm-raised fish that result in earlier market-ready fish
B. Pharmaceuticals
 Animals engineered to produce human proteins for drugs, including insulin
and vaccines
C. Breeding
 Disease tolerance
 Exact copies of desired stock
 Increased yields
D. Health
 Microorganisms introduced into feed for beneficial purposes
 Diagnostics for disease and pregnancy detection
 Animals engineered to produce organs suitable for transplantation into
humans

History of biotechnology
1797: First vaccination. Edward Jenner takes pus from a cowpox lesion, inserts it into an
incision on a boy's arm.
1830: Proteins are discovered.
1833: First enzyme is discovered and isolated
1865: Gregor Mendel discovers the laws of inheritance by studying flowers in his garden.
The science of genetics begins.
1915: Phages — viruses that only infect bacteria — are discovered
1927: Herman Muller discovers that radiation causes defects in chromosomes.
1944: DNA is proven to carry genetic information by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod and
Maclyn McCarty.
1953: James Watson and Francis Crick describe the double helical structure of DNA. They
shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Medicine or Physiology with Maurice Wilkins.
1955: The amino acid sequence of insulin is discovered by Frederick Sanger.
1958: DNA is made in a test tube for the first time. Sickle cell disease is shown to occur due
to a change in one amino acid
1971: The first complete synthesis of a gene occurs. Discovery of restriction enzymes that
cut and splice genetic material very specifically occurs. This opens the way for gene
cloning.
1973: Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer perfect genetic engineering techniques to cut and
paste DNA using restriction enzymes.
1975: Georges Kohler and Cesar Milstein develop the technology to produce monoclonal
antibodies — highly specific, purified antibodies derived from only one clone of cells that
recognize only one antigen. They shared the
1984: Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Neils Jerne.
1981: The first transgenic animals are produced by transferring genes from other animals
into mice.
1983: The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique, which makes unlimited copies of
genes and gene fragments, is conceived. Kary Mullis, who was born in Lenoir, N.C., wins
the 1993 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery.
1986: First recombinant vaccine is approved for human use: hepatitis B. First anti-cancer
drug is produced through biotech: interferon.
1987: First approval for field tests of a genetically modified food plant: virus-resistant
tomatoes.
1994: Genetically modified tomatoes are sold in the U.S. for the first time.
1990: The Human Genome Project — an international effort to maps all of the genes in the
human genome — is launched.
2002: The draft version of the human genome is published.
1997: Scientists report the birth of Dolly, the first animal cloned from an adult cell.
1998: Human embryonic stem cell lines are established. They offer hope to many because
they may be able to replace diseased or dysfunctional cells.
2003: The SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) virus is sequenced three weeks after
its discovery.
2004: The first cloned pet — a kitten — is delivered to its owner. She is called CopyCat (or
Cc for short).
2006: A recombinant vaccine against human papillomavirus (HPV) receives FDA approval.
The virus causes genital warts and can cause cervical cancer.

Source:
http://www.woodrow.org/teachers/bi/1993/intro.html
http://www.biotechno.netfirms.com/Biotechnology.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marker_assisted_selection
Questions
1. The term “Biotechnology" was first coined in ……………
a) 1919 b) 1916 c) 1991 d) 1961

2. The term “Biotechnology" was first coined by …………….

a) Neuberg b) Lipmann c) Frederick Sanger’s d) Karl Ereky

3. Biotechnology is used in areas including ……………………..

a) Agriculture b) Bioremediation c) Food processing d) All the above

4. In agriculture, genetic engineering is being used to produce plants that are resistant to
……………….

a) insects b) weeds c) plant diseases d) All the above

5. Immunoassays are used for ………………

a) drug level testing b) detection of unsafe levels of pesticides, herbicides and
toxins on crops and in animal products
c) both a anb b d) None of the above

6. Genetic engineering is ………..

a) use of cellular enzymes to b) Improve existing/create novel proteins to
manipulate DNA make useful products
c) Block or decrease the production of d) Grow cells/tissues under laboratory
certain proteins conditions to produce an entire
organism, or to produce new products

7. Protein engineering is ………..

a) use of cellular enzymes to manipulate b) Improve existing/create novel
DNA proteins to make useful products
c) Block or decrease the production of d) Grow cells/tissues under laboratory
certain proteins conditions to produce an entire
organism, or to produce new products

8. Antisense or RNAi technology is ………..

a) use of cellular enzymes to manipulate b) Improve existing/create novel proteins to
DNA make useful products
c) Block or decrease the production of d) Grow cells/tissues under laboratory
certain proteins conditions to produce an entire
organism, or to produce new products

9. Cell and tissue culture technology is ………..

a) use of cellular enzymes to manipulate b) Improve existing/create novel proteins to
DNA make useful products
c) Block or decrease the production of d) Grow cells/tissues under laboratory
certain proteins conditions to produce an entire
organism, or to produce new products

10. Bioinformatics technology is …………..

a) use of cellular enzymes to manipulate b) Improve existing/create novel proteins to
DNA make useful products
c) Block or decrease the production of d) Computational analysis of biological
certain proteins data

11. Functional Genomics

a) High-throughput approaches to b) Improve existing/create novel proteins to

determine the biological function of all make useful products
of the genes and their products
c) Block or decrease the production of d) Computational analysis of biological data
certain proteins

12. Translational genomics include(s)……………

a) Transcriptomics alone b) Proteomics alone

c) Metabolomics and Transgenomics d) All the above
13. Metabolomics include(s) …………
a) Metabolite profiling b) Chemical fingerprinting
c) Flux analysis d) All the above

14. Various technologies applied in plant biotechnology includes ……………….

a) Genetic engineering/ recombinant b) Tissue culture
DNA technology
c) Molecular breeding - MAS d) All the above

15. Vaccination was first attempted by ……………………

a) Gregor Mendel b) Oswald Avery
c) Colin MacLeod d) Edward Jenner

16. Vaccination was first attempted in the year……………………

a) 1797 b) 1777
c) 1787 d) 1767

17. Laws of inheritance was discovered by ……………………

a) Gregor Mendel b) Oswald Avery
c) Colin MacLeod d) Edward Jenner

18. The science of genetics was born in the year……………………

a) 1865 b) 1856
c) 1855 d) 1846

19. Phages infect ……………………

a) Only bacteria b) Only viruse
c) Both a & b d) None of the above

20. Name the scientist who discovered that radiation causes defects in chromosomes
……………………
a) Gregor Mendel b) Oswald Avery
c) Colin MacLeod d) Herman Muller

21. DNA is proven to carry genetic information by……………………

a) Oswald Avery b) Colin MacLeod
c) Maclyn McCarty d) All the above

22. DNA is proven to carry genetic information in the year ……………………

a) 1944 b) 1946
c) 1948 d) None of the above

23. Double helical structure of DNA is described by …………………

a) James Watson b) Francis Crick
c) Both d) None of the above

24. The amino acid sequence of insulin is discovered by …………………

a) James Watson b) Francis Crick
c) Frederick Sanger d) None of the above

25. Sickle cell disease occurs due to a change in ……………….amino acid(s).

a) One b) Two
c) Three d) None of the above

26. The first complete synthesis of a gene occurred in the …………...

a) 1917 b) 1971
c) 1791 d) None of the above

27. Genetic engineering technique, to cut and paste DNA using restriction enzymes is
perfected by …………..
a) Stanley Cohen b) Herbert Boyer
c) Both d) None of the above

28. The technology to produce monoclonal antibodies is developed by …….....

a) Georges Kohler b) Cesar Milstein
c) Both d) None of the above

29. ……………… developed the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique.

a) Kary Mullis b) Georges Kohler
c) Cesar Milstein d) None of the above

30. First recombinant vaccine approved for human use is …………...

a) hepatitis B b) polio
c) hepatitis C d) None of the above

31. ………………. is the first genetically modified plant approved for field tests.
a) virus-resistant tomatoes b) virus-resistant brinjal
c) virus-resistant cotton d) None of the above

32. Genetically modified tomatoes are sold in the U.S. for the first time in the year
…………...
a) 1994 b) 1971
c) 1991 d) None of the above

33. The Human Genome Project is launched in ………………. .

a) 1990 b) 1991
c) 2000 d) None of the above

34. The draft version of the human genome is published in ……..

a) 1990 b) 2000
c) 2002 d) 2004